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企业创新战略外文翻译文献

企业创新战略外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)翻译之一：Choosing an innovation strategy: theory and practiceAuthor：Joseph T. GilbertNationality：AmericaDerivation：Business Horizons, Nov-Dec, 1994Innovations come as both inventions and adoptions. They come in many types and vary greatly in complexity and scope. Companies attempting tomake a profit cannot continue for long periods without innovating. If they try, their customers will leave them for firms with more up-to-date products or services. It is an observed fact that different companies take different approaches to the use of innovation in attempting to improve their performance.Both academic and practitioner publications in recent years have contained a great deal of writing about innovation, the subjects of which have ranged from comparisons of national patterns of innovation to studies of individual innovations. However, little has been published regarding one issue of both theoretical and practical importance: the innovation policy or strategy of individual firms.Business strategy as a field of study is concerned with how a company competes in its chosen business. It deals with the analysis of a firm's strengths and weaknesses and the opportunities and threats presented by the firm's environment. Strategy looks toward consistent execution of broad plans to achieve certain levels of performance. Innovation strategy determines to what degree and in what way a firm attempts to use innovation to execute its business strategy and improve its performance.To choose an innovation strategy, managers might logically start by thinking about various kinds of innovations and their requirements. We shall discuss three major features of innovation, and analyze each in terms of distinct opposites, even though innovations found in the real world more often appear at various points between these opposites.Innovation is sometimes used in a limited sense to refer only to inventions (products, services, or administrative procedures that no other firm has introduced). More often, however, it applies in a more general sense that includes both invention as described above and imitation (adoption by a firm of a product, service, or administrative procedure that is not an invention but is new to that firm). We use the term in this second sense.Innovations can be characterized in a variety of ways. In the followingsections we will review three ways of describing innovations: incremental/radical; first mover/late mover; and imitative/inventive. The three categories are not mutually exclusive. However, each points to a different feature of innovation and reveals insights not found as readily in the other two. DEGREE OF INNOVATION--FROM RADICAL TO INCREMENTALHow new or different does something have to be before it can be called an innovation at all? If a paint company that currently offers 12 shades of white adds a thirteenth, is this an innovation? If a store that is presently open from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. adopts a policy of staying open around the clock, this would seem to be an innovation. But what if it changes its opening time from 8 a.m. to 7:45--is this an innovation? If an airline that now offers ten flights a day from New York to Chicago adds an eleventh flight, is this innovative?At the other extreme, if a flower shop owner decides there is no hope for her business, and so closes up her shop and reopens it a month later as a used book store, is this an innovation? How about when U.S. Steel decided to branch out into oil and natural gas and change its name to USX? Was that an innovation? These issues may appear to be so trivial as to involve only word games, but in all the writings on innovation we have found no clear definition of the concept. To think clearly about an issue, it is helpful to define its limits. There are some innovations that are so minor they are barely perceived as changes. Clearly they have no impact on a firm's basic strategies. At the other extreme, some innovations are so great that they result in a fundamental change in the very nature of a business, leaving behind nothing of the old business. Both these extremes are beyond the scope of our discussion; instead, we are concerned with the vast middle ground.Some innovations are dramatic in their scope and impact and clearly fall into the category of radical. For example, the introduction of automatic teller machines made a fundamental change in the availability of some retail banking services. The personal computer, though still a computer, is a radically different way of providing computing power to many people who previouslyhad access to it only through the medium of mainframes or minicomputers and the intervention of information systems professionals. The use of high-yield bonds to finance takeovers brought fundamental changes to corporate ownership in the 1980s.Several studies, such as Mitchell (1989) and Tushman and Anderson (1986), have indicated that radical innovations tend to be introduced by companies outside an industry or by newcomers rather than by industry incumbents. These authors demonstrate that radical innovations that enhance skills possessed within an industry tend to be introduced by incumbents, whereas those that destroy existing skills tend to be introduced by new firms or industry outsiders. They also have shown that the timing of the introduction of radical innovations presents different problems for the two groups (industry incumbents and outsiders).Innovations that are radical when first introduced appear less so after they have become popular and their adoption is widespread. Apple's introduction of the personal computer was a radical innovation. When IBM introduced its first PC several years later, the innovation was less radical. When Dell and Gateway 2000 began retailing personal computers, the product was commonplace, but the method of distribution (direct mail) was seen by some as a radical departure from previous sales methods.The slightest of incremental innovations begins at whatever point we decide there is an innovation at all. Because they build on existing products, services, or routines and modify them to some degree, incremental innovations are generally easier to plan and implement, and involve less change than radical innovations. This is not to say that they do not have strategic value, or that the total result of a series of incremental innovations cannot be quite impressive when compared to the starting point.The single lens reflex 35mm camera has been on the market for a number of years. Many small improvements have been made since its first introduction. And although each would qualify as an incremental innovation, today's 35mmSLR camera is nonetheless quite different from the first one introduced. STIMULUS FOR INNOVATION--FROM FIRST MOVERS TO LATE MOVERS Inventions are, by definition, only introduced by one firm, or at most by a small handful of firms that bring a new product or service to market simultaneously. Companies that attempt to introduce an invention should logically stand to gain some substantial advantage, because there is a real risk of coming late to the finish line and gaining no prize. Companies that succeed in commercializing an invention are sometimes known as first movers. There are three basic types of advantages that can go to first movers.If an invention involves proprietary technology (prescription drugs, computer software) then the first firm to obtain the patent or copyright wins the exclusive right to market the product. The lack of competition can be a definite strategic advantage. For instance, Xerox was the first to introduce plain paper copier technology. The company was so successful in patenting this technology that it was able to build up a huge competitive lead before its first competitor entered the market.Preemption of scarce assets can sometimes provide an advantage to one or a few first movers that will not be available to those that adopt the innovation later. Examples of this include scarce landing slots at a major airport and oceanfront property for real estate development.The creation of buyer switching costs can also provide an advantage to one or a few first movers that is denied to followers. Once people learn how to use a word-processing program, they will usually stay with that program even in the face of a new one with more features. Travelers who have accumulated frequent flier miles on one airline will not readily switch to another.选择创新战略：理论与实践作者：詹斯夫·吉尔伯特国籍：美国出处：商业视野，1994年11—12月期创新既是发明也是吸收采纳。

