Questions for Chapter 1 Introduction
管理学原理题库(英文)
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Management and OrganizationsTrue/False QuestionsThe four contemporary functions of management are planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.True (easy)Effectiveness refers to the relationship between inputs and outputs.False (moderate)Efficiency is often referred to as "doing things right."True (moderate)When managers meet organizational goals, they are efficient and effective.False (difficult)According to Mintzberg’s management roles, the informational role involves receiving, collecting, and disseminating information.True (moderate)Technical skills become less important as a manager moves into higher levels of management.True (moderate)The systems perspective underscores and emphasizes the fact that organizations are different, face different circumstances, and thus may require different ways of managing.False (moderate)Multiple Choice_____________ are organizational members who integrate and coordinate the work of others.a. Managers (easy)b. Team leadersc. Subordinatesd. Operativese. AgentsTypically, in organizations it is the _____________ who are responsible for making organizational decisions and setting policies and strategies that affect all aspects of the organization.a. team leadersb. middle managersc. first-line managersd. top managers (easy)e. subordinates_____________ distinguishes a managerial position from a nonmanagerial one.a. Manipulating othersb. Concern for the lawc. Increasing efficiencyd. Coordinating and integrating others' work (moderate)e. Defining market shareWhich of the following is NOT an example of a decisional role according to Mintzberg?a.spokesperson (moderate)b.entrepreneurc.disturbance handlerd.resource allocatore.negotiatorWhich of the following skills are more important at lower levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organization’s work?a.human skillsb.technical skills (easy)c.conceptual skillsd.empirical skillsUnderstanding building codes would be considered a _____________ skill for a building contractor.a. humanb. technical (easy)c. conceptuald. empiricale. functionalWhich of the following phrases is best associated with managerial conceptual skills?a. decision-making (easy)b. communicating with customersc. motivating subordinatesd. product knowledgee. technical skillsAccording to the text, _____________ are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment.a.open systemsb.closed systems (easy)c.flextime systemsd.reverse systemse.forward systemsThe _____________ view of a manager's job implies that decisions and actions taken in one organizational area will impact other areas.a. systems (moderate)b. contingencyc. conceptuald. functionale. environmentalWhich of the following best describes the concept that management is needed in all types and sizes of organizations,at all organizational levels and in all organizational work areas, and in all organizations, no matter what country they’re located in?a.the partiality of managementb.the segmentation of managementc.the universality of management (moderate)d.the cultures of managementScenarios and QuestionsThe Busy Day (Scenario)Don Eskew, plant manager at Control Systems, Inc., sighed as he sipped his first cup of coffee at 5 a.m. and read his agenda for the day. He is giving two company tours in the morning; the first to a newspaper reporter who is writing a story on the new plant expansion and has several questions, and the second to a group of Control Systems, Inc., managers from the east coast. He then has a meeting with unit manager, Phil Johnson, to discuss Phil's recent drop in performance (a task he always hates). Next, he is spending a couple of hours reviewing the trade journals he receives from his high-tech association and writing up a brief synopsis for his presentation next week to the Division President. Finally, in late afternoon, he will be reviewing the new equipment malfunction and deciding whether to bring in extra people to get the equipment running as soon as possible. Whew! Just another day in the glamorous life of a manager. Together, all of these behaviors performed by Don during his busy day correspond to the management roles discovered in the late 1960s by which of the following management scientists?a. Herzbergb. Skinnerc. Mintzberg (easy)d. Fayole. MaslowWhen Don was meeting with Phil to discuss his performance concerns, he was operating in which management role?a. leader (difficult)b. figureheadc. monitord. disturbance handlere. spokesperson114. What role was Don performing when he gave the plant tour to the newspaper reporter?a. monitorb. figureheadc. disseminatord. spokesperson (difficult)e. resource allocator115. When Don was reviewing the new equipment malfunction, what management role was he playing when deciding whether to bring in extra people?a. monitorb. disseminatorc. resource allocator (moderate)d. disturbance handlere. figureheadEssay QuestionsIn a short essay, discuss the difference between efficiency and effectiveness and include a specific example to support each concept.Answera.Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs. Because managers deal withscarce inputs—including resources such as people, money, and equipment—they are concerned with theefficient use of resources. For instance, at the Beiersdorf Inc. factory in Cincinnati, where employees makebody braces and supports, canes, walkers, crutches, and other medical assistance products, efficient manufacturing techniques were implemented by doing things such as cutting inventory levels, decreasingthe amount of time to manufacture products, and lowering product reject rates. From this perspective,that is, not wasting resources.efficiency is often referred to a s “doing things right”—that is, those work activities that will help theb.Effectiveness is often described as “doing the right things”—organization reach its goals. For instance, at the Biersdorf factory, goals included open communication between managers and employees, and cutting costs. Through various work programs, these goals werepursued and achieved. Whereas efficiency is concerned with the means of getting things done, effectiveness is concerned with the ends, or attainment of organizational goals.