Context and Knowledge Management
为什么员工不愿意知识共享外文文献翻译最新译文
文献出处：Vijayeta Srivastava. Why are Workers Resistant to Sharing Knowledge? [J]. Knowledge and process management, 2011, 11(2): 81-92.原文Why are Workers Resistant to Sharing Knowledge?Vijayeta SrivastavaAbstract：With ever increasing competitiveness, expanding volatility and seamless fluidity of the businesses in the 21st century this paper explores and focuses on various multi-dimensional inherent factors of dynamics of an organization and an individual‟s working, to understand the resistance show by peo ple towards knowledge sharing and the plausible solutions to overcome it in the near future. Analysis of the organizational factors that result in resistance among workers towards sharing of knowledge is done. A comprehensive study is undertaken to explore and analyse the present literature in identifying the underlying principles and intrinsic characteristics which restrain knowledge workers to share knowledge. Furthermore the paper goes on to uncover the possible steps that could be adopted by management to surmount the resistance shown by knowledge workers based upon deep rooted theoretical findings and inductive reasoning. The paper explores various facets of knowledge management and particularly focuses on factors leading to increased resistance in sharing knowledge from an individual‟s viewpoint such as ownership of knowledge (within organizational context) and ideology (within educational and cultural contexts). The research indicates two key observations. Firstly, from an individual‟s perspective within an organizational context where reward, recognition and incentive foster and propel knowledge sharing. Secondly, focusing on educational and cultural context from an individual‟s perspective, outside to the organizational context, where research indicates that maximum benefits from knowledge sharing can be acquired by instigating clarity and behavioural changes towards knowledge sharing. The implication suggested provides value from managerial point of view in tackling theresistance towards sharing knowledge. Furthermore the paper leads us to the possible solutions that could help in overcoming the resistance and encourage in knowledge sharing. The paper provides a new perspective to the researchers, practioners and students on the extrinsic and innate reasons why a worker is resistant to share knowledge. Further, the paper also provides most relevant and practical solutions to reduce the barriers for sharing knowledge.Keywords：knowledge management, knowledge sharing, obstacles to knowledge sharing, resistance in knowledge sharing.1.IntroductionProgressive evolution of global business landscape to one being highly unstable and dynamic has drawn organizations towards proper management of knowledge to attain sustainable competitive edge over the others and deal with the ever-changing market demands. An urgent need to share the expertise and knowledge possessed by people to help innovate, expand processing and sharing of organizational knowledge has been experienced (Argote and Ingram, 2000). However Davenport(1997) suggests that knowledge sharing is an unnatural process. Therefore rather than commanding knowledge sharing, incorporating it in business processes will help foster and stimulate knowledge sharing process within the organization in the long run. The paper aims to identify the reasons that workers are hesitant to share knowledge and to analyse solutions to overcome this resistance.Further this paper proposes the determinants by analysing factors both inside and outside the organisational context and justifies the different ways to encourage people to share knowledge. Here knowledge sharing is being dealt as a social interaction which involves humans as social animal(Gee, 2002).The paper focuses on providing a holistic view on obstacles to knowledge sharing among employees within the organization and points to the difference in attitudes shown towards the knowledge exchange on the basis of their educational,cultural, moral and psychological background. The paper identifies and justifies the concerns and rationales of underlying knowledge sharing behaviour of workers. In the following sections thematic analysis on past research discloses potential reasons for resistance to knowledge sharing and the essential steps that are needed to be taken in order to overcome this resistance. Further the paper provides the implications and a justifiable explanation of how the encouragement in amending the behaviour and understanding to share knowledge can bring about improvement in all the organizational processes and activities and also lead to a profit for the organization. Using an inductive methodology based on text analysis we disclose the reasons and explanations for limiting or not sharing knowledge in the organization. Gee (2002) suggests that sharing of knowledge is an individualistic behaviour. Resistance shown towards knowledge sharing cannot be grouped for all the individuals and a single reason cannot be determined. The paper develops two strategies for dealing with these categories and concludes by providing different ways in which this positive attitude for knowledge sharing behaviour can be inculcated. Although this paperprovides analysis of all the different factors we call for detailed and longitudinal empirical research to verify the need to separate knowledge workers on the basis of their personal and organizational context to definitively identify the individual reasons for resistance in knowledge sharing (Ipe, 2003).The key to organisational success can be attributed to effective and efficient knowledge management along with application and reuse of the knowledge throughout organisation (Kearns and Lederer,2003). Knowledge has become more complex as a result of advancements in the technology,business and affiliated disciplines. Knowledge is the key resource for obtaining competitive advantage and knowledge management is the key to sustaining this advantage (Wit and Huysman, 1998).Knowledge sharing is critical for learning, growth and the development of the employees and the organization. Knowledge sharing enables exchange of process know-how, lessons learnt and experiences (Ipe, 2003). Using knowledge as primeresource is the key to fulfil organisational goals and objectives. Sharing knowledge transforms knowledge into actionable process. Utilisation, exchange and application of knowledge along with brain storming helps in product and service innovation and maximise profits and capitalise market opportunity.2.Knowledge sharingThe knowledge base theory of firm acknowledges knowledge as a key resource and a critical success factor for organizations. Knowledge is basically regarded as highly valuable and a critical resource for success (Grant 1996; Spender, 1996; Hendriks, 1999). Key to effectively leverage organizational knowledge resources is through effective dissemination and sharing. The knowledge-sharing concept is a notion which can be recognized as collective transmission of thought; idea or experience from one end of a spectrum through a medium to the other end where thought, idea is decoded to understand the meaning and learn from the experience (Davenport and Prusak, 1998). Knowledge sharing can also be defined as an action or an activity performed, having incomparable benefits (Ford and Staples, 2008; Lubit, 2001). Organizations now operate in a very competitive environment and have to continuously evolve to be on the top. Knowledge sharing encompasses the organization and along with its partners and suppliers (Cummins, 2003). Knowledge sharing can be enhanced by communication and interactions including mono access and retrieval (Cummins, 2003). Knowledge sharing acts as a catalyst in improving processes efficiencies and capitalizing on market opportunities. The paper also identifies key rationales that act as barriers for the employees to share their knowledge and endow the organization with the strategic aptitude (Alavi and Leidner, 1999). Research indicates incentive and recognition act as catalysts for knowledge sharing process thus organisations must adopt recognition and incentive as one of the mechanism to facilitate knowledge sharing.In order to analyse the challenges organizations face in dealing with knowledge sharing, we firstly decide the boundaries and assumptions on what data, informationand knowledge mean and create a clear consensus about the terms. Here data can be viewed as a raw set of facts which can be transformed into information by concentrating, contextualizing and characterizing into relevant details.Knowledge is the actionable multifaceted information. Knowledge can be applied with a set of rules and experiences, to create meaning (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Long and Fahey, 2000). It is something that can be acquired, shared and applied. Knowledge is the intellect, it‟s the justified beliefs about relationship among concept s, judgment, know how, experience, values that gives power to individuals and organizations to act intelligently and thoughtfully (Wiig, 1997). Knowledge is contextual, unique in nature; it is embedded in individuals, processes and routines. Knowledge can be classified into two types, explicit and tacit knowledge: explicit knowledge can be systematically stored and transmitted through to individuals in an organized and timely manner, whereas tacit knowledge resides in the mind of the workers (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Further, tacit knowledge is collective representation of “know-how” and “cognitive” abilities (Lubit, 2001). Knowledge is accumulated over a period of time as experience and does not deteriorate; it always increases with continuous use(Dalkir, 2005). Knowledge as defined by Davenport and Prusak (1998, pp 3-6) …Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and informatio n. It originates and is applied in the minds of the knower‟s. In organizations, it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices and norms‟(Davenport and Prusak, 1998). Kalkan (2008) suggests that organisations need to develop a working definition of knowledge so as not only to manage it but obtain benefits from using knowledge.Traditional factors of production have given way to knowledge as the core of business growth (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). The present era marked by use of knowledge as key resource can be termed as knowledge era (Marion and Uhl-Bien, 2007). Organizations are relying on knowledge as their primary resource. Knowledge is being harnessed as a tool for innovation and to develop best practices (Davenport,Long and Beers, 1998; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Therefore, the management of knowledge is a key to effective completion with other businesses at product and service levels. As knowledge within organisation became critical, it gets more important to manage and share knowledge. Research indicates that knowledge sharing acts on the tangible and intangible assets of the organization and works towards in creating sustainable advantage over competitors(Miller and Shamsie, 1996). We