知识产权论文中英文对照外文翻译文献

知识产权论文中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献1外文参考文献译文the well-known trademarks and dilute anti-diluted First, well-known trademarks SummaryWell-known trademarks is a long-term use, in the market enjoy a high reputation, known for the relevant public and by certain procedures that the trademark. Since the "Paris Convention" was first introduced the concept of well-known trademarks, the well-known trademarks for special protection legislation has become the world trend.Paris Convention stipulates: all of the members were identified as the well-known trade marks, or registered First, the first to ban others, and the other is to prohibit the use of others with identical or similar logo. Trips further provides: 1, the Paris Convention for the special protection and extension of the services of well-known trademarks, 2, the scope of protection does not extend to prohibit similar goods or services with the well-known trademarks for use on the same or similar logo, 3, on how to That a well-known trademarks in principle a simple requirement.National legislation on the practice, the well-known trade marks that standards vary, often based on specific trade mark promotion of public awareness of related areas, logo merchandise sales and the scope of national interests, and o ther factors identified. From an international treaty to protect the well-known trademarks mind, that well-known trade marks and protection of well-known trade marks are closely linked.Second, the well-known trademarks protected modeOn the protection of the main trademarks of relative and absolute protectionism two models.The former refers to ban others with well-known trademarks identical or similar trademark with the trademark owner the same or similar industries in the registration or use of similar goods in non-use of the same or similar trademarks is permitted, "the Paris Convention "That is, relative to protectionism.While the latter refers to ban others in any industry, including the well-known trade mark goods with different or similar to those in the industry to register with the well-known trade marks and the use of the same or similar trademarks, TRIPS agreement that is taken by the expansion of the absolute protectionism.In simple economic form, as specified by the trade mark goods at a single, specific trade mark goods and the link between more closely. With, a valuable well-known trademarks have been more and more use of different types of commodities, which are among the types of goods on the property may be totally different, in a trademark associated with the commodity groups and the relative weakening of trade marks Commodity producers and the relative isolation. Not well-known trademarks such as cross-category protection and allow others to register, even if the goods obvious differences, the public will still be in the new goods and reputable well-known trademarks to establish a link between people that the goods may be well-known trademark, the new commodities , Or the well-known trademarks of goods and people between the existence of a legal, organizational or business association, thus leading to the misuse of consumers purchase. The rapid development of the commodity today, the relative protectionism has not improved the protection of the public and well-known trademark owner's interests.In view of this, in order to effectively prevent the reputation of well-known trademarks, and the identification of significant features and advertising value by the improper use of the damage, many countries on the implementation of a well-known trademarks is protectionism, which prohibits the use of any products on the same or with the well-known trademarks Similar to the trademark.TRIPS Agreement Article 16, paragraph 3 states: Paris Convention 1967 text, in principle, applicable to the well-known trademarks and logos of the commodities or services are not similar goods or services, if not similar goods or services on the use of the trademark will be Suggest that the goods or services with the well-known trademarks on a link exists, so that the interests of all well-known trademarks may be impaired.Third, the well-known trademarks dilutedThe protection of trademark rights, there are mainly two: one for the confusion theory, a theory for desalination.The main traditional trademark protection for trade marks the difference between functional design, and its theoretical basis for the theory of confusion. In summary, which is to ensure that the trademark can be identification, confirmation and different goods or services different from the significant features, to avoid confusion, deception and E Wu, the law gives first use of a person or persons registered with exclusive rights, which prohibits any Without the permission of the rights to use may cause confusion among consumers in the same or similar trademarks. Clearly, the traditional concept of trademark protection, to stop "the possibility of confusion" is the core of trademark protection.With the socio-economic development andcommercialization of the continuous improvement of the degree, well-known trademarks by the enormous implication for the growing commercial value have attracted the attention of people. Compared with ordinary marks, bearing well-known trademarks by the significance and meaning beyond the trademark rights to the general, and further symbol of product quality and credit, contains a more valuable business assets - goodwill. Well-known trade mark rights of people to use its excellent reputation of leading the way in the purchasing power, instead of the use of trademarks to distinguish between different products and producers.When the mark beyond the role of this feature to avoid confusion, then, this factor is obviously confused and can not cover everything, and other factors become as important as or more important. Thus, in theory confusion on the basis of further development of desalination theory.Trademark Dilution (dilution), also known as trademark dilution, is one of trademark infringement theory. "Watered down", according to the U.S. "anti-federal trademark law dilute" means "regardless of well-known trade mark rights and the others between the existence of competition, or existence of confusion, misunderstanding or the possibility of deception, reduce and weaken the well-known trademarks Its goods or services and the identification of significant capacity of the act. " In China, some scholars believe that "refers to dilute or weaken gradually weakened consumer or the public will be trademarks of the commercial sources with a specific link between the ability." Trademark faded and that the main theory is that many market operators have Using well-known trademarks of the desire of others, engage in well-known trademarks should be toprevent others from using its own unique identification of special protection.1927, Frank ? Si Kaite in the "Harvard Law reviews" wrote the first trademark dilute theory. He believes that people should not only be trademarks of others prohibit the use of the mark, he will compete in the commodity, and should prohibit the use of non-competitive goods on. He pointed out: the real role of trade marks, not distinguish between goods operators, but satisfied with the degree of difference between different commodities, so as to promote the continuous consumer purchase. From the basic function of trademarks, trade mark used in non-competitive goods, their satisfaction with regard to the distinction between the role of different commodities will be weakened and watered down. Trademarks of the more significant or unique, to the public the impression that the more deeply, that is, should be restricted to non-compete others in the use of goods or services.Since then, the Intellectual Property Rights Branch of the American Bar Association Chairman Thomas ? E ? Si Kaite Smith on the theory made a fu rther elaboration and development. He said: "If the courts allow or laissez-faire 'Rolls Royce' restaurants, 'Rolls-Royce' cafeteria, 'Rolls-Royce' pants, 'Rolls-Royce' the candy, then not 10 years, ' Rolls-Royce 'trademark owners will no longer have the world well-known trademarks. "Si Kaite in accordance with the theory of well-known trade marks have faded because of the effect of non-rights holders with well-known trademarks in the public mind the good image of well-known trademarks will be used in non-competitive goods, so as to gradually weaken or reduce the value of well-known trademarks, That is, by the well-known trademarks havecredibility. Trademark tag is more significant or unique characteristics, which in the public mind the impression that the more deep, more is the need for increased protection, to prevent the well-known trade marks and their specific goods was the link between the weakening or disappearance.In practice, trademarks diluted share a wide range of operating methods, such as:A well-known trademarks of others will still use as a trademark, not only in the use of the same, similar to the goods or services. For example, household appliances, "Siemens" trademark as its own production of the furniture's trademark.2. To other people's well-known trademarks as their corporate name of the component. Such as "Haier" trademark for the name of his restaurant.3. To the well-known trademarks of others as the use of domain names. For example, watches trademark "OMEGA" registered the domain name for themselves (/doc/cf12487433.html,).4. To the well-known trademarks of others as a commodity and decorating use.5. Will be others as well-known trade marks of goods or services using the common name. For example, "Kodak" interpreted as "film, is a camera with photographic material", or "film, also known as Kodak,……" This interpretation is also the mark of the water down. If the "Kodak" ignored the trademark owner, after a period of time, people will Kodak film is, the film is Kodak. In this way, the Kodak film-related goods has become the common name, it as a trademark by a significant, identifiable on limbo. The public well-known Jeep (Jeep), aspirin (Aspirin), freon (Freon), and so was the registration of foreign goods are due toimproper use and management and the protection of poor, evolved into similar products common name, Thus lost its trademark logo features.U.S. "anti-diluted Federal trademark law" before the implementation of the Federal Court of Appeal through the second from 1994 to 1996 case, identified thefollowing violations including the Trademark Dilution: (1) vague, non-means as others in similar goods not on Authorized the use of a trademark so that the sales of goods and reduce the value of trademarks or weakened (2) pale, that is because of violations related to the quality, or negative, to demonize the acts described a trademark goods may be caused to others The negative effects of the situation, (3) to belittle, or improperly changed, or derogatory way to describe a trade mark case.The majority of our scholars believe that the well-known trademarks diluted There are two main forms: watered down and defaced. The so-called dilute the people will have no right to use the same or similar trademark with the well-known trademarks used in different types of commodities, thus making the mark with the goods weakened ties between the specific acts the so-called defaced is that people will have no right to use the same Or similar marks for the well-known trade marks will have to belittle good reputation, tarnished the role of different types of goods on the act.Some scholars believe that the desalination also refers to the three aspects of well-known trademarks damage. First, in a certain way to demonize the relevant well-known trademarks; Second, some way related to well-known trademark dark; Third is the indirect way so that consumers will distort trade mark goods for the general misunderstanding of the name.In general, can be diluted in the form summarized as follows: 1, weakeningWeakening is a typical diluted form, also known as dark, is that others will have some visibility in the use of a trademark is not the same, similar to the goods or services, thereby weakening the mark with its original logo of goods or services The link between, weakening the mark was a significant and identifiable, thus bearing the trade mark by the damage caused by acts of goodwill. Weakening the mark of recognition of the significant damage is serious, it can be the recognition of trademark dilution, was significant, or even make it completely disappeared, then to the mark bycarrying the reputation of devastating combat.First, the weakening of the identification is the weakening and lower. Any unauthorized person, others will have some visibility in the use of a trademark is not the same, similar to the goods or services, will reduce its recognition of. But consumers were referred to the mark, it may no longer think of first is the original goods or services, not only is the original or goods or services, consumers simply will not even think of goods or services, but the Trademark Dilution of goods Or services. There is no doubt that this marks the recognition of, is a heavy blow.Weakening of the mark is significantly weakened and the lower. Mark is significantly different from other commercial trademark marked characteristics. A certain well-known trademarks, which in itself should be a very significant, very significant and can be quickly and other signs of its own separate. However, the Trademark Dilution of the same or similar trademarks used in different goods or services, so that was the trademark and other commercial marked difference in greatlyreduced, to the detriment of its significant.Of course, regardless of the weakening of the mark was a significant or identifiable, are the ultimate impact of the mark by the bearer of goodwill. Because the trade mark is the carrier of goodwill, the mark of any major damage, the final performance for all bearing the trade mark by the goodwill of the damage.2, tarnishedMeans others will have some well-known trademarks in the use of the good reputation of the trademark will have to belittle, defaced role of the goods or services on the act. Contaminate the trademarks of others, is a distortion of trade marks to others, the use of the damage, not only reduced the value of the mark, even on such values were defaced. As tarnished reputation is a trademark of damage, so tarnished included in the diluted acts, is also relatively accepted view. Moreover, in the field of trademark faded, tarnished than the weakening of the danger of even greater acts, the consequences are more serious.3, degradationDegradation is due to improper use of trademarks, trade mark goods for the evolution of the common name recognition and loss of function. Trademark Dilution degradation is the most serious kind. Degradation of the event, will completely lose their identification marks, no longer has the distinction function as the common name of the commodity.Fourth, protection against diluteBased on the well-known trademarks dilute the understanding, and accompanied by a serious weakening of well-known trademarks, all countries are gradually legislation to provide for the well-known trademarks to protect anti-diluted. There are specific models:1, the development of special anti-dilute the protection of well-known trademarksThe United States is taking this protection on behalf of the typical pattern.1995, in order to prevent lower dilute "the only representative of the public eye, the unique image of the trademark" to protect "the trademark value of advertising," the U.S. Congress passed the National reunification of the "anti-federal trademark law watered down", so as to the well-known trademarks All provide the unified and effective national anti-dilute the protection.U.S. anti-diluted in trademark protection has been added a new basis for litigation, which is different from the traditional basis of trademark infringement litigation. Trademark infringement of the criteria is confusing, the possibility of deception and misleading, and the Trademark Dilution criteria is unauthorized to others well-known trademarks of the public to reduce the use of the trademark instructions for goods and services only and in particular of Feelings. It is clear that the U.S. law is anti-diluted basis, "business reputation damage" and the possibility of well-known trade mark was a significant weakening of the possibility of providingrelief. Moreover, anti-faded law does not require the application of competitive relations or the existence of possible confusion, which is more conducive to the exercise of trademark right to appeal.2, through the Anti-Unfair Competition Law ProtectionSome countries apply anti-unfair competition law to protect famous trademarks from being watered down. Such as Greece, "Anti-Unfair Competition Law," the first one: "Prohibition of theUse of well-known trademarks in order to take advantage of different commodities on the well-known trademarks dilute its credibility was significant." Although some countries in the Anti-Unfair Competition Law does not explicitly prohibits trademark faded, but the Trademark Dilution proceedings, the application of unfair competition litigation.3, through or under well-known trademark protection within the scope of trademark protectionMost civil law countries is this way. 1991, "the French Intellectual Property Code," Di Qijuan trademark law section L.713-5 of the provisions that: not in similar goods or services on the use of well-known trade marks to the trademark owner or a loss caused by the improper use of trademarks , Against people should bear civil liability.Germany in 1995, "the protection of trademarks and other signs of" Article 14 also stipulates that: without the consent of the trademark rights of third parties should be banned in commercial activities, in and protected by the use of the trademark does not like similar goods or services , And the use of the trademark identical or similar to any signs.4, in the judicial precedents in the application of anti-dilute the protection ofIn some countries there are no clear legislative provisions of the anti-dilute well-known trademarks, but in judicial practice, they are generally applicable civil law on compensation for the infringement of the debt to protect the interests of all well-known trademarks, through judicial precedents to dilute the protection of applicable anti.China's well-known trademarks in the protection of the law did not "water down" the reference, but on the substance of therelevant legal provisions, protection of anti-diluted. 2001 "Trademark Law" amendment to increase the protection of well-known trademarks, in particular, it is important to the well-known trademarks have been registered to conduct cross-category protection. Article 13 stipulates: "The meeting is not the same as or similar to the trademark application for registration of goods is copied, Mofang, translation others have been registered in the well-known trademarks, misleading the public, the standard of the well-known trade mark registration may be the interests of the damage, no registration And can not be used. "But needs to be pointed out that this provision does not mean that China's laws for the well-known trademarks has provided an effective anti-dilute the protection. "Trademark Law" will prohibit only well-known trademarks and trademarks of the same or similar use, without the same or similar goods not on the behavior, but the well-known trade marks have faded in various forms, such as the well-known trademarks for names, domain names, such acts Detract from the same well-known trademarks destroyed the logo of the ability to make well-known trade mark registration of the interests of damage, this is not a legal norms.It must be pointed out that the trade mark that should be paying attention to downplay acts of the following:1, downplay acts are specifically for the well-known registered trade marks.Perpetrators diluted one of the main purpose is the free-rider, using the credibility of well-known trademarks to sell their products, and general use of trademarks do not have this value. That acts to dilute limited to well-known trademarks, can effectively protect the rights of trademark rights, have notexcessively restrict the freedom of choice of logo, is right to resolve the conflict right point of balance. "Trademark Law" will be divided into well-known trademarks have beenregistered and unregistered, and give different protection. Anti-has been watered down to protect only against the well-known trade marks registration, and for China not only well-known trade marks registered in the same or similar ban on the registration and use of goods. This reflects the "Trademark Law" the principle of protection of registered trademarks.2, faded in the different categories of goods and well-known trademarks for use on the same or similar logo.If this is the same or similar goods with well-known trademarks for use on the same or similar to the logo should be in accordance with the general treatment of trademark infringement. There is also a need to downplay the use of the tags are similar to a well-known trademarks and judgments.3, not all the non-use of similar products on the well-known trade marks and logos of the same or similar circumstances are all faded.When a trademark has not yet become well-known trademarks, perhaps there are some with the same or similar trademarks used in other types of goods on. In the well-known trademarks, the original has been in existence does not constitute a trademark of those who play down.4, acts that play down the perpetrator does not need to consider the subjective mental state.Regardless of their out of goodwill or malicious, intentional or fault, is not watered down the establishment. But the acts of subjective mental state will assume responsibility for its impact on the manner and scope. Generally speaking, if the perpetratoracts intentionally dilute the responsibility to shoulder much weight, in particular, bear a heavier responsibility for damages, if the fault is the commitment will be less responsibility. If there are no mistakes, just assume the responsibility to stop infringement.5, due to anti-faded to protect well-known trade marks with a specific goods orservices linked to well-known trademarks a long time widely used in a variety of goods, will inevitably lead to trademark the logo of a particular commodity producers play down the link, well-known trademarks A unique attraction to consumers will also be greatly reduced. So that should not be watered down to conduct a source of confusion for the conditions of goods, after all, not all the water down will cause consumers confusion. For example, a street shop's name is "Rolls-Royce fruit shop," people at this time there will be no confusion and that the shop and the famous Rolls-Royce trademark or producers of the contact. However, such acts can not be allowed, a large number of similar acts will dilute the Rolls-Royce trademark and its products linked to undermine the uniqueness of the trademark, if things continue this way when the mention of Rolls-Royce trademark, people may think of is not only Automobile, food, clothing, appliances, etc.. That faded as to cause confusion for the conditions, some will not dilute norms and suppression of acts, makes well-known trade marks are not well protected. Therefore, as long as it is a well-known trademark detract from the logo and unique ability to act on the behavior should be identified as diluted.1. Zheng Chengsi: "Intellectual property law", legal publishers 2003 version.2. Wu Handong editor: "Intellectual Property Law," China Politics and Law University Press 2002 edition.3. Susan. Sela De: "The United States Federal trademark law dilute the anti-legislation and practice," Zhang Jin Yi, contained in the "Law on Foreign Translation" 1998 No.4.4. Kong Xiangjun: "Anti-Unfair Competition AFP theory," People's Court Press, 2001 edition.5. Liu Ping, Qi Chang: "On the special protection of famous trademarks", in "law and commercial" 1998 No.6.6. Well-Tao, Lu Zhou Li: "On the well-known trademarks to protect the anti-diluted", in "Law" 1998 No. 5.2 外文参考文献原文浅谈驰名商标之淡化与反淡化一、驰名商标概述驰名商标是指经过长期使用，在市场上享有较高声誉，为相关公众所熟知，并经一定程序认定的商标。