(moderate)In a short essay, list and explain the four basic functions of management.Answera.Planning –involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving those goals, anddeveloping plans to integrate and coordinate activities.anizing – involves the process of determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how thetasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.c.Leading – when managers motivate subordinates, influence individuals or teams as they work, select themost effective communication channel, or deal in any way with employee behavior issues, they are leading.d.Controlling – to ensure that work is going as it should, managers must monitor and evaluate performance.The process of monitoring, comparing, and correcting is what is meant by the controlling function.(moderate)In a short essay, list and discuss the three essential skills according to Katz that managers need to perform the duties and activities associated with being a manager.Answera.Technical skills – include knowledge of an proficiency in a certain specialized field, such as engineering,computers, accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more important at lower levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organizationb.Human skills –involve the ability to work well with other people both individually and in a group.Managers with good human skills are able to get the best out of their people. They know how to communicate, motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and trust. These skills are equally important at alllevels of management.c.Conceptual skills – these are the skill that managers must have to think and to conceptualize about abstractand complex situations. Using these skills, managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the relationships among various subunits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broaderenvironment. These skills are most important at the top management levels.(moderate)Chapter 2 – Management Yesterday and TodayTrue/FalseAccording to Adam Smith, division of labor was an important concept.True (easy)In the Industrial Revolution, machine power began substituting for human power.True (easy)“Principles of Scientific Management” was written by Frederick Taylor.True (moderate)Frank Gilbreth’s best-known contribution to scientific management concerned selecting the best worker.False (moderate)。
英语论文分析学习 第1节 introduction
What Is an Introduction?
What questions will readers ask when reading an essay: 1. What topic am I going to learn about? 2. Why is that topic important? 3. Do I know the topic already? What do I know already? An introduction aims to answer these 3 questions.
Contents of an introduction
Example:
"Numerous studies on the utilization of plant proteins as a partial or complete replacement for fish meal in diets have been conducted using various freshwater and marines fishes (Lovell, 1987; Tacon et al., 1983; Murai et al., 1989a; Cowey et al., 1974).
Contents of an introduction
Q: What are the ways to establish a topic? A: Claiming centrality General to specific Previous research Describing of the background Definition of key words
计算机组成与体系结构英文版课后练习题含答案
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Exercise 1.1
What are the three mn functions of a computer?
What is the purpose of the control unit?
Answer:The purpose of the control unit is to control the flow of data and instructions within the CPU.
Exercise 4.2
Chapter 5 - Memory Organization
Exercise 5.1
What is the difference between RAM and ROM?
Answer:RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile memory that can be read from and written to. ROM (Read-Only Memory) is non-volatile memory that can only be read.
What is the difference between a RISC and a CISC processor?
Answer:A RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processor has a simplified instruction set with fewer instructions that are executed more quickly. A CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) processor has a more complex instruction set with more instructions that can perform complex operations in a single instruction.
chapter 1 Introduction (to style)
Mark Twain
And he grew up and married, and raised a large family, and brained them all with an axe one night, and got wealthy by all manner of cheating and rascality; and now he is the infernalist wickedest scoundrel in his native village, and is universally respected, and belongs to the Legislature. So you see there never was a bad James in the Sunday-school books that had such a streak of luck as this sinful Jim with the charmed life. (The Story Of The Bad Little Boy)
Charles Dickens
那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代； 那是智慧的年头，那是愚昧的年头；那是信 仰的时期，那是怀疑的时期；那是光明的季 节，那是黑暗的季节；那是希望的春天，那 是失望的冬天；我们全都在直奔天堂，我们 全都在直奔相反的方向。
Mark Twain
Thus perished the good little boy who did the best he could, but didn't come out according to the books. Every boy who ever did as he did prospered except him. His case is truly remarkable. It will probably never be accounted for. (The Story Of The Good Little Boy)
跨文化交际导论(英文版)(第二版) Chapter 1 Introduction to Intercultural Communication
(1) Intercultural communication (2) Cross-cultural communication (跨文 化传播) (3) International communication (4) Comparative mass communication (比较大众传播)
Core Content of ICC
(Rich and Gudykunst)
Interracial
International
Intercultural Communication
Interethnic
Intracultural
(Gudykunst and Hammer, 1987)
Four Categories of ICC
Question for Discussion:
1. Can you distinguish intercultural and crosscultural communication? Please give specific examples to illustrate international, interethnic, interracial communication. 2. Compare the core content of intercultural communication study as proposed by Rich and Gudykunst. 3. Please try to come up with at least 3 cases in your daily life to illustrate the features of intercultural communication phenomenon.