define knowledge sharing as the exchange of knowhow, expertise,judgement, and lessons learnt between the employees through a formal or informal network (Spek and Hoog, 1995). Knowledge sharing not only facilitates exchange of knowledge among interested parties but also adds value and creates understanding of best practices and lessons learnt (Wit and Huysman, 1998).Advancement in technology has provided tools and applications which help in effective and efficient management of knowledge. These are often termed as Knowledge Management Systems. Tools and techniques are required to facilitate knowledge sharing within the organization. It is important to point out that these tools support knowledge sharing rather than driving it (Alavi and Leidner, 1999).Employees (people) are the main drivers of knowledge sharing in an organization, supported by processes and technology. Various techniques are also now available which help in improvising knowledge sharing (Wiig, Hoog and Spek, 1995).3.Barriers to knowledge sharingThere are internal and external factors in an organization which increase the resistance towards knowledge sharing (Reige, 2005). These barriers to knowledge sharing can be looked from both an individual‟s (Long and Fahey, 2000) and organizatio n‟s perspective (Nonaka, 1994). It is worth mentioning, that these factors prevent employees from sharing knowledge with co-workers and superiors. Resistance to knowledge sharing often used as euphemism for stating the barriers to knowledge sharing (Riege, 2005).The sense of losing control and authority over knowledge by sharing is the mostprevalent barrier to knowledge sharing among workers (Pfeffer and Sutton, 1999). This fear of losing control and authority hinders knowledge sharing and is detrimental to growth and success. This is further aggravated as knowledge has become the critical success factor; it is not merely a resource but a valuable asset. Thus employees fear that by sharing they are giving absolute rights to their knowledge and cannot obtain monetary benefits. The fear of losing control and putting knowledge into the public domain hinders knowledge sharing (Dalkir, 2005). The employees feel that knowledge is lost when they are not acknowledged and given credit for sharing (Lindsey, 2011). Riege (2005) observes that the lack of formal knowledge sharing processes and limited time allocation to knowledge sharing hinders its success. Organizational structure also plays a critical role in knowledge sharing (Lubit, 2001). In hierarchical organizations more resistance towards knowledge sharing is observed when compared to flattened organisations attributed to the organisational culture. Reige (2005) suggests that this can be attributed to the formal and rigid channels of communication, limited personal contact and effort required in effective knowledge sharing. Many employees relate knowledge with their ability to perform in their job, thus knowledge hoarding gives them a sense of job security (Husted and Michailova, 2002). This results in increased barriers to knowledge sharing.Within hierarchical organisational structures employees fear that sharing knowledge with their superiors may impact their job security (Lin, H-F., 2007). Formal behaviour, limited interaction and working in silos increase resistance to knowledge sharing. Knowledge sharing needs to be embedded in daily routine. Allocation of time for such purposes not only helps in building trust, confidence but also improves credibility of the employees (Bock et. al, 2010). In addition to these barriers an individual‟s age, gender, culture, beliefs, background (social and cultural) also impact knowledge sharing (Riege, 2005; Szulanski, 1996 and Zyngier, 2002). Level of education and skills to communicate also play a vital role. Studies have shown that, communication in all forms play a very important role in knowledge sharing (Meyer, 2002; Davenport and Prusak, 1998). In addition to individualconcerns, organisational culture is biggest of all the obstacles faced; closely followed by understanding about the knowledge –its importance and value (Agrawal and Zyngier, 2009).Resistance to change also plays a vital role in promoting or delaying knowledge sharing. To have effective knowledge sharing organisations needs to effectively plan for the same (McDermott and O‟Dell, 2001).Various examples throughout history of knowledge management depict the importance and impact of cultural factors on knowledge sharing and resistance to knowledge management. These cultural factors influence communication and shape the business environment made up of various people belonging to different cultures and geographies. Evidence suggests that individual‟s rely more on other individuals with whom they share a relationship not entirely based upon exchange of services. When the underlying connection or relationship is based upon a logical reason,trust, commitment, love, a mutual inspiration, admiration and respect, community and background, between each other then seamless and effective knowledge sharing is observed with least amount of resistance to it. The emotional and spiritual connection in-between people often motivates them towards sharing personal experience and knowledge which most people guard very closely (Bock et.al, 2010).4.MethodologyVarious journal articles were selected via blind search on underlying themes related to knowledge, knowledge management, knowledge sharing, barriers to knowledge sharing, knowledge management issues and obstacles, organizational culture, knowledge management and performance. It was followed by categorization of articles into various themes followed by analysis of text and thematic analysis. After careful study the hypothesis “Does the encouragement for change in behaviour of employees in the organization along with introduction of incentive and recognition help in minimizing the challenges faced in knowledge sharing” was defined. This research paper analyses by identifying the challenges to knowledge sharing from an individual perspective within and external to organization.Analysis of text helped in understanding and identifying resistance the problem. Further articles were categorised on the basis of organizational, people and technological perspective. During analysis, the plausible reasons of resistance to knowledge sharing were grouped into two categories, keeping employees inside and outside of the organizational context. It was then deducted that rewards and recognition facilitate and reduce resistance to knowledge sharing in the short term within the organizational context. Fro m an individual‟s perspective, his/her skills, work practises; trust with other employees and social beliefs plays a critical role in determining resistance to knowledge sharing (Fernie, et. al, 2003). It can be said that with increasing levels of trust among employees can reduce the resistance shown towards knowledge sharing (Long and Fahey, 2000).Research indicates that incentives, recognition, reward and remuneration motivate employees towards knowledge management and knowledge sharing, this indirectly boost‟s the employee‟s and organisations performance (Riege, 2005). Although some author‟s argue that it is only effective in short run (McDermott, 1999 and O‟Dell and Grayson, 1998; Kohn, 1993). Providing incentives,incorporating contribution to knowledge sharing as part of employee performance review and making it one of the key performance indicators can instigate knowledge sharing in a positive panies like Hewlett Packard, KPMG, Ernst and Young and others stipulate that by adding contribution to knowledge management and sharing to the yearly grading of the employees will have positive effect on the knowledge program (Master, 1999). Introduction of rewards and recognition motivates the employees to contribute more. It is also critical to understand the impact of education, culture and behaviour o knowledge sharing. It is necessary to bring about slow and steady change in the corporate behaviour and help the organization in embracing a knowledge sharing culture (Michailova and Husted, 2003).Using thematic analysis it was identified that introducing rewards and recognition and acknowledging employee for contribution will enhance knowledge sharing. Established formal knowledge sharing procedures promotes knowledgesharing. On the other hand looking at an individual outside the organizational context their education, social belief and understanding plays a critical role in determining impact on knowledge sharing. The key is to employ individuals conducive to collaborative working by analysing individuals on cultural fit, collaborative working and fit within a knowledge sharing environment. Knowledge management practioners can adopt some of these solutions to successfully facilitate knowledge sharing.5.ConclusionBarriers to knowledge sharing can be analysed from multi-dimensional perspective. It is worthwhile to note that resistance to knowledge sharing has been analysed from organizational, people and technological perspective. The study undertaken looks at the factors which increase resistance towards knowledge sharing among workers, and throws light on plausible solutions. The study focuses on obstacles faced in knowledge sharing from organizational and individual perspective (employees and knowledge workers). The researchers analyse the behavioural characteristics of the workers to identify and analyse root cause towards resistance to knowledge sharing. Here organization‟s intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics and employee‟s behavioural and intrinsic characteristics were analysed. A comprehensive study and analysis by drawing attention on factors and principles which prohibit the human mind from going forward and sharing the experience and knowledge was done. The need to clearly understand the intrinsic and extrinsic behaviour of the organization and its employees and understanding the rationale behind such behaviour is critical to understand reason behind resistance to knowledge sharing. Such thorough and deep understanding will not only result in identifying factors of resistance to knowledge sharing but also will help organisations and knowledge management practitioners to identify and propose solutions and means to reduce resistance to knowledge sharing. The key message here is to not force the knowledge sharing process rather to create opportunities for knowledge sharing and acknowledging employee contribution. Customised employee specific plan of action is required tocultivate knowledge sharing in that employee. This can be built by analysing employee performance and behavioural assessment. However, it is unlikely to find a universal solution to the problem of resistance to knowledge sharing due it varied complex nature. Analysing the data suggests that people often resist to share knowledge as to them it is the key source of power, they have worked hard to earn it, and quite importantly they don‟t trust the others when sharing knowledge. The lack of trust among workers to share knowledge is deep rooted because often more times they lose control, authority and credit for that knowledge. The reasons uncovered cannot be classified into one category, thus it needs a bouquet of solutions to tackle this issue. Analysing these issues from an individual‟s perspective, internal and external to organisational context assists in classifying these concerns and identifying suitable suggestions.Similarly efforts and initiative undertaken to encourage knowledge sharing can be divided into two main contexts with the first one considering the personal factors of person and the second one being the organizational factors. Here personal factors include the person‟s up-bringing and surroundings, his ideology and his understanding of the meaning of the word knowledge. And organizational factors indicate the organizational culture, its perspective and the organizational history along with the background. Although a lot of studies done until now indicate that organizational factors act as a major influence on the behaviour show by employee towards knowledge exchange, a sufficient number of research also state that their personal behaviour and attitude also contribute in their understanding of the meaning of knowledge in a larger context.译文为什么员工不愿意知识共享摘要:随着竞争的日益激烈，在21世纪商业的流动性和波动性的背景下，本文关注和研究提高组织或个人绩效的多维视角下的内在激励因素，了解知识共享的障碍因素有助于员工进行知识共享并提出可靠的解决措施在不远的未来得以克服这些因素。