企业文化外文参考文献

Corporate CultureThe concept of enterprise cultureEnterprise culture is formed in the long-term of the venture and development process among the enterprise staf. They cultivate the common goal, the highest value standard, basic beliefs and behavior. It contains a very rich content, including business philosophy, value concept, the spirit of enterprise, enterprise morality, group consciousness, enterprise image, enterprise system. Its core is the spirit of the enterprise and values.The value of enterprise culture1.Enterprise culture affects the enterprise’s lifeCulture is informal. But it exist everywhere and every time. In the developing of an enterprise, things informal is more important than that of formal, software is usually more important the hardware. This is not only the character of modern economy, but also the outcome of enterprise culture’s effect in long time. Enterprise culture is the spirit of the enterprise, is the power that drives the enterprise developing, and is the best way for the enterprise to get the growth of its economy. The development needs culture and the culture can support the development. In any case, there will be no long time development without culture’ support.2.Enterprise culture builds the enterprise’s core competenceThe 1960’s the core content of enterprise competition is technology , in the 70 s, it is management, in the 80’ s, it is marketing, in the 90’s, it is the brand, and the21’st century the core competition between enterprises is the culture. Enterprise's short-term prosperity can get in so many ways, but the enterprise long time growth can be only from the power of the excellent enterprise culture, the effect of suitable culture on the development and growth of enterprises is huge, because it has infinite driving force on the staff.The spirit and ideas is the core of the enterprise’s culture. When a good enterprise culture establishment, it brings the wisdom of the group, the spirit of collaboration, fresh vitality, this is equivalent to for enterprise with a powerful engine for enterprise innovation and development, and can uninterruptedly supply spiritual power for the enterprise.Culture the best way to mobilize the staff of an enterprise. It brings staff home feeling in their work. It is the resource of the cohesive power inside and the expansionary force outside of the enterprise.The concept of brand cultureBrand culture is the core of brand value, it include the value concept, grade, appeal, express feelings of the brand, the value of the brand culture is that it brings items of the brand to the flourish spirit world of human being. Brand culture not only can bring people good feeling but also improve the core competence of the brand. Brand culture mainly has three level content: the first level is the brand value system, which is made up of a series of concept of brand owners and operators, including the pursuit of quality concept, management concept, service concept, social concept and so on; The second level is the behavior model of the brand,includi ng the operator’s management and marketing strategy, market development means, transmission channels, service mechanism and attitude, etc. The third level is the brand in the visual image level. This aspect mainly includes the name of the brand, brand appeal, brand identification, product external image and so on. The brand culture construction is the process to adapt to the consumer demand, realize the brand image, maintenance for goals, and complete the heart contract between the brand and the consumer.The concept of culture marketing powerCulture marketing power is that enterprises, through the cultural marketing, get strong marketing idea, super marketing image, a new marketing model, and so get strong marketing power.企业文化企业文化的概念企业文化是指企业全体员工在长期的创业和发展过程中培育形成，并共同遵守的最高目标，价值标准，基本信念及行为规范。