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。
Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。
The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。
A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
经济学原理曼昆第五版英文答案Chapter24
经济学原理曼昆第五版英⽂答案Chapter24This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition. This may not beresold, copied, or distributed without the prior consent of the publisher.e. If there is 2% deflation, her purchasing power has risen by about 12%. 3. Definition of nominal interest rate: the interest rate as usually reported without acorrection for the effects of inflation . 4. Definition of real interest rate: the interest rate corrected for the effects of inflation . 5. Case Study: Interest Rates in the U.S. Economya. Figure 3 shows real and nominal interest rates from 1965 to the present.b. The nominal interest rate is always greater than the real interest rate in this diagram because there was always inflation during this period.c. Note that in the late 1970s the real interest rate was negative because the inflation rateexceeded the nominal interest rate. SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes 1. The consumer price index measures the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumer. It is constructed by surveying consumers to determine a basket of goods and services that the typical consumer buys. Prices of these goods and services are used to compute the cost of the basket at different times, and a base year is chosen. To computethe index, we divide the cost of the market basket in the current year by the cost of the market basket in the base year and multiply by 100. 2. Since Henry Ford paid his workers $5 a day in 1914 and the consumer price index was 10 in1914 and 207 in 2007, then the Ford paycheck was worth $5 × 207 / 10 = $103.50 a day in2007 dollars.Questions for Review 1. A 10% increase in the price of chicken has a greater effect on the consumer price index thana 10% increase in the price of caviar because chicken is a bigger part of the average consumer's market basket. 2. The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.3. If the price of a Navy submarine rises, there is no effect on the consumer price index,because Navy submarines are not consumer goods. But the GDP price index is affected,because Navy submarines are included in GDP as a part of government purchases.4. Because the overall price level doubled, but the price of the candy bar rose sixfold, the realprice (the price adjusted for inflation) of the candy bar tripled.5. The nominal interest rate is the rate of interest paid on a loan in dollar terms. The realinterest rate is the rate of interest corrected for inflation. The real interest rate is the nominalinterest rate minus the rate of inflation.Problems and Applications1. Many answers are possible.2. a. The percentage change in the price of tennis balls is (2 – 2)/2 × 100% = 0%.The percentage change in the price of golf balls is (6 – 4)/4 × 100% = 50%.The percentage change in the price of Gatorade is (2 – 1)/1 × 100% = 100%.b. The cost of the market basket in 2009 is ($2 × 100) + ($4 × 100) + ($1 × 200) = $200+ $400 + $200 = $800.The cost of the market basket in 2010 is ($2 × 100) + ($6 × 100) + ($2 × 200) = $200+ $600 + $400 = $1,200.The percentage change in the cost of the market basket from 2009 to 2010 is (1,200 –800)/800 × 100% = 50%.c. This would lower my estimation of the inflation rate because the value of a bottle ofGatorade is now greater than before. The comparison should be made on a per-ouncebasis.d. More flavors enhance consumers’ well-being. Thus, this would be considered a change inquality and would also lower my estimate of the inflation rate.3. a. Find the price of each good in each year:Year Cauliflower Broccoli Carrots2008 $2 $1.50 $0.102009 $3 $1.50 $0.20b. If 2008 is the base year, the market basket used to compute the CPI is 100 heads ofcauliflower, 50 bunches of broccoli, and 500 carrots. We must now calculate the cost ofthe market basket in each year:2008: (100 x $2) + (50 x $1.50) + (500 x $.10) = $3252009: (100 x $3) + (50 x $1.50) + (500 x $.20) = $475Then, using 2008 as the base year, we can compute the CPI in each year:2008: $325/$325 x 100 = 1002009: $475/$325 x 100 = 146This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition. This may not beresold, copied, or distributed without the prior consent of the publisher.c. We can use the CPI to compute the inflation rate for 2009: (146 ? 100)/100 x 100% = 46%4. a. The cost of the market basket in 2009 is (1 × $40) + (3 × $10) = $40 + $30 = $70. The cost of the market basket in 2010 is (1 × $60) + (3 × $12) = $60 + $36 = $96. Using 2009 as the base year, we can compute the CPI in each year:2009: $70/$70 x 100 = 100 20109: $96/$70 x 100 = 137.14 We can use the CPI to compute the inflation rate for 2010: (137.14 ? 