知识管理国家标准(ppt 86页)
Dublin Core HL7（描述医学网络资源的元数据 ） 教育资源元数据 机读目录（MARC）
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XML
性质
W3C于1998年2月发布的一种标准 是SGML的一个简化子集 可扩展标记语言
特点
较好地解决了HTML无法表达数据内容等问题 允许各个组织、个人建立适合自己需要的标记
可以检测XML文档的结构是否正确
例如描述一组<表>，其中每个<表>又可以包含若干个 <项>
DTD中应该有语句: <! ELEMENT表(项) + > <! ELEMENT项 (#PCDATA) >
生成的表 ：<表><项>管乐</项><项>弦乐</项><项>器乐</ 项><表>
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DTD 引用
混合元素类型
<! ELEMENT元素名 (#PCDATA |子元素名1 |子元素名2 | …)> 元素中可以包含文本 文本之间可以有选择地插入子元素，子元素出现的顺序和次数不受限制
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XML Schema
DTD缺点
采用了非XML的语法规则 不支持数据类型 扩展性较差
集合
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XML与HTML比较
文档的3个要素
数据、结构以及显示方式
HTML
显示方式内嵌在数据中 在创建文本时，要时时考虑输出格式 创建文档的重复工作量大 不易抽取语义信息
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显示格式从数据内容中独立出来，保存在样式单文件 (Style Sheet)中
管理学英语试题及答案
管理学英语试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. The term "management" refers to the process of:A. Making decisionsB. Organizing resourcesC. Directing and controlling activitiesD. All of the above答案：D2. Which of the following is NOT a function of management?A. PlanningB. StaffingC. MotivatingD. Selling答案：D3. The process of setting goals and deciding on actions to achieve these goals is known as:A. OrganizingB. LeadingC. PlanningD. Controlling答案：C4. Which of the following is an example of a managementprinciple?A. Division of laborB. CentralizationC. DelegationD. All of the above答案：D5. In the context of management, "controlling" refers to:A. The process of ensuring that things are done as plannedB. The process of making plansC. The process of organizing resourcesD. The process of motivating employees答案：A6. The concept of "span of control" is related to:A. The number of employees a manager can effectively superviseB. The range of activities a manager is responsible forC. The level of authority a manager hasD. The type of control systems a manager uses答案：A7. The management function that involves influencing people to work towards organizational goals is:A. OrganizingB. LeadingC. PlanningD. Controlling答案：B8. Which of the following is a characteristic of effective communication?A. ClarityB. AmbiguityC. DisorganizationD. Lack of feedback答案：A9. The "scientific management" theory was developed by:A. Henri FayolB. Max WeberC. Frederick TaylorD. Abraham Maslow答案：C10. In the context of management, "empowerment" means:A. Giving employees the authority to make decisionsB. Centralizing all decision-making powerC. Reducing the role of employees in decision-makingD. Ignoring employee input in decision-making答案：A二、填空题（每题1分，共10分）1. The four basic functions of management are planning, organizing, leading, and ________.答案：controlling2. The management principle that suggests that there is an optimal span of control for each manager is known as ________.答案：span of control3. The management approach that focuses on the social needsof employees is known as the ________ approach.答案：human relations4. The process of identifying, selecting, orienting, training, and compensating employees is known as ________.答案：staffing5. A management style that involves a high level of task orientation and a low level of relationship orientation is known as ________ leadership.答案：autocratic6. The concept of "management by objectives" was developed by ________.答案：Peter Drucker7. The "Maslow's hierarchy of needs" theory suggests that people are motivated by a series of needs, starting with physiological needs and ending with ________ needs.答案：self-actualization8. In a ________ structure, there is a clear chain of command and a narrow span of control.答案：hierarchical9. The process of comparing actual performance with planned performance is known as ________.答案：budgeting10. The management function that involves setting goals and determining the sequence of actions needed to achieve them is known as ________.答案：strategic planning三、简答题（每题5分，共30分）1. What are the three key characteristics of an effective organizational structure?答案：An effective organizational structure should havethe following characteristics: clarity of roles and responsibilities, a clear chain of command, and a balance between centralization and decentralization.2. Explain the difference between leadership and management.答案：Leadership is the process of influencing, motivating, and directing individuals towards the achievement of organizational goals. Management, on the other hand, is a broader concept that includes planning, organizing, leading, and controlling organizational resources to achieve goals.3. What are the main principles of scientific management according to Frederick Taylor?答案：The main principles of scientific management includethe scientific selection and training of workers, the scientific selection of tasks and tools, the scientific determination of work methods, and the scientific scheduling of work and rest periods.4. Describe the four stages of the control process.。
DIS版ISO14001-2015(环境管理体系中英文对照版)
4Context of the organization4.1Understanding the organization and its contextThe organization shall determine external and internal issues that are relevant to its purpose and that affect its ability to achieve the intended outcome(s) of its environmental management system. Those issues include environmental conditions capable of affecting or being affected by the organization.4.2 Understanding the needs and expectations of interested parties The organization shall determine:‐the interested parties that are relevant to the environmental management system;‐the relevant needs and expectations (i.e. requirements) of these interested parties;‐which of these needs and expectations become compliance obligations.4.3Determining the scope of the environmental management systemThe organization shall determine the boundaries and applicability of the environmental management system to establish its scope.When determining this scope, the organization shall consider:‐the external and internal issues referred to in 4.1;‐the compliance obligation referred to in 4.2;‐its organizational unit(s), function(s), and physical boundaries;‐its activities, products and services;‐its authority and ability to exercise control and influence.Once the scope is defined, activities, products and services that can have significant environmental aspects (see 6.1.2) shall be included within the scope of the environmental management system.The scope shall be maintained as documented information and be available to interested parties.4.4 Environmental management systemThe organization shall establish, implement, maintain and continually improve an environmental management system, including the processes needed and their interactions, in accordance with the requirements of this International Standard, to ensure its environmental performance.The organization shall consider the knowledge of its context when establishing and maintaining the environmental management system. 4 组织环境4.1 理解组织及其环境组织应确定外部和内部那些与组织的宗旨、影响环境管理体系实现预期结果的能力的事项。
商务英语与翻译技术测试 选择题 57题
1. What does the acronym "B2B" stand for in the context of business?A. Business to BusinessB. Business to BuyerC. Business to BankD. Business to Broker2. Which of the following is a key component of effective business comm unication?A. Using jargonB. Being conciseC. Overloading with informationD. Using complex language3. In a business email, what should be the first thing you include?A. The subject lineB. The sender's nameC. The recipient's nameD. The company logo4. What is the primary purpose of a business proposal?A. To entertain the readerB. To inform the reader about company historyC. To persuade the reader to take a specific actionD. To showcase the company's products5. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a professional bus iness document?A. Clear and concise languageB. Informal toneC. Proper formattingD. Correct grammar and spelling6. What does "SWOT" analysis stand for?A. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, ThreatsB. Strategies, Workflows, Operations, TacticsC. Sales, Warranties, Orders, TransactionsD. Systems, Workflows, Outputs, Technologies7. Which of the following is an example of a formal business letter clo sing?A. "Cheers"B. "Sincerely"C. "Best"D. "Take care"8. What is the term for the process of converting spoken language into written text?A. TranslationB. InterpretationC. TranscriptionD. Adaptation9. Which of the following is a common tool used in translation technolo gy?A. TypewriterB. Word processorC. AbacusD. Slide rule10. What is the main goal of localization in translation?A. To translate word for wordB. To adapt the content to the cultural and linguistic context of t he target audienceC. To simplify the textD. To increase the word count11. Which of the following is a benefit of using machine translation?A. It is always 100% accurateB. It is free from human errorC. It can process large volumes of text quicklyD. It can understand cultural nuances12. What is the term for the process of ensuring that translated conten t is consistent with the original content in terms of style and termino logy?A. ProofreadingB. EditingC. Quality assuranceD. Terminology management13. Which of the following is a key skill for a translator?A. Speed readingB. MultitaskingC. Cultural awarenessD. Physical strength14. What is the main difference between translation and interpretation?A. Translation is done in real-timeB. Interpretation is done in written formC. Translation involves written text, while interpretation involves spoken languageD. There is no difference15. Which of the following is a common file format for translation memo ry software?A. .docxB. .tmxC. .jpgD. .mp316. What is the term for a document that provides guidelines on how to use specific terms and phrases in a consistent manner?A. Style guideB. GlossaryC. ManualD. Handbook17. Which of the following is a common challenge in translation?A. Lack of vocabularyB. Lack of softwareC. Cultural