企业市场营销外文文献——中文译文

Science and technology enterprises Marketing StrategyABSTRACTWith the coming of knowledge-based economy,higll&new-tech enterprises play an increasingly strategic role in national economy,and also make great contribute to providing advanced products and services，promoting technical progress，enlarging employment and developing the national economic competitive power．But while they make a SUCCESS upon advanced technology and hi-tech products，they usually put too much emphasis oll technology advantages，accordingly neglect the research and applications of marketing strategy and management，and then caused the Marketing Myopia resulting in passiveness evefl defeat to the management．So how to exercise modem marketing theories，research and constitute marketing strategy and policy of lIigh&new-tech enterprises，and provide necessary theory base and suppoaing to the marketing problems of hiigh&new-tech enterprises，has some reality significance and generalize application value to promote continuance，healthy and rapidly development ofhigh&new-tech enterprises．KEYWORDS：high&new-tech enterprise，marketing strategy,technical marketing，innovation ofmarketing theoriesFirst, the science and technology enterprise marketing strategyMarketing strategy is the enterprise under the guidance of the marketing concept , the application of modern management methods , for a period of time , the development of the overall business marketing ideas and planning. Marketing strategy consists of three different levels of content : target market, market positioning and marketing mix . The so-called target market is the company established to serve customers. The so-called market positioning is an enterprise cultivate certain characteristics for the product , and establish a certain image of the product , in the minds of customers in order to form a special preference , it is to attack the target market point of attack and defense point selection . Marketing mix is the enterprise to meet the needs of the target customer groups can be combined control variables , offensive target market, occupy the market positioning of the weapon , which is the marketing strategy , according to the traditional 4P concept in general, including product strategy, pricing strategy , distribution strategy , marketing strategy and the strategy together . In this sense . The so-called marketing strategy is based on possible business opportunities , choose a target market , and tries to provide an attractive target market marketing mix . Thus, the corporate marketing strategy formulation should first determine the target market and market positioning to solve the problem , when the target market and market positioning clear later , the focus will shift marketing strategy marketing mix , that is, the formulation of marketing strategies . Therefore, this chapter in science and technology enterprises target market and market positioning strategy is based , according to the life cycle theory and technology acceptance and technology enterprises highlight the characteristics of technical marketing , to study science and technology enterprise marketing strategy.Second, science and technology enterprise marketing strategy based on the strategy developed The traditional view that strategic decision strategy , strategy is a strategic service , any policy formulation and implementation of the strategy are to ensure the implementation, therefore , thepolicy should focus on the development of its strategic objectives beam , as the tech industry market -oriented enterprises , because its products are used to meet the particular purpose of functional products , and its strategy is to develop strategies based on the target market and market positioning strategy. Target marketing strategy refers to enterprises through market segmentation choose one or several market segments as its target market , specializing in their demand characteristics and according to its characteristics to design appropriate products, the development of appropriate price , choose the appropriate distribution channels promotion and planning of appropriate means to achieve to meet customer needs through corporate earnings target market management activities , including no difference in target marketing , differences in concentration of target marketing and target marketing three strategies type. Market positioning strategy is determined in the target market , the firm is based on its own strength and target customer requirements, the enterprise in the target market to determine the location of the strategy .( 1 ) Market Segmentation : Market segmentation aim is to find marketing opportunities , target market. As the face of scientific and technological products industry market , the main consideration should be the ultimate customers of the industry characteristics, customer requirements and customer size and other factors, market segmentation, market segmentation process, should adopt the " Bowling " mode , first find or create energy tremendous utility for customers or interests of target market segments , and offers in this market can benefit both the product or service to gain a foothold in their market ( the first bowling pins ) , through this market on the user's oral advocacy and demonstration effect, and the other based on the market related to the potential customers will quickly become a reality customers, thereby forming a chain reaction , and ultimately achieve the purpose of expanding the market .( 2 ) Target market strategy : each product based on market segmentation, and then select the target market , expand the application fields. Science and technology enterprises in the choice of target market strategy, enterprises should fully take into account the point of product and market conditions to determine , because science and technology enterprise 's products are generally excellent performance and to meet the specific purpose non- homogeneous products , mostly in the product the introduction of life-cycle stage and growth stage , therefore, should be the main difference between marketing and choose to focus marketing strategy .( 3 ) market positioning strategy : market positioning is to give companies in the target market, choosing an appropriate location , and provide appropriate products to meet customer requirements. To achieve these goals depends on three factors: the case of target customers needs , target market conditions and competitors on the strength of enterprises , etc., generally use the forward position and reverse positioning two kinds of strategies. The main methods of market positioning : positioning based on attributes and benefits , based on price and quality positioning, positioning according to use , according to user location , based on product quality positioning , according to the competitive situation in the various methods of positioning and portfolio positioning. As a technology-based company's market position , it should be in the market to establish a superior quality , high performance , high technology , reliable quality, use a unique , leading the development of the industry 's brand image, so that customers feel inherent in the product technology content , brand value and use value , let the customer experience into these " intangibles " is stamped into the minds of the customer becomes a feeling and impression. Meanwhile, the technology-based products in the sales process is often accompanied by technical support and transfer of science and technology enterprises but also in the minds of our customersfirst-class technology , first-class products and excellent service market image .Third, science and technology enterprise marketing strategyAs mentioned above, the life cycle of technology acceptance theory is mainly high-tech products for the consumer market the types of customers and the market characteristics of the research does not fully applicable to the industrial market in high-tech products , but for the market research industry, high-tech science and technology enterprises product has a certain significance , therefore , accept the life cycle of the technical theory and combining the characteristics of the market research industry to develop marketing strategies and technology enterprises in the traditional 4P marketing mix based on the theory of technical support and service marketing strategy , value chain integration marketing strategy, marketing strategy of social responsibility role .1 , product strategyTraditional product overall concept that any kind of product are composed of three elements: core products , tangible products ( performance , brand , quality, appearance and style , etc. ) and additional product ( additional services and benefits ) . But as a high-tech product, it can be divided into the core product or core interests ( the product's core interests or fundamental value ) , form the basis of the product or products ( physical presence in the form of products or external manifestations ) , expected product ( customers buy products expect to receive when closely associated with a set of core product attributes and conditions ) , add-on products ( with the purchase behavior extending additional services and benefits generated ) and potential products ( to meet customer demand for value potential benefits ) five levels . Dr. Xiong Wei further studies suggest that high-tech products of the " whole product " concept is a dynamic process of development , high-tech products as a whole product model First, you must confirm the customer's core interests ( core interests confirmation stage ) ; then to understand the customer's core interests , development and production of high-tech products materialized ( materialized product stage ) : Then through marketing packaging, product application knowledge dissemination , and so means to allow customers and partners to understand the implication of the true value of products , at this stage , there must be an early innovators have started buying the product, which is key to the success of high-tech product strategy stage, we must allow the market to establish expectations for the products ( expect established stage ) ; next, you must complete the installation, commissioning , maintenance and other support services mechanism , simplifying the business processes, enhancing knowledge transfer work ( complete solution phase ) ; Thus , high-tech products have been common features of the product has , the last is the development of additional capacityBased on the above analysis, development of science and technology enterprises of high-tech product strategy is as follows :( 1 ) First, to ensure the product's core interests and values in the form of tangible products through to achieve tangible product contains high-tech products as much as possible the technical content and added value. High-tech products as much as possible reflect the core product functionality. Science and technology enterprises should give full play to its technological advantages, targeting the market demand for the development of targeted high technology, market demand urgent , good market prospects , high added value and competitive new products to develop new products and upgrading products Lord.( 2 ) as an additional product technical support and service of high-tech products in the market is the key to success . First, pre-sales technical support and services that can help customers improve understanding of new products , so that potential customers understand the product 's core values as soon as possible to help them determined to buy . Secondly, the scientific and technological products in the sales process is often accompanied by a large number of technical support and transfer of science and technology enterprises should increase product technical support and service efforts, as much as possible to its technological advantage is reflected in the sales of add-on products , Technical support even become inseparable part of the product , allowing customers to purchase products at the same time , by receiving technical services to gain maximum benefit , in order to improve the competitiveness of products .( 3 ) tangible product to reflect the product's superior performance, quality and brand , to reflect the first-class technology , aFlow value of the product . Through quality system certification, patent applications , certification authorities , creating famous brand in the form of tangible products to enhance the value .( 4 ) As a high-tech product , the product should reflect the expected value of the product , product performance andCustomers using the function to achieve the desired properties and conditions , so that customers feel after purchase value for money.( 5 ) To continue to dig through technological innovation of high-tech products, the potential value of the product , so that customers getPremium services , improve customer loyalty .( 6 ) As an alternative characteristics of high-tech products , once a functionally equivalent new products come out , the old productionGoods will be eliminated from the market, therefore, the future of high-tech products into maturity , the market should be improved through technological innovation and product improvement , and constantly develop new uses and new features , extend its life cycle.2 , pricing strategyOverall, the science and technology enterprises , the general rely on the uniqueness of the product to occupy a certain market segments, should focus on strengthening the unique nature of the product rather than reduce costs. It is generally expensive policies should be taken , should not take low-cost policy .Share on pricing methods , generally cost-oriented , demand-oriented and competition -oriented three methods , science and technology enterprise products are generally used to meet the special needs of the market of high-tech new products, sometimes even contains some technologies and services specific product portfolio, customers buy products, but also have these advanced technologies and processes, therefore , the customer first value is the value of its properties and use , the price is a secondary factor , that product performance is the customer 's decision to purchase the most important factors, therefore, recommended perceived value pricing , according to the customer's perceived value to pricing, in order to obtain higher returns. On the other hand , high-tech products are generally in the introduction and growth stage of new products, new product pricing strategies skimming pricing strategy , pricing strategy and satisfactory penetration pricing strategy , skimming pricing strategy is a high- price strategy is refers to the market early in the new products , price too high , so that in a short period of time to maximize profits : penetration pricing strategy is a low- price strategy, that in the new product into the market , theprice is set too low, so that customers easily accepted , and soon opened and occupied the market, through economies of scale and experience curve gradually reduce costs, and ultimately achieve a low price ; satisfaction pricing strategy is a range between skimming and penetration pricing strategy . Set by the low price, but the price is higher than the penetration , is an intermediate price . Because of this pricing strategy enables producers and customers more satisfied with the name. Sometimes called "gentlemen price" or "moderate prices ." As science and technology enterprises of new products , in the face of customers generally are innovators or early adopters , the price elasticity of demand is low, therefore , it is recommended to take skimming pricing strategy. From high-tech products in terms of features and functionality used , which is based on special features to meet specific customer needs in different areas , for different customers, but also can take differential pricing strategy . Science and technology enterprises in the development of the price strategy, but also considering the products in which the specific stages of the life cycle and the market cycle , and competitors conditions and other factors , select the appropriate pricing strategy. For example : For has matured , the market is highly competitive products, you can take follow the market pricing.3, the distribution strategyAs high-tech products and technology enterprises , usually for a particular purpose , non-standard chemical products in the market are mostly oriented industry market , often require salespeople or professional and technical personnel to customers about product performance characteristics, uses and use requirements , or even need installation, maintenance and after-sales service . Some high-tech products, carries a lot of advanced technology and processes , products and technologies are sold simultaneously , that is, the sale of some products is often accompanied by advanced technology and the transfer of technology , not so much selling a product, as it is sales techniques and processes , the need for pre-sales technical promotion, sale and after-sale technical guidance technology exchange and training , that is, in marketing activities to be carried out a lot of technical marketing. Furthermore, customers often require some special requirements in depth on-site technical personnel of enterprises , tailored to customers to meet their special needs Products, customers, scene of some of timely and accurate technical information is passed back to the production department , and sometimes require on-site personnel involved in marketing the new product design, development and production process, even after repeated and improved in order to succeed. Thus, the complexity and high-tech products require specialized personnel and institutions engaged in the corresponding this complex , specialized sales. Thus, science and technology enterprises to use more direct way to promote their products , in a sense , direct sales personnel marketing activities buyers and sellers information exchange, emotional communication , knowledge exchange and commodity exchanges composite behavior . In marketing activities , and even to build sales, design , research and production of a combination of integration model, high-tech achievements and products to accelerate the commercialization process . Science and technology enterprises in international markets or a specific area of the market, you can choose with relevant expertise and influence in the industry of professional agents , establish long-term cooperation with strategic marketing alliances or a close cooperative relationship , as far as possible the use of hierarchical less professional sales agents . In today's society , the emergence of the Internet to give people the information exchange and communication provides a great convenience , as a leading high-tech development of science and technology enterprises in the marketing efforts should attach importance to the use of internetmarketing . NetworkMarketing, distribution advantage of low cost, interactive real-time communication , so that enterprises can more easily and facilitate the establishment of the customer information system, which is unmatched by other traditional channels , the enterprise can be carried around the clock 24 hours and keep in touch with customers , business product information can be the fastest way to deliver to the customer. Internet Marketing for the development of the international market, reduce costs, improve efficiency even more significant role.4 , promotion strategyCorporate promotional activities , including advertising , sales promotion, publicity and personal selling, sales promotion , etc. IV . Promotion will focus on: First, to allow customers to quickly and comprehensive understanding of the product , including its advantages , and the new value of applicability ; secondly , promotion to give customers technical support and guidance in order to attract customers, help customers choose to buy ; Finally, the goal is not only for the promotional needs of people ( users ) , but also for those who recommend products and brands ( proponents ) , but also for those who are going to buy from someone ( potential demanders ) , for the industrial market sales , but also for its promotional objective decision-makers , buyers , and information controller. According to the technology acceptance life cycle theory , high-tech products into the market in the process, the key issue is to conquer the innovators and early adopters of these key customers, and then quickly across the " gap" phase , expanding customer base. We must first determine a good target market and step into the market , selecting the right initial customers are high-tech products successfully entered the market and the rapidly expanding popularity of the key. These key customers, including walking in front of innovational companies and individuals , secondary developers , an industry, an important opinion leaders and so on. These key customers, the company can give some valuable feedback information for companies to improve new products, better capture the market ; Second, they may be secondary to the high-tech product development , will be derived from its use to other industries go to market to them to complete the redevelopment ; Finally , the key customers in the market have a great voice , through their verbal communication, information can quickly spread to a wider range .Based on the above analysis, development of science and technology enterprise promotion strategies are as follows :( 1 ) should pay attention to the role of propagandaInstitutes in science and technology for enterprises, often with the advent of new products and new results , but has always maintained good cooperation with the government relations , often a declaration or commitment to national and local levels, a major research departments , all of which , can become very good news materials , public relations activities through news agencies reported , please publicity , these positive news for companies to improve their visibility and establish a good corporate image has a good effect , if it is a new product reports, can also play a role in promotion and advertising , may well be the innovators or early adopters to try to buy a catalyst . Publicity with less expensive , realistic strong features, especially for the early start of the science and technology enterprises , is a good promotional tool.( 2 ) publicity and sales promotion matchedSales promotion is a series of marketing activities directly stimulate buying in general. For example : special services before and after sales , exhibitions, presentations and other marketing efforts and so on. After the advent of new products and technology enterprises , through mediacoverage in the customer base may also play a role in its creation , but for our customers choose to buy the new product in terms of its presentation is not enough, therefore , enterprises should promptly participate in industry associations seminars , technical seminars , exhibitions and invite target customers organize product launches , etc. seize the opportunity to introduce new products to our customers the performance , characteristics and use of the benefits to the customer after . Fully as soon as possible to help customers learn about new products , contributed to buy. In this way for early public fully understand the new products to help them determined to buy an important role , is a new product across the " gap" quick access " bowling alley " phase of the important means. Attention should be paid in the sales promotion of opinion leaders and experts to play the advocacy role of opinion leaders is to have a say on the products and companies that can exert influence organizations and individuals . In the high-tech products in the market , and business -related marketing chain ( suppliers , distributors , wholesalers, retailers ) , venture capitalists , financiers , news reporters , newspaper commentators , economic analysts , lawyers, industry sector celebrities, to control the flow of information industry and the majority of users, etc. , all have a say on the products and business professionals , executives are " opinion leaders " the most important part. "Opinion leaders " who pass on the information they received for processing , sorting, and then transmitted to the target customers enhanced , leaving the corporate and product information more timely , with the most easy to understand way to convey to the target customer hands , so high sales results . Therefore, enterprises must be "opinion leaders" of the key players to establish contact , develop friendships , ready to provide them with technological progress in the case , held a conference, product information , technical demonstration seminars , experts explain to the audience the performance of new products, technology and development prospects . Their views , views on the potential users of high-tech products is the most authoritative. Also note that in the sales chain to promote the marketing, sales promotion of the use of oral transmission , chain marketing is the use of old customer product sales campaign , due to its use of interpersonal promotion , to a certain extent, accelerate customer product understanding of the process , so the success rate is very high, the effect is a better means of promotion , of course , the most important prerequisite for the corporate brand is the customer satisfaction and loyalty is higher.( 3 ) the proper use of the role of advertisingAdvertising is mainly consumer goods major promotional tool , it is in the role of industrial supplies sales have created awareness , building understanding , provide clues proven effective reassurance functions such as technology-based products industry in terms of the market , can in some professional journals on the proper conduct advertising and promotion, in order to build awareness and provide clues received results. The role of advertising can expand the impact of new products to enhance public awareness of the early understanding and awareness of new products , a firm confidence in their decision-making ; On the other hand , it makes the public feel that the late , new technology has matured, paid products have been popular, the transmission of information through advertising , you can establish in their minds a certain brand image, when you decide to purchase , also known company preferred products . However, in terms of the industrial market , relying on advertising and promotion, it is difficult to allow customers to complete the purchase .( 4 ) focus on the role of the use of personal sellingPersonal selling is an enterprise by sending sales staff with one or more people who may becomebuyers talk to make an oral presentation to promote their products , promote and expand sales. Personal selling is the sales staff to help and persuade buyers buy certain goods and services in the process , because it is face to face with customers , you can put the performance and technical characteristics of the product delivered to the customer, can provide customers with consulting services to help customers solve a some technical issues , while sales of high-tech products and technology enterprises is precisely the need for technical exchanges and services. Thus, science and technology enterprises should pay special attention to the role of personal selling , sales staff want to propose specific professional requirements , making it capable technical marketing efforts, when necessary, please engage in new products and new technology research and development personnel "expert marketing" . Personal selling is the science and technology enterprises in the industrial market, the primary means of selling its high-tech products throughout every stage of market segmentation , the other sales promotional tools only play a supporting role . Science and technology enterprises in high-tech products in various stages of the targeted market make other promotional work , marketing and other means to make staff complement , play the greatest performance.5 , other marketing strategies( A ) technical support and service marketing strategyHigh-tech products for industrial markets , its tangible products often materialized some advanced technologies and processes , the technology is far greater than even their physical value-added product value . Thus, while the transfer of product sales , often accompanied by the transfer of technology and support, product sales and technical support needs simultaneously. On the other hand , high-tech products of high technical level , complex structures , some of the technology is unprecedented and users of its technology performance, use is often unfamiliar, and high-tech products are often put into the market not long , and sometimes it is inevitable that technical performance is not stable enough the situation , which requires companies to establish a set of quality service system . In product sales , you should provide the appropriate technical advice and training to enable users of the products have a relatively well understood . After the sale of the product installation, maintenance and repair work should be dedicated to customer service . You can also help users on the basis of the original product , increase the number of components or software , to expand the functionality of existing products , improve the technical level of the original product , which not only makes users feel a strong sense of business , but also can induce users of high-tech products dependence , creating demand for the future .( 2 ) Social Responsibility Promotion StrategyScience and technology enterprises to implement CSR promotion strategy is mainly reflected in two aspects, one is to help solve social problems from the start, the public is most concerned about social issues into enterprises are most concerned about , and to solve these problems and means financial products and services on their own , then the public will inevitably also produce these products and services of great interest , and thus help to open up the market of these products and services . Second, some of the advent of high-tech products is to break the long-standing monopoly of foreign products , there revitalize national industry 's mission and tasks , then, science and technology enterprises in the development of marketing strategy, can give high-tech products to revitalize national industry meaning, through the people's patriotic fervor and national pride to achieve sales . CSR marketing strategy to help enterprises attach importance to marketing ethics , establish a corporate image, increase the market share of high-tech products .。