100)/100 x 100% = 37.14%b. Nominal GDP for 2009 = (10 × $40) + (30 × $10) = $400 + $300 = $700. Nominal GDP for 2010 = (12 × $60) + (50 × $12) = $720 + $600 = $1,320. Real GDP for 2009 = (10 × $40) + (30 × $10) = $400 + $300 = $700.Real GDP for 2010 = (12 × $40) + (50 × $10) = $480 + $500 = $980. The GDP deflator for 2009 = (700/700) × 100 = 100. The GDP deflator for 2010 = (1,320/980) × 100 = 134.69.The rate of inflation for 2010 = (134.69 – 100)/100 × 100% = 34.69%. c. No, it is not the same. The rate of inflation calculated by the CPI holds the basket of goods and services constant, while the GDP deflator allows it to change.5. a. Because the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI. b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worseoff. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost. 6. a. introduction of new goods; b. unmeasured quality change; c. substitution bias; d. unmeasured quality change; e. substitution bias 7. a. ($0.75 ?$0.15)/$0.15 x 100% = 400%.b. ($14.32 ? $3.23)/$3.23 x 100% = 343%.c. In 1970: $0.15/($3.23/60) = 2.8 minutes. In 2000: $0.75/($14.32/60) = 3.1 minutes.d. Workers' purchasing power fell in terms of newspapers.provide the elderly with an improvement in their standard of living each year because the CPI overstates inflation and Social Security payments are tied to the CPI.b. Because the elderly consume more health care than younger people do, and becausehealth care costs have risen faster than overall inflation, it is possible that the elderly are worse off. To investigate this, you would need to put together a market basket for theelderly, which would have a higher weight on health care. You would then compare therise in the cost of the "elderly" basket with that of the general basket for CPI.9. In deciding how much income to save for retirement, workers should consider the realinterest rate, because they care about their purchasing power in the future, not the number of dollars they will have.10. a. When inflation is higher than was expected, the real interest rate is lower than expected.For example, suppose the market equilibrium has an expected real interest rate of 3%and people expect inflation to be 4%, so the nominal interest rate is 7%. If inflationturns out to be 5%, the real interest rate is 7% minus 5% equals 2%, which is less than the 3% that was expected.b. Because the real interest rate is lower than was expected, the lender loses and theborrower gains. The borrower is repaying the loan with dollars that are worth less thanwas expected.c. Homeowners in the 1970s who had fixed-rate mortgages from the 1960s benefited fromthe unexpected inflation, while the banks that made the mortgage loans were harmed.。
Chapter 1 Introduction-文档资料
The uncle responded to his nephew in a letter dated February 6, 1875 in which he told his nephew that he would fulfill his promise. Story I also stated that he would prefer to wait until his nephew was older before actually handing over the (then) extremely large sum of money (according to an online inflation calculator, $5000 in 1890 would be worth approximately $118,000). The elder Story also declared in his letter that the money owed to his nephew would accrue interest while he held it on his nephew's behalf. The younger Story consented to his uncle's wishes and agreed that the money would remain with his uncle until Story II became older.
William E. Story I died on January 29, 1887 without having transferred any of the money owed to his nephew. Story II had meanwhile transferred the $5,000 financial interest to his wife; Story II's wife had later transferred this financial interest to Louisa Hamer on assignment. The elder Story's estate executor refused to grant Hamer the money, believing there was no binding contract due to a lack of consideration. As a result, Hamer sued the estate's executor, Franklin Sidway.
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Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts andchecked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isola-tion, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of hislanguage.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions andapplication of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thephenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaninglessindividual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practicalproblems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics. nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______ ____.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above.35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at languagefrom a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared byall the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _____ ____ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations ofthe speaker. This feature is called_________ .A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the nextthrough ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronicstudy?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? 69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Reference KeyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics .48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solutionof practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings..56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention. Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well-developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created inthe imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.。