differencesD. Lack of time18. What is the term for the process of converting written text into sp oken language?A. TranslationB. InterpretationC. TranscriptionD. Narration19. Which of the following is a benefit of using translation memory sof tware?A. It reduces the need for human translatorsB. It ensures consistency in terminology and phrasingC. It improves the speed of translationD. It eliminates the need for proofreading20. What is the main goal of a business plan?A. To impress investorsB. To outline the strategy and operations of a businessC. To provide legal informationD. To showcase the company's history21. Which of the following is a key element of a business report?A. Personal anecdotesB. Formal languageC. HumorD. Informal tone22. What is the term for the process of adapting a product or service t o meet the needs of a specific market?A. TranslationB. LocalizationC. GlobalizationD. Standardization23. Which of the following is a common file format for localization projects?A. .xlsB. .poC. .pdfD. .ppt24. What is the term for the process of ensuring that translated conten t is free from errors?A. ProofreadingB. EditingC. Quality assuranceD. Terminology management25. Which of the following is a key skill for a localization specialist?A. Knowledge of multiple languagesB. Physical enduranceC. Artistic skillsD. Mathematical skills26. What is the main goal of a business presentation?A. To entertain the audienceB. To inform and persuade the audienceC. To showcase personal achievementsD. To provide detailed financial information27. Which of the following is a common challenge in business communicat ion?A. Lack of informationB. OvercommunicationC. MiscommunicationD. Lack of technology28. What is the term for the process of converting spoken language into written text in real-time?A. TranslationB. InterpretationC. TranscriptionD. Live captioning29. Which of the following is a benefit of using localization software?A. It reduces the need for human translatorsB. It ensures consistency in terminology and phrasingC. It improves the speed of translationD. It eliminates the need for proofreading30. What is the main goal of a business proposal?A. To entertain the readerB. To inform the reader about company historyC. To persuade the reader to take a specific actionD. To showcase the company's products31. Which of the following is a key element of a business letter?A. Informal languageB. Formal languageC. SlangD. Jokes32. What is the term for the process of adapting a product or service t o meet the needs of a specific market?A. TranslationB. LocalizationC. GlobalizationD. Standardization33. Which of the following is a common file format for localization pro jects?A. .xlsB. .poC. .pdfD. .ppt34. What is the term for the process of ensuring that translated conten t is free from errors?A. ProofreadingB. EditingC. Quality assuranceD. Terminology management35. Which of the following is a key skill for a localization specialist?A. Knowledge of multiple languagesB. Physical enduranceC. Artistic skillsD. Mathematical skills36. What is the main goal of a business presentation?A. To entertain the audienceB. To inform and persuade the audienceC. To showcase personal achievementsD. To provide detailed financial information37. Which of the following is a common challenge in business communicat ion?A. Lack of informationB. OvercommunicationC. MiscommunicationD. Lack of technology38. What is the term for the process of converting spoken language intowritten text in real-time?A. TranslationB. InterpretationC. TranscriptionD. Live captioning39. Which of the following is a benefit of using localization software?A. It reduces the need for human translatorsB. It ensures consistency in terminology and phrasingC. It improves the speed of translationD. It eliminates the need for proofreading40. What is the main goal of a business proposal?A. To entertain the readerB. To inform the reader about company historyC. To persuade the reader to take a specific actionD. To showcase the company's products41. Which of the following is a key element of a business letter?A. Informal languageB. Formal languageC. SlangD. Jokes42. What is the term for the process of adapting a product or service t o meet the needs of a specific market?A. TranslationB. LocalizationC. GlobalizationD. Standardization43. Which of the following is a common file format for localization pro jects?A. .xlsB. .poC. .pdfD. .ppt44. What is the term for the process of ensuring that translated conten t is free from errors?A. ProofreadingB. EditingC. Quality assuranceD. Terminology management45. Which of the following is a key skill for a localization specialist?A. Knowledge of multiple languagesB. Physical enduranceC. Artistic skillsD. Mathematical skills46. What is the main goal of a business presentation?A. To entertain the audienceB. To inform and persuade the audienceC. To showcase personal achievementsD. To provide detailed financial information47. Which of the following is a common challenge in business communicat ion?A. Lack of informationB. OvercommunicationC. MiscommunicationD. Lack of technology48. What is the term for the process of converting spoken language into written text in real-time?A. TranslationB. InterpretationC. TranscriptionD. Live captioning49. Which of the following is a benefit of using localization software?A. It reduces the need for human translatorsB. It ensures consistency in terminology and phrasingC. It improves the speed of translationD. It eliminates the need for proofreading50. What is the main goal of a business proposal?A. To entertain the readerB. To inform the reader about company historyC. To persuade the reader to take a specific actionD. To showcase the company's products51. Which of the following is a key element of a business letter?A. Informal languageB. Formal languageC. SlangD. Jokes52. What is the term for the process of adapting a product or service t o meet the needs of a specific market?A. TranslationB. LocalizationC. GlobalizationD. Standardization53. Which of the following is a common file format for localization pro jects?A. .xlsB. .poC. .pdfD. .ppt54. What is the term for the process of ensuring that translated conten t is free from errors?A. ProofreadingB. EditingC. Quality assuranceD. Terminology management55. Which of the following is a key skill for a localization specialist?A. Knowledge of multiple languagesB. Physical enduranceC. Artistic skillsD. Mathematical skills56. What is the main goal of a business presentation?A. To entertain the audienceB. To inform and persuade the audienceC. To showcase personal achievementsD. To provide detailed financial information57. Which of the following is a common challenge in business communicat ion?A. Lack of informationB. OvercommunicationC. MiscommunicationD. Lack of technology答案1. A2. B3. A4. C5. B6. A7. B8. C9. B10. B11. C12. D13. C14. C15. B16. B17. C18. D19. B20. B21. B22. B23. B24. C25. A26. B27. C28. D29. B30. C31. B32. B33. B34. C35. A36. B37. C38. D39. B40. C41. B42. B43. B44. C45. A46. B47. C48. D49. B50. C51. B52. B53. B54. C55. A56. B57. C。
《管理学(全英)》-课程 教学大纲
《管理学》（全英）课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息课程代码：16004703课程名称：管理学（全英）英文名称：Management课程类别：专业必修课学时：48学分：3适用对象: 金融实验班本科生考核方式：考试先修课程：微观经济学，金融学二、课程简介中文简介：管理学是经济、金融类专业的专业基础课程和核心课程，是一门系统的研究管理过程的普遍规律、基本原理和一般方法的科学。
本课程详细讲解了计划、组织、领导与控制等管理职能的客观规律和实施方法。
三、课程性质与教学目的本课程的任务是使学生能够系统的掌握管理学的知识体系，能综合运用管理学的基本理论和方法，并分析和解决管理中的实际问题，为后续专业课程的学习奠定管理学基础。
本课程介绍了管理学的四大职能，包括计划、组织、领导和控制。
在计划篇中，组织学生进行案例分析讨论，了解我国一些知名的成功企业是如何运筹帷幄的制定各项竞争战略，在国际上获得市场领先地位，树立学生的民族自豪感。
同事通过各种决策方法以及战略管理的讲解，不仅帮助学生理解如何在实践中更好的管理企业，也帮助学生学习如何给自己的学生生涯做计划，如何为未来的职业生涯做准备。
让学生学会从身边的小事开始养成做计划的好习惯，不浪费在校的宝贵时光。
在领导篇，通过介绍和讲解管理者如何激励员工，帮助学生学习与人交往的方法，提升交际能力，完善世界观和价值观。
在控制篇，通过案例的讨论，让学生掌握对比现实和计划的偏差来修正路线的方法，更好的掌控自己的人生。
通过本课程的学习，不仅学习到管理企业的能力，也学习到管理自己人生的方法。
This course’s target is to enable students to master the management’s knowledge system, to apply basic theories and methods, to analyze and solve practical problems in management and lay a good management foundation for follow-up study of major disciplines.This course introduces four management functions including planning, organizing, leading and controlling. In terms of planning, we ask students to do case study based on how do successful company make their strategics plan and gain the leading position in the world. This will enhance student’s sense of national pride. Meanwhile, by learning of decision making methods and strategic management, students will not only understand how to manage a company in practical life, but alsolearn how to make a plan for themselves in college and how to prepare themselves for their future career. We help students to start making plans from their daily life and not waster the treasure time in school. In terms of leading, by learning how to motivate employees, students learn how to communicate with other people. We help students to enhance their social skills and improve their world view and value view. In terms of controlling, by doing case study, students learn how to compare the reality to the plan and make adjustments in time to control their own life. By learning this course, students not only learning how to manage a company , but also learn how to manage their life.四、教学内容及要求Chapter 1Management and OrganizationsOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand why managers are important to organizations2. Understand who managers are and where they work3. Understand the functions, roles, and skills of managersContents:1. Why are Managers Important?2. Who Are Managers2.1 Classifying Managers2.2 Where Do Managers Work?3. What Do Managers Do?3.1 Effectiveness and Efficiency3.2 Management Functions3.3 Management Roles3.4 Skills Managers NeedPractice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”.The homework for this chapter is to find your most appreciate Chinese manager and explain why you choose him or her. This homework conduct students to focus on Chinese companies and discover excellent Chinese managers. By learning the characteristic of these creative and brave managers, students want to be successful in the future more.Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case studyChapter 2 History of managementOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand some early management examples2. Understand the various theories in the classical approach3. Understand the development and uses of the behavioral approach4. Understand the quantitative approach5. Understand the various theories in the contemporary approachContents:1. Classical approach1.1 Scientific management1.2 General administrative theory2. Behavioral approach3. Quantitative approach4. Contemporary approach4.1 System theory4.2 Contingency approach5. Case studyPractice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”.Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case studyChapter 3 Understand management context:constrains and challengesOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand the actions of managers according to the omnipotent and symbolic views2. Understand the constraints and challenges facing managers in today’s external environment3. Understand the characteristics and importance of organizational culture4. Understand current issues in organizational cultureContents:1. The Manager: Omnipotent or Symbolic?2. The External Environment: Constraints and Challenges2.1 The economic environment2.2 How the external environment affects managers2.3 Assessing environmental uncertainty3. What Is Organizational Culture?3.1 Benefits of a Strong Culture3.2 Where Does Culture Come From?3.3 How Do Employees Learn Culture?3.4 How Does Culture Affect Managers?Practice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”.This chapter we discuss organizational culture and we use cases lika Alibaba, Huawei and Haier to show what kinds of obstacles a company might run into and how does the organizational curlture help the companies pass those difficult times. Though these case studies, students learn how to face and deal with dilemmas in their life with a positive and objective attitude.Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case studyChapter 7Managers as decision makersOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand the eight steps in the decision-making process2. Understand the four ways managers make decisions3. Understand decisions and decision-making conditions4. Understand different decision-making styles and discuss how biases affect decision making5. Understand effective decision-making techniquesContents:1. The Decision Making Process1.1 Identifying a Problem1.2 Identifying Decision Criteria1.3 Allocating Weights to the Criteria1.4 Developing Alternatives1.5 Analyzing Alternatives1.6 Selecting an Alternative1.7 Implementing the Alternative1.8 Evaluating Decision Effectiveness1.9 Scene simulation---- Survive in desert2. Different types of decision making2.1 Rational Decision-Making2.2 Bounded Rational Decision-Making2.3 Intuitive Decision-Making3. Types of decisions3.1 Programmed Decision3.2 Non-programmed Decision4. Decision-Making Situations4.1 Certainty4.2 Risk4.3 Decisions Under Uncertainty5 Decision-Making Styles6 Decision-Making Biases and ErrorsPractice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”.Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case studyChapter 8 Foundations of PlanningOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand the nature and purpose of planning2. Understand the types of goals organizations might have and the plans they use3. Understand approaches to goal-setting and planning4. Understand contemporary issues in planningContents:1. What Is Planning?1.1 Why Do Managers Plan?1.2 Planning and Performance1.3 Elements of Planning2. Types of Goals3. Types of Plans3.1 Breath3.2 Time Frame3.3 Specificity3.4 Frequency of Use4. Goal-setting4.1 Traditional Goal Setting4.2 Management By Objectives4.3 Steps in Goal Setting5. Contingency Factors in Planning5.1 Manager’s level in the organization5.2 Degree of environmental uncertainty5.3 Length of future commitments6. Approaches to Planning7. Case StudyPractice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”.Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case studyChapter 9 Strategic ManagementOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand strategic management and explain why it’s important2. Understand what managers do during the six steps of the strategic management process3. Understand the three types of corporate strategies4. Understand competitive advantage and the competitive strategies organizations use to get it5. Understand current strategic management issuesContents:1. What Is Strategic Management?2. Strategic Management Process2.1 Identifying the organization’s current mission, goals, and strategies2.2 Doing an external analysis2.3 Doing an internal analysis2.4 Formulating strategies2.5 Implementing strategies2.6 Evaluating results3. Corporate Strategies3.1 Growth strategy3.2 Stability strategy3.3 Renewal strategy3.4 BCG Matrix4. Competitive strategies4.1 Competitive advantage4.2 Five Forces ModelPractice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”.This chapter we discuss case of Huawei. In 2019’s China-United States trade war, face the trade ban of chips, Huawei’s Haisi start to show itself and their domestically developed chips become useful. This shows that Huawei has taken precautions many yeas ago and has made a strategic plan to cope with the chip shortage in the future. By learning and discussing this case, we enhance students’ senses of national pride and ambitions to make contribution to the country.Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case studyChapter 10 Basic Organizational DesignOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand six key elements in organizational design2. Understand mechanistic and organic structures3. Understand the contingency factors that favor either the mechanistic model or the organic model of organizational design4. Understand traditional organizational designsContents:1. Designing Organizational Structure2. Organizational Design2.1 Work specialization2.2 Case study2.3 Departmentalization2.4 Chain of command2.5 Case study2.6 Span of control2.7 Case study2.8 Centralization and decentralization2.9 Case study2.10 Formalization3. Mechanistic Vs Organic Organization3.1 Mechanistic Organization3.2 Organic Organization4. Contingency Factors5. Some Organizational Designs5.1 Divisional structure5.2 Matrix Structure5.3 Project StructurePractice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”.Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case studyChapter 16 Motivating EmployeesOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand motivation2. Understand early theories of motivation3. Understand contemporary theories of motivation4. Understand current issues in motivationContents:1. What is Motivation？1.1 Definition1.2 Case Study1.3 Motivation Process2. Early Theories of Motivation2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs2.2 McGregor’s Theories X and Y2.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory2.4 McClelland’s Three Needs Theory3. Contemporary Theories of Motivation3.1 Reinforcement Theory3.2 Equity Theory3.3 Expectancy TheoryPractice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”.This chapter we discuss Haidilao. Haidilao pays a lot of attentions on employee motivation. Besides regular material motivation, Haidilao gives great responsibilities to employees, so that the employees can act their potential creativeness and leading ability. And that’s one of the reason why Haidilao’s employee work with great passion and provide nice service to the customers. By discussing this case, students can understand that further cooperation and success is based on mutual respect of each other.Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case studyChapter 18 Introduction to ControllingOverall Objective: the goal here is to know1. Understand the nature and importance of control2. Understand the three steps in the control process3. Understand how organizational performance is measured4. Understand tools used to measure organizational performance5. Understand contemporary issues in controlContents:1. What Is Control？1.1 Why Is Control Important？2. What Do Managers Control？2.1 Performance control2.2 Financial control2.3 Operating control2.4 Information control2.5 Performance control3. Types of Control3.1 Feed forward control3.2 Concurrent control3.3 Feedback control3.4 Case Study 13.5 Case Study 24. The Control Process4.1. Case studyPractice and Thinking:Do the homework on the textbook and review the “terms to know”. Teaching Methods:Classroom lecture, multimedia teaching and case study五、各教学环节学时分配六、课程考核Grading Policy: Your grade for the course will be calculated as follows: Regular Homework and Class Participation 40%Final Exam 60%七、推荐教材和教学参考资源《Management》12th edition By Steven P. Robinson & Mary Coulter。
big data and decision making
Big data and managerial decision makingBig data is another major technological revolution after the Internet of things and cloud computing, both in academic, corporate and government affected by it. Great changes have taken place in big data under the decision-making environment, affecting the company's data management and knowledge management. At the same time under the big data rich data and knowledge greatly improve decision making participants decision-making ability, decision-making participant roles changed, thus affect the enterprise's management decision-making organization. Big data is also put forward higher requirements for the enterprise management and decision-making technology. On the basis of this analysis, elaborated the influence of enterprise management decision-making system and Countermeasures of big data.Impact of Big Data on Business Management Strategy Decision90% of the data in the global data volume is from recent years. With the ever-increasing amount of data, the era of big data has come. The content of enterprise management decision in big data environment needs to be based on a large amount of market data, ensuring that data sorting and reuse are the key factors that can lay the foundation for the development of the enterprise, and evaluate and analyze the risk factors in the development of the enterprise. On the basis of cloud computing, the big data environment has a certain influence on the enterprise's information collection methods, decision-making plan formulation and program selection and evaluation, and further influences the content of enterprise management decision-making. Based on the research content and the research status, it shows that in the current development process, the more companies use data-driven enterprises, their internal content and financial status are good, highlighting the specific effectiveness of the financial situation. The data content in big data has advanced features and plays an important role in the development of various production factors in the knowledge economy.Impact of Big Data on Enterprise Management Strategy Decision DataIn the context of big data, there are several characteristics of the data. First, it is large-scale, multi-type, and diverse structures, including structured data tables and semi-structured and unstructured texts, pictures, and videos. Prior to data use, multiple source data needs to be organized, extracted and integrated to ensure data quality and reliability, and then a unified structure is used to store these data. Traditional database management systems and data analysis tools are no longer applicable. Google, Amazon, Microsoft and other companies have introduced big data solutions. They require companies to update their technologies to meet the needs of big data processing. The second characteristic is the fast data generation and application. The scene shifts from offline to online and real-time processing needs arise.From the perspective of knowledge management, data contains knowledge and knowledge is an important factor influencing decision making. The size of the enterprise depends on the manager's knowledge and management capabilities. Under big data, companies can understand business more thoroughly and use knowledge to improvedecision-making and performance. Gathering and analyzing massive data and quickly acquiring the ability to influence