国营企业英文作文

国营企业英文作文Nationalized enterprises, also known as state-owned enterprises, are companies that are owned and operated by the government. These enterprises play a significant rolein the economy, providing essential goods and services to the public. They contribute to job creation and economic stability. However, like any other type of business, nationalized enterprises have their strengths and weaknesses.Nationalized enterprises are often criticized for their lack of efficiency and innovation. Without the pressure of competition, these companies may become complacent and resistant to change. This can result in bureaucratic decision-making processes and a lack of responsiveness to market demands. However, it is important to note that nationalized enterprises also have advantages. They can prioritize public welfare over profit, ensuring that essential services are provided to all citizens, even in remote or less profitable areas.One of the benefits of nationalized enterprises istheir ability to provide employment opportunities. These companies often have a large workforce, which can help reduce unemployment rates and provide stability to the labor market. Additionally, nationalized enterprises can offer job security and benefits to their employees, which can be particularly important during economic downturns.Another advantage of nationalized enterprises is their potential to contribute to economic development. These companies can invest in infrastructure projects and industries that may not be attractive to private investors. By doing so, they can stimulate economic growth and create opportunities for other businesses to thrive. Additionally, nationalized enterprises can play a role in strategic industries, ensuring that the country has control overvital resources and technologies.However, nationalized enterprises also face challenges. One of the main concerns is the potential for corruption and mismanagement. Without proper checks and balances,these companies may become prone to inefficiencies and financial irregularities. Additionally, nationalized enterprises may struggle to attract and retain talented employees, as they may not be able to offer competitive salaries or advancement opportunities.In conclusion, nationalized enterprises have both strengths and weaknesses. While they can provide essential services, create employment opportunities, and contribute to economic development, they may also face challenges such as inefficiency and corruption. It is important for governments to strike a balance between the benefits of state ownership and the need for competition and innovation in order to ensure the success and sustainability of nationalized enterprises.。

企业文化【外文翻译】

外文翻译原文：Corporate cultureWhen studying corporate culture in the sense of shared beliefs and values, it is important to distinguish two dimensions. The first dimension is the strength of the culture, that is, the degree to which these beliefs and values are shared. It is this cultural strength that has been the focus of this article and that has also received the most attention in the literature on corporate culture.But—whereas cultural strength has an impact on firm performance— it is the second dimension which often seems to have the larger impact on firm performance: the content of the culture, that is, what these people believe and value. In what follows, I now consider this article’s implications for the content of corporate culture. I show, in particular, that the manager has an important influence on the content of her firm’s culture and that a firm’s culture tends to persist over time, even when all original members of the firm have left. The working paper Van den Steen (2004) also shows why different firms may develop different cultures and why cultures may be suboptimal even when firms have unlimited opportunity to learn from experience.The manager’s influence on culture. To capture the content dimension of “co rporate culture as shared belief s,” I would like to define a firm’s culture to be that course of action on which most employees agree as the best course of action (at the point in time when they have to choose an action). With a finite number of employees, however, such action may not exist. I will therefore formally define a course of action a c to be the firm’s culture if the probability—over the distribution of employee beliefs—that two employees agree on a c as the best course of action is higher than the probability that they agree on any other particular action. As the number of employees goes to infinity, this definition almost surely coincides with the action on which most employees agree as the best course of action.My first result is then that a firm’s culture is influenced by its manager’s beliefs.I will show in particular that—under reasonable conditions—the manager’s action a˜M is more likely than any other action to become the firm’s culture (i.e., the belief most likely to be shared). In the screening model, this is trivial because the manager screens according to her prior beliefs. The interesting result here is that it also holds in the pure learning model (if G = F,a condition to which I return after the proposition). This is actually somewhat surprising: the manager’s beliefs are drawn completely independent of the employ ees’ beliefs and of the true underlying return. At first sight, there is thus really no reason to expect that the fact that the manager chooses about which actions employees learn has any influence on what actions the employees consider best. The result here, however, says essentially that forced learning makes you more likely to settle on that action. Note that, in contrast to earlier results which all related to the strength of culture, this result is indeed about the content of culture.A second implication of the article is that such appointment of a new CEO with different beliefs will lead to turnover, through both selection and self-sorting. Whereas there are many informal and case-based stories along these lines, there is also some more systematic evidence for this prediction. In particular, Hayes, Oyer, and Schaefer (2006) show that the likelihood of top management turnover increases markedly around times of CEO turnover.Persistence over time. A closely related phenomenon is the persistence of that culture over time, even when all original members of the organization are gone. This phenomenon is one of the things that make organizational culture so intriguing: it is as if culture exists independent of the people in the organization, as if the organization itself has some personality or identity. I will now show that culture is indeed persistent in the models of this article.Persistence is straightforward in an overlapping-generations extension of the screening model: managers hire employees in their own image, who on their turn hire the next generation in the same image, and so forth. More interesting is again the result that persistence also obtains in the pure learning model, through manager-forced learning. Consider, in particular, two generations of the learning model of Section 3with N ≥2. Assume that one of the employees of the first generation becomes the manager in the second generation (and the employees of the second generation are new draws from L).I will show that, under reasonable conditions, second-generation employees are more likely to agree on a˜M(1) as the best action than on any other action. In fact, this result also holds after an arbitrary number of generations in an overlapping-generations model where individuals are employees in their first period, and managers in their second period, and then leave: the n th- generation employees are more likely to agree on the very first manager’s action choice than on any other action.This result is quite remarkable, given that the first-generation manager’s prior is completely independent of the underlying performance and other play ers’ priors, and given that the second- generation employees never overlapped with the first-generation manager. It shows how a player’s actions can be systematically influenced by forced learning, that is, by exposing the player to experiments chosen by someone else.Source: RAND Journal of Economics Vol. 41, No. 4, Winter 2010 pp. 617–648译文：企业文化当研究企业文化在共同的信仰和价值观的意义时，重要的是区分两个层面。

企业文化中英文对照外文翻译文献

企业文化中英文对照外文翻译文献企业文化中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The Corporate Culture Rebuilding of E-business With the development of large-scale e-business, The E-commerce culture comes into being. It is an enterprise that produces a new value. The new integration of internal resources of the enterprises, which reduces transaction costs and improves efficiency. And it can short the cycle of production, and get many other benefits. Also it challenges on the existing corporate culture. The rise of e-commerce is a means of rapid development of technology that leads business models change. The survival of traditional economic activities, the means of operation and the management mechanisms have changed completely. The traditional corporate culture also faces a big strike.First, the Contribution to the Enterprise Value of Corporate CultureCultural phenomenon is a symbol of civilized country and a major witness of the nation. Broader culture includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and every person as a member of the social to obtain ability and habit, including the complex whole. The survival and development of the enterprise plays an important role as a "sub culture" of the corporate culture. Corporate culture is the product of a market economy and commodity economy, embodying the objective laws of market economy. It reflects the company's competitive practices, competitive spirit and overall image. The enterprise culture is the company's management philosophy, enterprises face in whichthe social and business environment in the long-term production of business activities. And it gets all employees accept and agree to honor, which fights for a set of informal rules of success. It shows a kind of management philosophy and business practice to achieve through what kind of target. It is an important part of economic management. Corporate culture means a company's value, and these values become a norm of behavior of employees’ activities.How to increase profits, reduce costs and expenses is the origin of the corporate culture. Its meaning is how to enable enterprises to effectively integrate resources in order to achieve external flexibility and realize sustainable development in the competition. Corporate culture for the enterprises to develop cultural managementindicates a clear direction. The foreign competition environment for building highly adaptable and responding quickly to change is the final purpose of enterprise culture, according to environmental behavior capacities, which in fact is the company, owned by the external competitive environment by the needs of internal resources the ability to integrate and use. Corporate culture should promote the formation of the capacity of the system and maintain a good system. Many Chinese companies, for example, Haier, Lenovo, and so on, the secret of enterprise success is to develop a set of corporate and business philosophy that forms its own unique corporate culture.1, the corporate culture reflects the company's image and spirit. Establishing a good corporate image needs support of Modern business, from leadership to staff quality, from product quality to management facilities, from the environment to the product development, infiltrating cultural factors, and allreflecting the corporate image. Good corporate image (the "goodwill") is an intangible wealth and assets to display the "brand effect", which wins the social and public support, in line with modern public relations and marketing theory. From the modern management theory, it reflects the spirit of enterprise groups and the ideal goal, showing the direction of development of enterprises and business purposes. It is on behalf of the company's future prospects; so that every member company can voluntarily contribute to the achievement of organizational goals, from the enterprises in the fierce competition in technology press "beautiful and fragrant flowers."2, the corporate culture as in the business as a new management theory to play an extremely rebuilding role.First, creating a environment for flexible coordination of business operations, the corporate social systems as a subsystem, continuously with the surrounding environment material, energy and information exchange, social environment is relatively more objective. And enterprises need to adapt to environmental changes, researching the laws and requirements of environmental change, a clear tendency of economic development compatible with the social needs and potential demand, which improve the enterprise's various weaknesses and adjust to business strategy, creating a new corporate culture, and environment interaction to achieve dynamic balance that creates a cycle of market environment, promoting the restructuring of joint-stock company into the future state of healthy function.Second, it is conducive to the formation of the values of their all operation. The development of corporate culture as the underlying motivation, its values is the core of corporate culture.And it is a business organization and the basic concepts and beliefs. For enterprises, the core task is how the market to survive and provide consumers with appropriate products and services. The core mission of business does not automatically guarantee a corporate member with a common objective. Values established by the company code of conduct for employees defined in an extremely successful and the objective pursuit.Third, it helps to improve the all quality and foster corporation. The composition of the corporate culture includes ideology, culture, technology, culture, management culture, quality culture and entertainment culture. On the one hand, the culture of integration promotes the improvement of the quality of the entire staff. Because the influence of a common culture, the formation of a common awareness and behavior-oriented preserves and maintains the unity, cooperation, the harmony between employee relations, the objective to strengthen the unity, the overall development of the performance.3, the business culture is a kind of meaning. It is different from the surrounding environment of the enterprise as a system. Its internal mechanisms of the coordinated operation of the corporate culture can not be separated. On the one hand, a direct effect on corporate culture, employee code of conduct, professional ethics and clip point, nurture and develop the corporate culture, which improves the cohesion and solidarity, increasing employee’s satisfaction, sense of identity and belonging. On the other hand, the corporate culture of the major decisions of business, the company's long-term goals and strategies as well as the implementation of rules and regulations have not be underestimated.Second, the Building of Corporate Culture, the Need forChangeIn the 21st century, the enterprise culture of Chinese business faces multiple challenges: the arrival of knowledge economy, the corporate culture, the question ofhow to enhance the value of knowledge, knowledge workers how to deal with new issues; market-oriented reform, making the planned economy era the formation of corporate culture and old ways, old routines often fail; and the rise of network technology, but also for the birth of a new corporate culture provides a weapon. Sentence: mechanism changed, times have changed, technology has changed, so many companies are faced with reshaping corporate culture. Gerstner saved Big Blue, the first is to explicitly change the corporate culture of IBM's basic values, the creation of IBM's culture, which is "strive to win (Win)" "fast execution (Execute)" and "team spirit (Team) ". Gerstner said, " as IBM's leaders, of course you need to lead the planning and specific projects, but your responsibilities also include leading the staff, the establishment of work teams, and the creation of high-performance corporate culture." GE Jack Welch, former CEO also said: "Our vitality curve is able to function effectively, because we spent a decade in our enterprise to establish a performance culture."From our point of view of corporate culture development status, can only say that the end is still in a relatively level, the "corporate culture strategy" did not receive due attention, the cultivation of corporate culture, lack of guidance systems theory, corporate culture, most of the traditional culture in the enterprise the epitome of such enterprises often lack vitality, dead, suffering from a lack of excellent sense, may be severe centrifugal serious. Overall there are more defects in our corporate culturephenomenon with error, our corporate culture common errors are:1, the phenomenon of cultural obscurantism. Such phenomenon is common in those autocratic leaders or operational problems of the enterprise. Performance of the leaders of the extreme stress on certain cultural values, education and means to promote radical. It is because the causes of most of the leaders hope to achieve within the enterprise.2, no cultural phenomenon. Usually presents companies have a very strict system and the various rules and regulations. The system provides for employees to do and not do, but there is no clear cultural ideas and values advocate, neglect of education and training of employees. Such phenomena generate up to industrial manufacturingcompanies, most of the causes of quality is not high because the leaders themselves, or lack of understanding of corporate culture. Or want to cover up some kind of cult of the individual facts. Such enterprises are usually easy to produce leaders of the blind worship or silent on the situation.3, the ideal culture phenomenon. It is common in those with young people as the main force of the emerging entrepreneurial companies. Manifestations of these companies will make some unrealistic ambitions and cultural ideals, its advocacy of the concept will be a kind of beyond the enterprise to transform the world's sense of mission. "Great and empty," the slogan of the people beyond the reach; grand, lofty goals often lack a unified real objective basis. Most of the causes of such phenomena is that leaders have too lofty ideals and the lack of work basket for fruits of the spirit. Performance of the majority of such employees are passionate emotion, but may have overlooked the immediatesituation and today what to do evil.In addition, many corporate culture inhibits the human personality, in the enterprise is only concerned about people's "collective", denied the people's imagination and creativity, produced under the concept of small-scale production of "collectivism", it is difficult to form business cohesion.Now the competition is intense, and survival of the fittest as the new rules of the game, our company's corporate culture than the United States, Japan has lagged behind many, if not catch up now, defeat in the competition will be inevitable. Therefore, the new corporate culture and change the shape of a project is China's enterprises not wait for new topics.Third, the age of electronic commerce to shape and change our corporate culture, the idea of1, analysis of internal and external factors, refined culture and a culture of innovation speedIn the era of e-commerce business to choose what kind of a core value is to create the most important issue of corporate culture. Information economy is the "speed economy", the speed has become a tool to improve competitiveness. The emergence of the Internet makes the world changes faster and faster, can be described by leapsand bounds. Internet-based e-commerce can thus quickly understand market information, quickly and easily collect customer needs, extensive product information, complete the online transactions in real-time settlement, a large number of business activities can be instantaneous, the production efficiency has been greatly to improve. In short, information technology and network technology makes extensive use of e-commerce enterprises to enter the market, the threshold can begreatly reduced. Now the world is talking about innovation, because in today's economic environment, the only constant rule is everything is changing. In this regard, any organization or business if you do not always change and innovation, it is impossible to maintain their competitive advantage. "No innovation, on the death", innovation has become a corporate existence and development of important, and that only through its own innovation and certainty in order to deal with the uncertainty of rapid change. In the information context, the role of innovation has been an unprecedented strengthening, and sublimated into a social theme. In the age of electronic commerce, innovation has become the source of the vitality of enterprises, the traditional production scale, cost advantages and other factors will not decide the future, companies only through continuous innovation to survival and development. Conservative and conservative, is simply not in the fierce market competition based on the enterprise in the future in order to have a place in the global competition, we must break through the traditional idea of imprisonment and mindset, bold innovation, firmly grasp the ever-changing business opportunities.2, new ideas, to shape employee behavior.Shaping the behavior of employees is a corporate culture an important part. For those who play the leading role in e-commerce companies, the most is neither a shortage of raw materials, nor money; neither the technology nor the emerging markets, but lack of talent. The twinkling of an eye and talent for the future to plug the wings of imagination. ? McKinsey & Company, president of the United States Ed Michaels said: "is not difficult to raise funds, a smart business strategy can be imitated.Technology half-life has been shortened for many of today's companies, talent is the primary competitive advantage factor. " Today, managers realize that in today'seconomic globalization, e-commerce and network speed of the global market, ownership of talent from the established elite business decisions quickly is critical. E-commerce businesses depend on employees' ingenuity and initiative to make closer to consumers, the decision to market faster response.E-commerce, focusing on service, but electronic means. E-commerce can also be said of electronic services, the Internet to the service of humanity, the core service is not technology, but the corporate culture, quality of the staff; Internet economy is the service economy, rather than the technical and economic, the network platform for consumer transactions, environment is not a merchandise display; manufacturers not simply suppliers or vendors, but service providers, who have better service than anyone else, who earn more money.In the new e-commerce environment, the most successful companies in the past only to give new employees to enjoy the respect of customers: their equality through the creation of an elite management system to meet the employees engaged in meaningful work and the desire to create wealth. They generously reward employees for good performance, not just cash, but also allow them to have ownership of enterprises, 3, the leader personally, keep valuesIn decision-making behavior in e-commerce businesses, innovation is very important. First, the organizational structure to be from the original pyramid, top-down, hierarchical control structure of the network to the new organizational structure transformation. Second, the management focus from capitalmanagement to knowledge management. Knowledge management is the use of collective wisdom to improve responsiveness and innovation. Third, the new management ideas and methods are emerging. In the information age and network conditions, the new economy and created many new management ideas and management methods, such as flexible manufacturing, distributed manufacturing, agile manufacturing, business process reengineering, learning organizations, manufacturing resource planning and other new ideas and new methods .The founder of e-business and business operations will encounter variousunexpected difficulties and frustrations: such as financial risk, trading risk, and increasingly competitive market, if subjected to any eventuality, no toughness will completely collapse. Therefore, entrepreneurs should be afraid of failure, afraid of setbacks and indomitable courage, devotion to the cause should be, afraid of risk, risk-taking spirit.电子商务企业文化重建随着网络时代电子商务大规模发展，电子商务企业文化随之产生，它在一个企业产生一种新的价值观，使企业内部资源得到从新整合，在为企业降低交易成本，提高效率，缩短生产周期等诸多好处的同时，也对已有的企业文化发起了挑战。