future information is the charm of big data technology. In the management decision-making process, the use of data cannot be replaced, but it is necessary to combine the objective decision-making of data with human subjective decision-making. The decision-makers are under pressure from more complex tasks in decision-making, relying on human subjective decisions alone can not deal with complex environments, but relying solely on data decisions will deviate from reality. The use of big data shall bring together the feelings, insights, and decision support of decision makers and combine data with the subjective initiative of people to avoid "data-only theory." .Impact of Big Data on Corporate Management Decision-making SubjectsThe main body of corporate decision-making is generally divided into two categories. The first is the senior management of the company. The senior executives' position authority can enable them to play a key role in major decisions. The second is normal employees or general managers. In the context of big data, the provision of products and services and value creation need to be closer to the needs of the general public. Employees need to take the initiative to guide users to participate in product innovation, design, quality assurance, marketing, sales, and customer relationship management, and improve products and services based on user interaction to achieve rapid business growth. In this process, the role of general managers and normal employees is unprecedentedly important. They are the basis for companies to obtain information needed for decision-making. In the context of big data, the decision-making body has changed. From the perspective of ownership of decision-making power, some outstanding employees begin to participate in decision-making, and the main decision-making body is no longer limited to management.ConclusionBig data has caused tremendous shocks to the market and triggered a series of problems. Some companies seized the opportunity to take advantage of the opportunity to occupy more market space, and some companies are because of decision-making thinking can not adapt to the background of the era of big data and be eradicated by the era. The current status of enterprise decision-making is a change from the traditional decision-making system to the big data decision-making system. During this transformation process, many problems will be triggered and exposed. The trend of big data managerial strategy decision-making has replaced the traditional managerial strategy decision-making method. Big data has made its decisions more objective and effective due to its richer data types, more comprehensive access methods, and more specialized data analysis. In the managerial strategy decision-making process, it is possible to avoid decision-making mistakes caused by subjective factors and emotional factors of the decision makers, analyze the market data more objectively, and formulate more scientific and accurate decisions. Therefore, it has become inevitable that big data has replaced the traditional decision-making methods.He Jun, Analysis of Influence of Big Data on Enterprise Management Decision Making.Scientific and Technological Progress and Countermeasures . 2014Mcafee, Ebrynjolfsson, Big data：the management revolution[J] .Harvard Business Review , 2012 ,10 :1-9 .Sultan N．Knowledge management in the age of cloud computing and web 2.0：experiencing the power of disruptive innovations［J］．International Journal of Information Management，2013，33(1)：160-165.Bolloju N，Khalifa M，Turban E．Integrating knowledge management into enterprise environments for the next generation decision support[J]．Decision Support Systems，2002,33(2):163-176.HAUDHURI S．What next：a half-dozen data management research goals for big data and the cloud［C］.Proceedingsof the 31st symposium on Principles of DatabaseSystems．New York：ACM，2012:1-4.MODIS T．Technological substitutions in the computer industry［J］．Technological Forecasting and Social Change，1993，43(2)：157-167.。
HRM人力资源管理英文课件
What is the critical factor To what extent, are employees’ qualification, of achieving the goal? motivation，commitment and attitude helpful or ， harmful to the success of enterprise?
Critical Incident
Interview: Procedures
Preparation Interview method & outline
Interviewer training Conduct interview
Information cleaning and identification
The purpose of the job Tasks Responsibilities and duties Relationships Procedures Performance standards Authorities & obligations Context Knowledge, skills, experience, personalities required
2. Job Analysis (JA) Importance of job analysis Concept of job analysis and relevant terms Methods of job analysis Job descriptions and how to write it Trends of job analysis
Why is JA so important?
Recruitment
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Mobile Service Platforms ClusterWhite PaperContext and Knowledge ManagementDate delivered: June 30th, 2008EditorRobert Mullins,TSSG, Daidalos ProjectAuthorsCarsten Pils, TSSG, DaidalosIoanna Roussaki, NTUA, DaidalosSarah McBurney, Herriot Watt University, DaidalosMakis Stamatelatos, University of Athens, E2REric Julien, Hewlett Packard, COMETChristophe Cordier, France Telecom, SPICEOlaf Droegehorn, Universität Kassel, SPICEHerma van Kranenburg,Telematica Instituut, SPICEJean-Pierre Le Rouzic, France Telecom, SPICENiels Snoeck, Telematica Instituut, SPICEMartin Strohbach, NEC, SPICEJarek Domaszewicz, Warsaw University of Technology, MIDAS ProjectClaudia Villalonga, NEC, SPICECarlos Baladron Zorita, University of Valladolid, OPUCEAlterationsVersion Type of change Author(s)V 0.1.1 Creation Robert MullinsV 0.1.2 Incorporated input from E2R, COMET and SPICE Robert MullinsV 0.1.3 SPICE updates Olaf DroegehornHerma vanKranenburgJean-Pierre LeRouzicNiels SnoeckMartin StrohbachClaudia VillalongaRobert Mullins V 0.1.4 Edited Paper to reduce length and received inputfrom MIDAS ProjectV0.1.5 Received input from OPUCE Project and re-Robert Mullinsmoved chapter on privacyRobert Mullins V0.1.6 Corrected some typographic and grammatical er-rorsRobert Mullins V0.1.7 Incorporated review comments, additional inputand common template for white papersRobert Mullins V0.1.8 Carried out review in with MSP cluster in Brusselson paper for final updatesV1.0 Minor changes resulting from final proof-read Joe GormanAbstractContext and Knowledge Management is a very important feature of a service platform, par-ticularly where services are expected to behave intelligently, learn, exhibit awareness of their surroundings and react to changes. Context generally refers to all types of information per-taining to a service and or the user of the service. Knowledge typically refers to more general information, of which context is a specific type. Knowledge would typically include information about users and their preferences, and also information that can be inferred from other sources.This whitepaper aims to analyse the definition of and examine the treatment of Context and Knowledge Management across a number of IST projects with specific reference to DAI-DALOS, SPICE, COMET, E2R, MIDAS and OPUCE, specifically aiming to focus on the fol-lowing topics :•Identification of the use and representation of information using Ontologies and other methods.•Identification of relevant context information for each project : description/modeling •The uses of context such as adapting services, networks•Context Gathering, Interpretation, Synthesis and Reasoning•Context Publication and Discovery•Profiles ( Group / User / Service ) : Negotiation , Management, DescriptionThis white paper was produced as a result of work in the Mobile Services Cluster of IST FP6 projects.Contributing projectsProject name Short descriptionCOMET (Converged Messag-ing Technology) The overall goal of the IST-FP6 COMET project is to realise the potential of a converged messaging service beyond 3G by creating the global enabling technology for easy-to-activate and easy-to-use converged messaging services, allowing users to navigate and control all their messages Anytime, Anyplace, regardless of the access network and the type of device they are using.DAIDALOS(Designing Advanced network Interfaces for the Delivery and Ad-ministration of Loca-tion independent, Op-timised personal Ser-vices) The focus of Daidalos is to develop and demonstrate an open ar-chitecture based on a common network protocol (Ipv6). The archi-tecture integrates complementary network technologies to provide pervasive and user-centred access to these services, and devel-ops optimized signalling system for communication and manage-ment support in these networks.E2R(End-to-end recon-figurability) The End-to-End Reconfigurability (E2R) project aims at realising the full benefits of the diversity within the radio eco-space, com-posed of a wide range of systems such as cellular, fixed, wireless local area and broadcast. The key objective of the E2R project is to devise, develop, trial and showcase architectural design of re-configurable devices and supporting system functions to offer an extensive set of operational choices to the users, application and service providers, operators, and regulators in the context of het-erogeneous systemsMIDAS (Middleware Platform for Developing and Deploying Advanced Mobile Services) MIDAS aims to produce an overall architecture and middleware building blocks providing solutions to technical issues that must be addressed in developing mobile services. It specifically ad-dresses mobile service provision in situations where the network may need to be set up at short notice, or for limited duration, and where communications infrastructure may be unavailable for some users, necessitating use of ad-hoc communications. The middleware includes modules for establishing connectivity using heterogeneous networks, distributed data sharing in unreliable networks, generating synthesised context data, and context-based routing of messages.OPUCE (Open Platform for User-centric service Creation and Execu-tion) OPUCE is an FP6 Integrated Project aimed at developing a com-plete platform for the dynamic user-centric creation, deployment and execution of services including information technologies and communication features. The goal of the OPUCE platform is to put the end-user in the centre of the whole lifecycle of a service, to let them become at the same time the creator, the manager and the consumer of services.SPICE (Service Platform for Innovative Communi-cation Environment) SPICE is an IST-FP6 Integrated Project addressing the problem of designing, developing and putting into operation efficient and innovative mobile Service creation/execution Platforms for net-works beyond 3G. SPICE investigates novel platform features such as distributed communication sphere management, intelli-gent service enablers, service roaming, adaptive content delivery and multi-domain access control.Contents1Introduction (12)2Information Management (13)2.1Information Sources and Types (13)2.2IST Projects (14)2.2.1Information and Knowledge use within Daidalos (14)2.2.2SPICE Intelligent Service Enablers (15)2.2.3COMET Profiles – Negotiation, Description and Management (20)2.2.4E2R Reconfiguration Management Plane (20)2.2.5Information use within OPUCE (21)3Context Information Representation (25)3.1State of the Art Analysis (25)3.2IST Projects (26)3.2.1Daidalos Context Model and Ontology (26)3.2.2Context Representation in SPICE (28)3.2.3Context Awareness in COMET (30)3.2.4E2R Context and Knowledge Management (31)3.2.5Context Space in the MIDAS Project (35)3.2.6Context in the OPUCE Project (36)4Context Sources and Gathering (38)4.1State of the Art Analysis (38)4.2IST Projects (40)4.2.1Daidalos Context Management System (40)4.2.2SPICE Context Management Framework (40)4.2.3COMET Context Gathering, Interpretation, Reasoning and Synthesis (42)4.2.4OPUCE Context Enabler and Reasoner (42)5Conclusion (44)6References (45)List of FiguresFigure 1. Interdependencies of the KDE, PIM, KI, and AS enablers (16)Figure 3. KI Enabler / KAPS (18)Figure 4 Reconfiguration Management Plane ( RMP ) logical view (21)Figure 5. The Context Model main classes (26)Figure 6. The COMANTO Ontology core Semantic Context Entities (28)Figure 7. SpiceEntity class and its subclasses (29)Figure 8 ContextParameter and SpiceEntity classes (29)Figure 9. ContextParameter class and its subclasses (30)Figure 10. Knowledge and Context Management within RMP- UML view (32)Figure 11. Profile information within RMP (33)Figure 12. CC/PP components and attributes definition (34)Figure 13. Example Ontology Schema (35)Figure 14. Context based routing table in the MIDAS CBR protocol (36)Figure 15. Knowledge Management Framework overview (41)Figure 16. IMS Context Enabler Overview (42)GlossaryAcronym/Term Meaning/DefinitionAccess To interact with a system entity in order to manipulate, use,gain knowledge of, and/or obtain a representation of someor all of a system entity's resources.Access Control Protection of resources against unauthorized access. ORProcess by which use of resources is regulated according toa security policy and is permitted by only authorized systementities according to that policy.Access Control Policies Rules, which are used to determine if a certain subject is allowed to perform a certain action on a given resource.Application An implementation of a related set of functions that performuseful/specific work, often enabling one or more services. Itmay consist of software and/or hardware elements. ORAn application is a program or a group of programs (pro-gram = function implementation by software) designed toperform specific task(s). Applications can use other compo-nents in the system. Applications can provide some func-tionalities for users. Services can provide functionalities forother components.Application Ser-vice Provider An Application Service Provider (ASP) is a company that offers individuals or enterprises access over the Internet to applications and related services that would otherwise have to be located in their own personal or enterprise computersApplica-tion/Service Profile Persistent set of data, describing the properties, settings and capabilities of an application/service.Composite Appli-cations Applications that are built by reusing logic from two or more existing applications to form a new application without hav-ing to start from scratch. A composite application consists of functionality drawn from several different sources within an SOA. The components may be individual Web services, selected functions from within other applications, or entire systems whose outputs have been packaged as Web ser-vices (often legacy systems).Composition In UML terms, the process of grouping simple objects orentities into a whole. When the whole is destroyed, the ob-jects will also be destroyed.Context An execution space where variables, state and content arehandled. ORAny information that can be used to characterise the situa-tion of an entity at a given time. An entity is a person, place,or object that is considered relevant to the interaction be-tween a user and an application, including the user andapplications themselves. ORSocial and physical situations, circumstances, position, stateor the surroundings of an event at a given time.Context adaptation Context adaptation is about adapting capability (of a service,device or the communication network) and information toelements of context information including location, situation,personal role, task and environment.Context Manage-ment Context management refers to discovery, distribution, and exchange of context information in a well-defined manner.Context-aware A system is context aware if it observes, reacts and changesaccordingly to the context.Context-driven Event which occurs due to a certain contextConversational service An interactive service that provides for bi-directional com-munication by means of real-time (no store-and-forward) end-to-end information transfer from user to user.Device Equipment which is normally used by users for communica-tions and related activities. The definition can be extendedto cover remote monitoring applications where there is nouser present, but the communications to and from the re-mote monitor use the same communications channels aswhen used by users.Device A piece of end-user equipment such as a smart phone, aPDA, or an in-car display. A device is equipped with one ormore network interfaces (e.g., an Ethernet interface, an802.11 interface, and a GPRS interface), each of whichenables the device to connect to a particular network (wiredor wireless)Device Address The unique network address of a device, assigned by acarrier and following the format defined by an internationalstandard such as E.164 for MSISDN addresses, X.121 forX.25 addresses or RFC 791 for IP addresses. An addressuniquely identifies the sending and/or receiving device. Device Profile Persistent set of data, describing the properties, settingsand capabilities of a device.Discovery The act of locating a machine-processable description of aWeb service-related resource that may have been previ-ously unknown and that meets certain functional criteria. Itinvolves matching a set of functional and other criteria with aset of resource descriptions. The goal is to find an appropri-ate Web service-related resource.Event Driven Ar-chitecture Approach for designing and building applications in which events trigger messages to be sent between decoupled applications. Event messages are typically sent using a publish-and-subscribe method such as JMS topics. EDA interactions are asynchronous in nature, whereas the loosely-coupled SOA interactions are usually synchronous (request/response). In EDA transactions, messages can be queued and delivered later.Interface Specification that exists between software components thatspecifies a selected means of interaction, by means ofproperties of other software modules, which abstract andencapsulate their data.Life Cycle The course of developmental changes through which a sys-tem passes from its conception to the termination of its useand subsequent salvage [wiki].Metadata Includes definitions for integrated business process models,messages and integration objects, rules governing datatransformation and other processing, parameters for appli-cation connectivity and system management, user roles andsecurity information, trading partner profiles, and statusinformation about in-flight business processes or other sys-tem components.Network Group of interconnected elements. A computer network is agroup of computers and peripherals connected together tocommunicate with each other and to share information andresources.Network Access Point An interface point between a wireless network and a fixed network.Network Operator/Network ProviderThe entity providing network connectivity for a Device.Orchestration The automated coordination and management of compositeapplications components that participate in a business proc-ess. Orchestration is often most important in long runningbusiness processes where the number and type of excep-tion conditions are greatly increased over traditional shortlived business transactions. An orchestrated process willoften NOT roll back all the work that has occurred at thetime of a given business exception. Rather it will follow oneor more rules and execute compensating transactionsand/or accept the state of the process as satisfactory at thetime of the exception.Provisioning Collection of tasks and framework for authorizing anddocumenting access.Pull A service delivery method in which a client initiates contentdelivery by requesting content from a server.Push A service delivery method in which a server initiates contentdelivery to a client.Quality of Service (QoS) Set of obligations accepted and advertised by a provider entity to service consumers, mainly referring to performance measures.Resource Any component, function, enabler, or application that cansend, receive, or process requests.Roaming The ability to move from one administrative domain to an-other without interruption in service or loss in connectivity.Service Delivery Platform Platform that enables the efficient delivery of real-time ser-vices and content to all kinds of devices over convergent networks. This allows third parties to interface easily without having to know the specifics of the infrastructure, and opera-tors to fully control access to its infrastructure and services models.Service A unit of well-defined functional behavior (in syntax andsemantics) that is offered by a software entity for use byother software entities. Services run on devices, but mayalso run on dedicated equipment 'in' the network. It is pro-vided by a service provider to a user or provided by a com-ponent and used by other entities or performed by someoneand is used by someone.Service adaptation Service adaptation is a means to dynamically adapt an ac-tive service to any change in the environment in which itoperates.Service Composer One who composes/merges one or more services to definea new service.Service descrip-tion A service description is a set of documents that describe the interface to and semantics of a service.Service execution environment The service execution environment is the environment, which allows the execution of services and service compo-nents locally and remotely. The service execution environ-ment must be a robust, scalable and must support run-time execution typical of telecommunications services. The ser-vice execution environment can reside on a single applica-tion server or can span over several application servers. A service execution environment can also host engines for scripting languages and Web service execution.Service Handover Procedure to achieve service continuity even if the usermoves across heterogenous access networks/devices. Service interface A service interface is the abstract boundary that a serviceexposes. It defines the types of messages and the messageexchange patterns that are involved in interacting with theservice, together with any conditions implied by those mes-sages. A logical grouping of operations. An interface repre-sents an abstract service type, independent of transmissionprotocol and data format.Service Level Agreement (SLA) Formal agreement or a contract between a service con-sumer and the service provider, which describes the