企业门户网站中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Corporate portal: a tool for knowledge managementsynchronizationAbstractAs the basis of value creation and success of organizations increasingly depends on the leverage of knowledge available internally, knowledge management systems(KMS)are emerging as vital tools for competitive advantage. Among these KMS, corporate portals present the potential of providing organizations with a rich and complex shared information workspace for the generation, exchange, and use of knowledge. But developing corporate portals and building the critical mass of users required to make them successful is not an easy task. In this paper, drawing upon theliterature review and an analysis of early adopters of corporate portals, we address the strength of this tool which consists mainly in synchronizing and supporting knowledge processes, put the emphasis on factors inhibiting its adoption by companies and finally propose some perspectives for a successful implementation.1.IntroductionThe widespread adoption of networks and information technology has vas tly increased our ability to store, transfer and generate knowledge, enabling a nd accelerating the emergence of an economic, organizational and technologic al landscape, that is knowledge-based(Schwartz, Eamonn,&Boyer,1999;Romano, Elia,&Passiante,2001).This perspective builds upon and extends the resource-ba sed view(RBV)of the firm initially promoted by Penrose(1959)and expanded b y others(Barney,1986;Chandler,1992;Prahalad&Hamel,1990;Teece,Pisano,&Shuen, 1997).The premise of the RBV is that organizations employ a mix of acquisit ion and configuration of resources to change how their business is accomplish ed. Knowledge is often the basis for the effective utilization of many importa nt resources. In this context, Information and Communication technologies ma y play an important role in effectuating the knowledge-based view of the fir m by enhancing the firm’s capability to manage the knowledge it possesses. This awareness is one of the main reasons for the exponential growth of kno wledge management systems(KMS).KMS are technologies that support knowle dge management in organizations, specifically, knowledge generation, codificati on, and transfer(Ruggles,1997).In fact, a 2000 survey conducted by KPMG sh ows that the use of KMS is common in organizations worldwide and has nu merous benefits(KPMG,2000).However, despite the potential benefits from KM S, the report also finds that companies were experiencing difficulties in effect ively using these technologies. To address this issue, this paper focuses on a particular type of KMS, which is corporate portal, that presents the potential of providing organizations with a rich and complex shared information works pace for the generation, exchange, and use of knowledge. Building upon a lar ge literature review, insights from eight case studies of early adopters and ourown experience in dealing with some aspects of the implementation phase of STMicroelectronics portal, we address the strengths of this tool which consist mainly in supporting knowledge development phases and focus on challenges and problems that organizations may face during its implementation.The paper is organized as follows: Section 1 presents a review on knowledge, knowledge management processes and systems. The following section focuses on a particular tool of KMS, that is the corporate portal; we present a comprehensive view of definitions and characteristics of this tool based on a comparative analysis of eight case studies in order to identify the potential role of corporate portal features in the various stages of the knowledge management processes. We then focus on the major barriers limiting its adoption and use by organizations. In the final section, building on the factors identified, we provide some perspectives for a successful implementation.2.Knowledge management processes and systemsBefore focusing on portals as KMS, its necessary to define knowledge and knowledge management processes.2.1.Knowledge definitionsMultiple definitions of knowledge have been proposed in the literature, and debates about this concept have been expressed from a variety of perspectives and positions. In fact, ever since the ancient Greek period ,the quest of philosophy has been to find what knowledge is. Early thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle were followed by Hobbes and Locke to name just a few of the more prominent western philosophers. It seems we have no choice but to return to the question that has kept philosophers occupied for thousands of years. However, we should not approach it from a philosophical perspective. As observed by Alavi and Leidner(2001),the knowledge-based theory of the firm was never built on a universal truth of what knowledge really is but on a pragmatic interest in being able to manage organisational knowledge. In recent years, we have witnessed a booming interest in knowledge also from other disciplines. Mainly two perspectives are dominant, an Information Technology view and a Strategic management view. While the IT viewmakes the distinction between data, information and knowledge, and considers the ambiguity existing between these three concepts, the strategic management perspective views knowledge as a state of mind, a capability or a process. In fact, data is mainly considered as raw numbers that once processed becomes information, and when put in specific context this information becomes knowledge(Vance,1997).Whereas, the perspective of knowledge as a state of mind posits that individuals expand their personal knowledge through the inputs received from their environment. Further, the view of knowledge as a capability to act suggests that it is not the specific actions of knowledge ‘‘per se’’, but the ability to interpret and use information and experience that influences decisions(Watson,1999). Finally knowledge as a process, focuses on applying expertise, i.e. simultaneously knowing and acting(Zack,1999).In this article, we emphasize the view of knowledge as a ‘‘capability to act effectively ’’.Knowledge is seen as a justified personal belief that increases an individual’s capacity to take effective action. Knowledge management in this view is best understood by considering knowledge management as the systemic and organizationally specified process of acquiring, organizing and communicating knowledge of employees so that other employees may make use of it to be more effective and productive in their work(Alavi&Leidner,1999).2.2.Knowledge processesWe can describe knowledge management life cycle as an iterative sequence of activities (Nissen, 2000).Building upon this notion, we outlined from knowledge management frameworks, key elements of several life cycle models.Several key points emerge from our review of the analyzed knowledge management frameworks:(1)There is no single or commonly accepted definition of what constitutes a knowledge management framework.(2)There are many concepts that are similar in the frameworks analyzed, but their ordering or structure varies.For example, while the majority of the frameworks refer to the first phase as knowledge creation, Davenport and Prusak use the term generate knowledge,whereas Van der Spek and Spijkervet title this analogous phase knowledge development. In general, the different frameworks proposed share considerable similarities. Most of the life cycles are articulated in four phases where the first one is a ‘‘create’’ phase. The second phase corresponds to the organization of knowledge. Phase three uses different term across the models, but they all address some mechanism for making knowledge formal. Finally, the fourth phase concerns the ability to share and use knowledge in the enterprise. Therefore, in this article, the knowledge development cycle is defined as the process of knowledge generation, knowledge storage, knowledge distribution and knowledge application. A detailed definition of these processes will be presented when linking them with the different tools of the corporate portal that support them.3.Portals support for knowledge management processes3.1.Portal definitionsPortals enable e-business by providing a unified application access, information management and knowledge management both within enterprises, and between enterprises and their trading partners, channel partner and customers(Gartner Group,1998).From this definition, we can distinguish two types of corporate portals: extranet portals which provide depth content rather than breadth of content, offer special advantages for business-to-business, e-commerce because they can provide something closer to a solution; and enterprise intranet portals that support knowledge management and internal communications and they are emerging as home bases for employees. In this article, we will focus on the second type of portals. A portal can be viewed as away to access disseminated information within a company since information chunks can be stored in various systems using different formats. One of the major differences between a traditional web site and a portal resides in the fact that the portal is usually tailored according to the user s’ need. A portal is consequently, a single point of access to Internet resources, an integration platform focusing on unification oriented towards the business processes of the company. Therefore, portals synchronize knowledge and applications, creating a single view into the organization’s intellectual capital. Portals have seen anevolutionary approach, the first ones were search engines, that evolved by integrating a variety of services such as virtual communities, real time chat, i.e. the best example in this category is Yahoo; Today the term is used widely to describe many different types of products with different purposes. The terms Employees Portals, Enterprise Intranet Portals, Corporate Portals, Business-to- Employees Portals and Business-to-Employees Systems are sometimes used interchangeably as synonyms to refer to the category of portals, which aim at providing employees with in-time relevant information they need to perform their duties and make efficient business decisions.4.Perspectives for a successful implementationBased upon the earlier analysis, we can offer some perspectives in order to define, implement and execute effective corporate portals.mitment and support of the CEOMany authors suggest that leadership commitment is a key challenge for the success of any knowledge management initiative(Nonaka&Takeuchi,1995).If management spends a significant amount of resources on either purchasing or developing and implementing such technology, employees could interpret this as a sign of management’s support for this ideal, and act accordingly. However, as Martinsons(1991)acknowledges, if employees perceive that management is not very committed to implementing this new technology, then the initiative to promote a strong knowledge sharing culture is not likely to be successful.4.2.Motivation and commitment for adoption of these technologiesUnderstanding what motivates people to apply their expertise is key to avoiding the trap of building technology marvels that no one uses. Frequently, a critical mass of employees end up not using the applications because they are not convinced the applications will benefit them. Managers should not assume that they know what employees want. They must research the needs and latent dissatisfactions of their employees, much as they do those of their customers and then create a compelling offering that encourages employees to use the new online tools.4.3.Linking knowledge and business processesIt has become largely agreed that knowledge management activities should be integrated within day-to-day business processes to ensure continual process improvement and facilitate learning and the gradual development of ‘‘organizational memory’’. The portal should present an ideal environment to integrate the business process aspects with knowledge processes and actively supports the worker in using and adding to knowledge resources by establishing standards for information collection, processing, and presentation.rmation sharing cultureIt is the culture of the organization that supports or impedes knowledge creation and transference both internally and to its customers. Therefore, rather than just encouraging or mandating knowledge sharing, fostering the motivation to share knowledge must precede it.4.5.Learning from failuresCompanies must review their successes and failures, assess them systematically, and record the lessons in form that employees find accessible. Many companies like Microsoft, are following this process of identifying and transferring Internal Best practices. This process is referred as the “Santayana Review’’, citing the philosopher George Santayana, who coined the phrase, ‘‘those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it’’(Garvin,1994).4.6.Immaterial incentivesIn line with Malhotra(2002),we consider that, design of incentives must consider that institutional controls as well as some monetary rewards and incentives are inadequate and do not necessarily ensure desired knowledge sharing behaviors. Instead they can be replaced by immaterial incentives and recognition. Companies should champion the new ethics and values that are at the heart of a knowledge-based enterprise. At the core of this new understanding lies a very simple ethic that Verna Allee calls the principle of fair e xchange: ‘‘Do people feel that they are being treated fairly for the intelligence, creativity innovation, experience and passion they bring to their work’’.5.ConclusionThis article, based on an analysis of eight case studies of early adopters of corporate portal, focused mainly on the benefits and challenges presented by this tool. Corporate portals seem to present the potential of providing organizations with a rich and complex shared information workspace for the generation, exchange, and use of knowledge. They synchronize knowledge and applications, creating a single view into the organization’s intellectual capital. But developing corporate portals and building the critical mass of users required to make them successful is not an easy task. Given the risk that corporate portals fail to deliver the expected benefits, an important task for knowledge management research is to contribute knowledge that will support researchers and practitioners in their efforts to successfully develop and implement corporate portals. This article contributes to this stream of research by studying potential barriers in portal’s implementation and suggesting some perspectives for a successful implementation.译文:企业门户网站：知识管理的同步工具摘要由于价值创造基础和组织成功越来越依赖内部可用的知识杠杆作用，知识管理系统（KMS）从而称为竞争优势的重要工具。

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国有企业知识创造外文翻译中英文英文Knowledge creation in state-owned enterprisesMatteo LandoniAbstractThe understanding of knowledge creation in state-owned enterprises (SOEs) is a rising issue in the academic debate and in the political agenda; still, there is a lack of a comprehensive theory despite the number of research published so far. This paper offers a novel theoretical framework for knowledge creation in SOEs by the study of innovation in SOEs from the perspective of the theory of the entrepreneurial firm and the theory of knowledge management, which together provide new insights that explain the factors that enable innovation in SOEs. These factors are managerial autonomy and government coordination. The theoretical development is important because considers SOEs as both firms and public entities, a double nature that combines the advantages of state-ownership and corporate governance. The theoretical contribution provides support to the increasing academic attention on the entrepreneurial state and the rise of SOEs as innovative actors.Keywords: Innovation, Knowledge creation, Knowledge management, State-owned enterprises, Entrepreneurial state, State capitalism1. IntroductionState-owned enterprises (SOEs) have a relevant role in the economy worldwide (Florio, 2014). Despite decades of privations, SOEs still account for a large part of industrial outputs and assets, around 10% of global GDP and around 20% of global market capitalization (Bruton et al., 2015; Tõnurist and Karo, 2016), and their number is constantly increasing; in contrast with public perception, states around the world have acquired more firms assets than sold (Borisova et al., 2015).Despite the attention of scholars has turned towards SOEs given their importance for the economy, their contribution to innovation has been underestimated for a long time. Only recently, a few studies have investigated their innovative role and recognized SOEs for their historical role in support of technological industries (forexample in Italy and South Korea. Cardinale, 2018: 4). Still, however, the reason of the increasing attention on SOEs is in most cases due to their role in the development of emerging economies (Ralston et al., 2006; Musacchio and Lazzarini, 2014; Stan et al., 2014), and particularly in China, where SOEs play a pivotal role in the innovation process.This paper looks at the process of knowledge creation in SOEs and contributes to the current debate with a framework concerning how state-ownership affects innovation in enterprises. The paper argues that innovation in SOEs is different than in private firms as well as other public entities, e.g. universities. SOEs differs from private firms because of their long-term perspective, public-nature, appreciation of externalities increasing social benefit, and relationship with the government; at the same time, SOEs differ from other public institutions for their corporate structure and market competition constraints. Therefore, it is misleading to simply compare the respective innovation efficiencies, for example in terms of outputs such as patents. Instead, the paper contributes to the theory of innovation and the debate on the state fostering innovation offering a comprehensive framework to evaluate and formulate innovation policies. The framework consists in two factors enabling innovation in SOEs, and these factors are the autonomy of the management and coordination with the government. The paper extensively reviews the issue in the literature and proposes a novel theoretical foundation for knowledge-creation in SOEs by the matching of the theory of the firm and the economy of knowledge.The research question that concerns innovation in SOEs deals with which factors allow for the creation of knowledge that makes SOEs unique and incomparable innovators able to acquire, exploit, combine, and ultimately create new knowledge. The contribution of the paper to the theory of knowledge creation is the view of SOEs the only innovators that combine the governance of knowledge of firms with the public mission orientation of the state.First, what distinguishes SOEs from any other private firm is the ownership structure that includes the government as a shareholder, either majority or minority owner (Musacchio and Lazzarini, 2014; Peng et al., 2016). The share of ownershipdefines also the commitment of state, for example, whether its position is dominant (Benito et al., 2016; Estrin et al., 2016; Cuervo-Cazurra et al., 2014). The nature of the shareholders is not the only difference that matters; it is more relevant that SOEs exist for the good of both the industrial policy and the social interest (Landoni, 2018). The two mutually reinforce when the social interest of the government is to spur and diffuse innovation. While governments’ pressure to develop informatio n may target both public and private firms, SOEs are more prone to fulfill them due to a greater involvement with government goals and institutional prescriptions (Aldrich and Fiol, 1994; Baum and Oliver, 1991; Bichler and Schmidkonz, 2012; Tõnurist, 2015; Wang et al., 2012).Second, SOEs diverge from any other research and development entity of the public sector, such as public universities and research centres. The public sector is that section of the economy controlled by the state and it comprises all the publicly funded and controlled agencies, enterprises, and organizations that deliver public programs, goods, or services. Among the entities of the public sectors are universities, hospitals, and the like. The role of the public sector is unique to bring to society education, healthcare, law and police enforcement, transportation, welfare, and other government-related services. Despite the importance of the public sector worldwide, it is currently under pressure both from the governments that need to reduce budget expenditures and the societies’ changing issues such as aging, pollution, and the like (Tizard, 2012). The public sector needs to face the current transformation and provide new ways to deliver services. Knowledge management in the public sector is indeed essential for the delivering of policies that aim at the public good (Wiig, 2002; Riege and Linsday, 2006). Nevertheless, the public sector is a specific context and cannot simply import private sector techniques (Massaro et al., 2015). It must develop its knowledge management strategy.Several studies have explored knowledge management in the public sectors, showing the influence in education (Elia et al., 2017), healthcare (Cegarra-Navarro et al., 2012; Cruz-Cunha et al., 2013), police and military sector (Eppler and Pfister, 2014), and public transport (Cairo et al., 2015). However,knowledge management studies in the public sector have left SOEs behind. A recent literature review on the topic found that only 3% of the studies concerning knowledge management in the public sector have a focus on SOEs (Massaro et al., 2015: 535).Quick web research for journal articles on the topic brings in even a more clear result. Searching on Scopus2 for articles that include “public enterprises” and “knowledge management” in the title, abstract, and keywords, the query returned only two results, namely conference proceedings around ten years old (2008 and 2011 respectively). The same research strategy for “state-owned enterprises” and “knowledge management” returned 23 results. Similarly, “public enterprises” and “innovation” returned just 35 articles, while “state-owned enterprises” and “innovation” produced 169 results. For a comparison, (any) “enterprises” and “innovation” returned 13,867 articles and almost seven thousand conference papers.It looks like innovation and knowledge creation is missing in SOEs. This paper tries to fill this gap. It contends that innovative SOEs are other than regular firms and argues that SOEs differ from any other public sector entity because they combine the mechanism of governance of firms with state-ownership. For this reason, SOEs can apply knowledge management within the public sectors like any other public entities can do.This study explores the theories of the firm and knowledge management to develop a novel theoretical perspective on innovation in SOEs. Two factors explain innovation in SOEs. These factors derive from the corporate governance of firms together with a publicly supported mission and are found in the managerial autonomy and coordination with the government. Their combination allows SOEs to enjoy managerial efficiency in terms of allocation of resources together with a long-term vision, patient capital, and synergy with the government policies.2. Theoretical background: a review of innovation in SOEs2.1. State-owned enterprises and innovationThe nature of state-owned enterprises is exceptional (for a review Daiser et al., 2017). There is no consensus on the economic rationalities of SOEs. The classic works of Arrow (1951, 1962) and Debreu (1959) point to the underinvestment ofprivate firms in technologies with public and social spill-overs for their low value and uncertain returns. Of course, public authorities can and do support knowledge creation by the means of universities and public research centres; however, concerning the diffusion and the commercial valorisation of technologies, enterprises arise to deal with uncertainty and coordination related to the use of market mechanisms and resources allocation, as in the perspective of Coase (1937)and Romer (1990).Similarly, the efficiency of SOEs is also disputed. Several scholars associate government ownership to inefficient corporate governance (Eckel and Vermaelen, 1986; Boardman and Vining, 1989; Chen et al., 2008; Borisova et al., 2012). A review of studies on the privatization of SOEs (Megginson and Netter, 2001) found lower performance compared to private firms. Estrin et al. (2009)confirmed the negative effect of transition economies. One reason relates to the fact that SOEs are prone to fulfill more administrative rather than economic principles (Shleifer and Vishny, 1994; Shleifer, 1998; Ramamurti, 2000; Freund, 2001; Ramaswamy, 2001). Another reason lies in the opportunism of managers to gain political support (Khwaja and Mian, 2005; Cheung et al., 2009; Jiang et al., 2010) or in little incentives for risk-taking decisions and a preference for short-term and political goals (Shleifer, 1998) and a higher cost of equity (Boubakri, and Cosset, 2012; Kahan and Rock, 2010, 2013). Furthermore, some attribute poor monitoring of managers, corruptions, market indiscipline, and political interference to state-ownership (Belloc, 2014: 824), as well asThe common view on SOEs changed over time. SOEs are now considered as dynamic actors more than a relic of the past (Ralston et al., 2006; Musacchio and Lazzarini, 2014; Stan et al., 2014). For example, government ownership may relax budget constraints and allow for long-term investments that lower the cost of capital, reduce financial constraints, and allow for larger and longer investment in R&D (Bortolotti et al., 2018). Several scholars (O'Hara and Shaw, 1990; Faccio et al., 2006; Borisova and Megginson, 2011; Iannotta et al., 2013; Borisova et al., 2015; Acharya et al., 2016) found government ownership to provide implicit debt guarantees and access to public funds (e.g. state-owned banks. Lazzarini et al.,2015; Bacchiocchi et al., 2017). Similarly, recent contributions relate the long-term orientation of the state to greater innovation in SOEs (Munari et al., 2010; Choi et al., 2011). The linkages with the government consist of a stronger obligation to meet policy goals, which include a greater commitment to innovation (Li et al., 2018).The relationship of SOEs with the government is undergoing a process of corporatization. Initially, they were servant of the state, adopting the same organizational goals (Amayah, 2013: 456); then, they gradually developed their own internal competencies and assured their financial sustainability, loosening their ties with the government (Sexty, 1980; Hafsi et al., 1987; Lioukas et al., 1993). With the decrease of government control, SOEs gain entrepreneurial autonomy (Rentsch and Finger, 2015). The renovated tendency to pursue market goals is particularly relevant in the middle management of SOEs (Guo et al., 2017).Innovation studies look at SOEs as instruments of innovation policy; for example, SOEs have been excellent sources of knowledge spill-overs (Antonelli et al., 2014), and provide an institutional setting that combines private incentives and risk-taking behavior with public incentives and long-term orientation (Tõnurist and Karo, 2016). The last is supposed to fix –at least partially– the failures of the market (for a review see Martin and Scott, 2000).The role of the public sector – including SOEs – towards innovation has been at best underestimated, at worst misjudged (Meissner et al., 