nature, type, value and condition of the services to be provided.Service Provider A party that focuses on the production and operation of ap-plications and services for End-Users. We distinguish threesubtypes:Federated Third Party Service Provider, ContentProvider, and Application Service Provider. Orthogonally,we also divide content providers into elementary contentproviders and service aggregators.Service Roaming Procedure to perform seamless movement between thedifferent but (functionally) equivalent service instances with-out loosing a connection.Service-oriented architecture A service-oriented architecture is a software architectural concept where composite web applications are developed as a collection of interoperable services that can be inde-pendently developed, deployed, discovered or replaced. The services typically support one aspect of a business require-ment or process and while the internals of the service can be implemented in any number of ways, the interface to other components that use the service generally conforms to a standard such as Web Services.Session The set of senders and receivers (local and remote) used todeliver a certain high-level service to a set of users (e.g., avideo telephony service) and the data streams flowing fromsenders to receivers. Examples of sessions are multimediaconferences, video telephony calls, and TV broadcasts. Thepresentation form of a data stream at a receiver (i.e., thestream' s "modality") may differ from the way in which theway the data stream was sent (e.g., it was transmitted asaudio, but it is presented to the receiver as text).1IntroductionThe Mobile Services Platform (MSP) cluster is part of the Sixth Framework Program of Euro-pean research activities IST (Information Society Technologies). The cluster covers all work providing elements of platforms, which facilitate the development and deployment of mobile services. The cluster provides a forum to facilitate knowledge sharing on all aspects of B3G service platform technologies. The problem space includes: hiding the heterogeneous ser-vice execution platforms, managing the personal communication sphere (devices, groups, networks), creating autonomous systems, context/knowledge management, automatic ser-vice composition, end-user/3rd party service development environments, service roaming etc. Context and Knowledge Management is a very important feature of a service platform, par-ticularly where services are expected to behave intelligently, learn, exhibit awareness of their surroundings and react to changes. Context generally refers to all types of information per-taining to a service and or the user of the service. Knowledge typically refers to more general information, of which context is a specific type. Knowledge would typically include information about users and their preferences, and also information that can be inferenced from other sources.This whitepaper aims to analyse the definition of and examine the treatment of Context and Knowledge Management across a number of IST projects with specific reference to the fol-lowing projects: DAIDALOS, SPICE, COMET, E2R, MIDAS and OPUCE.2Information Management2.1Information Sources and TypesThis section gives an overview of the types of information that are managed within the vari-ous MSP cluster projects and where this information comes from. An example of this is user personalized information and user profiles. This can be input by the user in terms of prefer-ences or it can be learned by the system through observation.The other type of information addressed by this whitepaper is context information. This in-formation is not primarily based on the user, but can also refer to other entities in the system such as services, devices and the environment in which they operate. Context information can be sourced from several sources including sensors, devices, repositories of data and information services. Context data can be used to make inferences.The below areas are addressed in some detail within this chapter :•Structure and Storage of InformationThis section attempts to address the following issues :-Where is information stored within the system; database servers, devices etc.-How is data represented? How is knowledge represented? Examples include XML, Ontologies, Relational databases, Rules etc.-Is information centralised or distributed and how? Is there redundancy or duplica-tion?•Information Lifecycle-What is the information lifecycle, is it transitional or permanent? Are inferences dynamic or is there a means of remembering based on past information?•Interpretation and Inferencing-How is information interpreted?-What means are used to represent information to aid in interpretation?-What approaches are used in inferencing?•Input of Information Management to System Architecture-How does the system architecture address knowledge management?-What type of information processing takes place?-How knowledge can be used to improve the intelligence of services2.2IST Projects2.2.1Information and Knowledge use within Daidalos Description / Modeling of Personalisation and User Profile Infor-mationThe principal use of non context information within Daidalos is information about users and their preferences, also known as Personalization knowledge. These user preferences are rules which aim to tailor a component to an individual. They can be context dependent or context independent. Daidalos Personalisation is chiefly interested in context dependent preferences (i.e. it’s outcome changes as the user’s context changes).User Preferences can be represented in many different ways but for Daidalos II, context dependent user preferences are of "if-then-else" rule format with context conditions and preference outcomes. An example of what a Daidalos user preference might look like is:if LOCATION = HOME and TIME > 17.00thenQOS = BRONZEelseQOS = SILVERwhere the context conditions are “if LOCATION = HOME” and “TIME > 17.00 and the preference outcomes are “QOS = BRONZE” and “QOS = SILVER”. Daidalos user preferences are not strictly limited to providing parameter values; they may also provide actions which the user may prefer to perform, e.g. if CALL_ACCEPTED and VIDEO_STREAMING_ACTIVE then PAUSE_VIDEO_STREAMING.User preferences are stored in a distributed database and keyed on a virtual identity (VID) identifier which is associated with a user.Use of Information for AdaptationPersonalisation in Daidalos is the set of processes that adapt the behaviour of the system so that it appears differently to different users or to the same user in different contexts. By "appears" we mean more than just the colour of the screen but the way in which the system reacts to the user. This includes the services it selects, the networks and devices it chooses, how services are manipulated at runtime and any automatic triggering it may do on the user's behalf.Middleware AdaptationUser preferences are used during service selection, firstly during service filtering and then in service ranking. Hard preferences such as “never select service x” are used during service filtering to remove unwanted services from the discovered service list. Softer preferences such as “choose cheapest service” are used during service ranking to rank the remaining services in the filtered list. The ranked service list is then used to select services which can run as either atomic services or as part of a composite service.Service AdaptationServices can have a list of associated personalisable parameters, e.g. volume, QoS. During service instantiation, personalisation returns the preferred values for requested personalis-able parameters to the instantiated service allowing it to personalise itself.Services may need to re-personalise due to context changes. When these occur, personal-isation will notify any updated preference outcomes to the appropriate services allowing them to re-personalise at runtime, dynamically changing to meet the user’s needs.Such context changes may also affect the architecture of a running service. Composite ser-vices, made from two or more services may need to be re-composed due to a context change. E.g. if a composite service includes display service “X”, a change in context may mean the user now prefers to use display service “Y”. In this way personalisation may trigger a service re-composition (to replace “X” with “Y”) to provide the user with dynamic services which update to meet his/her current needs.Network AdaptationPersonalisation interfaces with the network layers to provide preferences for network and interface selection. Depending on the location and preferences of the user and the QoS re-quirements of the services, network access will be dynamically selected based on this infor-mation.Information Manipulation•Information Interpretation and ontologiesOntologies are used in Daidalos for describing services and also to allow the composition of individual basic services into composed services. The service ontology within Daidalos is OWL-S as described by the W3C. The service profile is used for describing a service for the purposes of service discovery. The service model and grounding are both used to determine the dependencies of the service and also how to interact with the service, such as what pro-tocols to use etc.Personalisation Ontologies are manually coded conceptual formalisations of user situations, activities, goals and behaviour patterns (e.g. "the user is at a business meeting", "the user is going to take a person to the airport") and preference outcomes and pro-active actions (e.g. "background colour", "start service of type T") which can be used to describe user preferences in a compact, readable and meaningful way and to provide useful metadata when learning them automatically from user action histories.•Information GatheringExplicit and implicit personalisation techniques are implemented. The user can input prefer-ences and manipulate preferences manually using the Preference GUI. Additionally, the user and his/her environment are monitored. Data-mining and learning algorithms are ap-plied to the monitored data to produce new preference information which is used to update the user’s preferences.•ReasoningReasoning with relation to Daidalos services, users and context takes place in the Personalisation component. When a service requests a preference outcome the Daidalos Personalisation system must evaluate the correct outcome with respect to the user’s current context. During this evaluation process, several preference outcomes may be produced. Any conflicts between these outcomes are resolved during the conflict resolution task before the final evaluated outcome is returned to the requesting service.2.2.2SPICE Intelligent Service EnablersThe functionality, which is required by the SPICE platform in order to support the discovery, exchange, and interpretation of semantically enriched knowledge, is offered by a group of four enablers [SPICE D4.4]. This group is called intelligent service enablers, which collec-tively form the knowledge layer of the SPICE platform. The Knowledge Discovery and Ex-change(KDE) enabler provides a message-oriented middleware that loosely couples all。