2017). SOEs experience an increasing pressure to promote growth due to their importance in the world economy, firstly by undertaking “an active role in generating and implementing innovation” (Meissner et al., 2019: 121).Empirical research on innovation outcomes has not disentangled these opposing views. The effects of state-ownership on the innovation effort of firms are ambivalent (Zhou et al., 2017). The analysis of resource allocation to R&D and its efficiency gives mixed results; SOEs allocate more resources, while the outcome is greater for private firms, i.e. amount of patents (Munari and Oriani 2005; Munari et al., 2002; Munari and Sobrero 2003). While the effect of SOEs on innovation is unclear (Choi et al., 2011; Ren et al., 2005), the role of the state as a shareholder in promotinginnovative activities is documented (Mahmood and Rufin, 2005). Very recently, Yi et al. (2017) explored a sample of more than 190 thousand Chinese firms and found a positive moderating effect of state-ownership on R&D intensity and innovation. Their result confirms other studies (Wang et al., 2015; Kafouros et al., 2015) on the positive role of state-ownership in the innovation process. An analysis of more than five thousands European firms (3808 private firms and 1363 SOEs) from 1999 to 2016 found that a government shareholder is significantly associated with greater R&D expenditure (5.55% increase in R&D investment), confirming a cheaper access to funds, but simultaneously a reduction in patents’ production, measured as patents per dollar invested (Bortolotti et al., 2018). While the first result is partially explained by the larger average size of SOEs compared to private firms, the second may relate to the public scope of R&D activities in SOES. For the same reason, it would be misleading to compare the value (for example by measuring the stock price reaction as in Kogan et al., 2017) of private firms’ and SOEs’ patents.The innovation performance of an enterprise is enhanced by both its government connections and the innovativeness of its economic stakeholders (Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978). Government connections allow enterprises to access resources and information (Cull et al., 2015; Hillman, 2005, 1999; Inoue et al., 2013; Li and Zhang, 2007; Peng and Luo, 2000), which positively impacts innovative strategy and performance (Li and Atuahene-Gima, 2001). Innovation relies on the integration of different sources of knowledge that enterprises develop into capabilities and routines (Grant, 1996).2.2. Knowledge management and innovationGovernments aim at radical innovation targeting complex and uncertain issues (Mazzucato, 2016a), and drive firms’ efforts in direction of societal innovation (Hellström, 2003; Owen et al., 2012; Stilgoe et al., 2013; Mazzucato and Semieniuk, 2017). For this reason, governments need to develop knowledge management strategies to transfer knowledge (Riege and Linsday, 2006: 29) with the aim of novel combination between distant and unrelated technologies (Castaldi et al., 2015). This implies a clear vision and an effective network of partners (Wiig, 2002).The innovation process is the growth of new knowledge (Du Plessis, 2007) as a result of the combination of existing knowledge in novel forms (Arthur, 2009). Knowledge management shows that among all the knowledge processes (i.e. knowledge creation, sharing, acquisition, transfer, and application), knowledge creation has the most beneficial impact on innovation (Andreeva and Kianto, 2011); thus, managers need to develop practices and techniques for acquiring and sharing knowledge from internal and external sources (Darroch and McNaughton, 2002; Hall and Andriani 2002, 2003).Knowledge theory makes clear two fundamental issues. First, innovation needs knowledge that is spread among different actors, often a great amount, and all may contribute significantly to the innovation process (Cassiman and Veugelers, 2006; Metcalfe, 2007). Second, knowledge is not always easy to transfer; it is frequently tacit and embodied in people (Rodan, 2002; Cavusgil et al., 2003; Franken, 2017). The major problem is to make the combination of knowledge effective and efficient.Knowledge management aims at the acquisition, integration, combination, and application of existing internal and external knowledge sources. The combination of knowledge has to overcome the cognitive distances of individuals. When individuals share a common knowledge base, the cognitive distance is lower, making combinations easier (Nooteboom, 2000; Frenken et al., 2007). However, low cognitive distance increases the chances to produce incremental innovation in adjacent fields or related diversification. The match of unrelated technologies and experiences of distant industries is necessary to produce brand new combinations, and in the best case, radical innovation (Darroch and McNaughton, 2002; Castaldi et al., 2015). This has a positive impact on competitive advantage (Bou-Llusar and Segarra-Ciprés, 2006) and product innovation (Darroch and McNaughton, 2002). SOEs have greater access to knowledge thanks to the connections with the government, which strengthens the practices of knowledge exploration (i.e. acquisition), exploitation (i.e. transfer), and creation (Donate and de Pablo, 2015). Yet, too much political influence may hamper knowledge management (Amayah, 2013:456; Gau, 2011: 2).Governments develop innovation policies aiming at the efficient transfer of knowledge. However, generic innovation policies would lead to related innovation, while societal challenges such as climate change, resource scarcity, aging, and the like need more than an incremental solution but society-wide reform and renewal (Mazzucato, 2016a). Governments may form a knowledge-based partnership to fuel innovation in radical directions. Different partnerships can transfer scarce resources between the public and the private sectors, from information exchange to full strategic alliances (Riege and Linsday, 2006: 31). Strategic alliances are based on shared resources that are important for learning and thus enabling knowledge creation, either within the public sector or between the government and the private sector (Parise and Sasson, 2002: 41). Knowledge management is fundamental in the networking process of innovation to align visions and perspectives, manage heterogeneity and distribution of knowledge sources, and balance exploration and exploitation of knowledge (Wu et al., 2010: 574).3. Theory development: knowledge governance in state-owned enterprises3.1. Research purposeThe paper aims to understand which are the factors enabling the process of knowledge creation in SOEs. For this purpose, the paper adopts the conceptual framework of the theory of the firm together with the theory of knowledge. The two theories complete each other to provide a comprehensive understanding of innovation in SOEs. The theory of the firm explains why governments choose enterprises as a governance model of innovation policy over other forms of organization, while the theory of knowledge establishes why state-ownership is important in accessing and nurturing a network of knowledge sources. The development of a theory on the matter is relevant; however, despite an increasing focus on the issue of knowledge in SOEs, there is still not an exhaustive comprehension about the mechanism of knowledge creation (Franken, 2017). Paragraph 3.2 reviews the relevant issues in the theory of the firm and the knowledge theory that concern SOEs; next, paragraph 3.3 matched the two theories to underline the elements at the basis of an innovative theory ofinnovation in SOEs. The further fourth section develops such theoretical elements.3.2. The theory of the firm and knowledge governanceThe nature of the firm explains that firms exist to overcome market inefficiencies (Coase, 1937) being firms an alternative mechanism of resource allocation to the system of price, or the market. Concerning innovation, market failures may hinder the process of knowledge creation due to high costs, uncertainty, and risks connected to a peculiar resource, information. Firms arise then as the ideal governance structure to manage uncertainty and coordinate scarce resources to foster knowledge creation (Williamson, 2002; Foss and Mahoney, 2010).The reason for the rise of firms is that knowledge as a resource presents several difficulties (Chapman and Magnusson, 2006). An organization equipped with a governance mechanism can guide the process of knowledge creation (Andreeva and Kianto, 2012; Lee and Choi, 2003; Gold et al., 2001). The firm, as a hierarchical model of governance, provides the architecture to control the sources of knowledge and to turn them into innovations (Wu et al., 2010: 574). Still, knowledge and profit may diverge. Though information and knowledge are precious resources, they are public goods and their value may spread beyond the boundaries of the firm. Knowledge escapes the price mechanism because of the uncertainty about its externalities. Organization theorists more than the theory of the firm support the rise of a centralized model of governance, i.e. the firm, to govern economic externalities (Simon, 1962). It follows that the creation of knowledge is even more uncertain than the processing of knowledge. A further step from this perspective sees firms as more than knowledge-based organizations, but as knowledge-creating companies (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995).Firms hold knowledge, yet most knowledge is a public good. Private enterprises may be reluctant to invest and bear the risk of an uncertain activity, which might result in basic knowledge of unclear use (Jamasb and Pollitt, 2011; Florio and Sirtori, 2016; Sterlacchini, 2012; Xie, 2012), i.e. knowledge spill-overs that benefit firms that did not cover for the cost and risks of research. A reason is the low-profit expectations in publicly desired innovations. Private firms avoid investments in notmarketable or public-services innovation such as health, infrastructures, and energy efficiency, which property rights are not clear due to their social value (Battistoni et al., 2016; Jamasb and Pollitt, 2008; Picot et al., 2016).Besides the difficulties of private enterprises, two factors support SOEs as a model of knowledge governance. First, governments need knowledge management to address complex issues; yet, they rarely have all the resources to deliver successful public policy (Bridgman and Davis, 2004). Given the difficulties in setting policies, governments may need proper governance structures and cost-effective mechanisms to manage knowledge sources. Second, governments look for a greater commitment to “accountability mechanisms that encourage ethical practices and ensure the implementation of proper pr ocesses” (Riege and Linsday, 2006: 31). Governance structure and accountability are the reasons that explain why governments need SOEs to drive knowledge creation over public universities and research centres that conversely lack both agile structures and accountability practices.3.3. An entrepreneurial theory of the state-owned enterpriseInnovation in firms depends on the governance structure of the enterprise (Belloc, 2012). How the board takes decisions is a matter that involved the different interests of owners and managers. The state is a rather peculiar owner. Essentially, state-ownership offers privileged access to resources and incentives granted by the government (Chang et al., 2006; Luo, 2003; Zhou et al., 2017). For instance, the Chinese government drives R&D funds primarily to SOEs (Sun and Liu, 2014).SOEs combine two factors enabling innovation:, a corporate governance structure and privileged access to resources granted by state ownership. Corporate governance offers a solution to the coordination problem related to the combination of knowledge sources, while state-ownership grants privileged access to resources. Together, they explain the role of SOEs in the innovative process. The public sector increasingly aims at innovation to address complex societal challenges. SOEs should look at strategic knowledge management practices as a coordinating mechanism and as a driver to develop greater innovation (Darroch, 2005; Inkinen 2016). That is especially true for innovative firms that arrange and design capabilities intoinnovation in a world of structural uncertainty (Langlois, 2007).Nevertheless, the guidance of government is neither a sufficient nor a necessary condition for innovation. SOEs must be set free to experiment without the constrictions of a too narrow mission-oriented policy, as well as they must develop collaborations with other entities, including private firms (Mazzucato, 2014: 17). In this respect, two issues are at stake: managerial autonomy and coordinating mechanism within the innovative system.中文国有企业知识创造马特奥·兰多尼摘要在学术研究和政治议程中，对国有企业（SOE）对知识创造的理解是一个日益迫切的问题。