ch1 section2-Seven Principles of the Business Letter Writing
口译笔记的七个原则
THE SEVEN PRINCIPLESThe use of a technique is always dependent upon the application of a certain number of principles. This is what we call the instructions. One need not follow the rules recommended in such instructions. Indeed the product, device or system for which they were devised may well work even if they are not observed, but will do so less efficiently. Furthermore, the simpler the instructions, the more likely the user is to follow them. The same applies to note-taking. A few very simple principles give this system its sound base and precision, and make using it straightforward. There are seven of these principles; in order they are:1 Noting the idea and not the word2 The rules of abbreviation3 Links4 Negation5 Adding emphasis6 Verticality7 ShiftSome of these principles have already been explained by Jean Herbert in his Interpreter’s Handbook1.1. Noting the idea rather than the wordTake any French text and give it to 10 excellent english translators. The result will be ten very well translated texts, but ten very different texts in as far as the actual words used are concerned. The fact that we have ten good translations, but ten different texts, shows that what is important is the translation of the idea and not the word. This is even truer of interpretation since the interpreter must produce a version of the text in another language immediately. He must be free of the often misleading constraints that words represent. It is through the analysis and notation of the ideas that the interpreter will avoid mistakes and a laboured delivery.Example: Let us take the following, from French into English: …Il y a des fortes chances pour que...../ There is a very good chance that...” If we base our notation of this expression on the words, the key word is chance. If we base it on the idea, it is probable.The notes will have to be read 20 minutes – even an hour2– after the idea was originally expressed. In the first example it would be very easy to make a mistake. Having noted chance the i nterpreter might, if the context allowed, render it …there is a chance that” or …by chance”. If on the other hand he noted probable the mistake cannot be made. The issue of style is also dealt with in the second example where one would automatically say (interpreting into English), …It is probable that”, or …it is likely that”, or …in all likelihood” whereas in the first example even if the interpreter had correctly recalled the idea that the word chance represented he/she will be a prisoner to that word and might easily produce a gallicism3.1 Georg & C ie, Geneva, 1956.2 this was indeed the case when Rozan wrote. Although nowadays 20 minutes is considered a long consecutive speech, his comments still apply.3 being unduly influenced by the source language is, of course, not only a problem in French-English interpretation but in all interpretation.Example: …We should try to live up to....”. It would be absurd to note the word …live” and it would greatly increase the risk of making a mistake. Although it would seem to be very different from the original it woul d be more appropriate to note in French, for example, … à la hauteur” (in english ‘to be up to’). This is the result of analysing the idea behind what is said and noting it idiomatically in the target language. It would be just as useful to note be =, representing being equal to , which could very easily be read back idiomatically in intepretation (ie. …à la hauteur in French”, …to be up to in English”).Whenever taking notes the interpreter must concentrate on the major idea and how this can be noted clearly and simply (preferably in the target language, although this is not essential).In the practical exercises in Part 3 of this book you will find a number of examples of noting the idea rather than the word. It is recommended that you examine these with particular care.2. The Rules of AbbreviationA. ABBREVIATION OF WORDSThe rule of thumb is that unless a word is short (4-5 letters) the interpreter should note it in an abbreviated form.If we have to note …specialized” it is more meaningful a nd reliable to note sp ed than to write spec.Other examples:Stat.could be read as …statute” or …statistics” whilst St ute and St ics are unambiguous.Prod.could be read as …production”, …producer”, …product” or …productivity” whilePr on, Pr er, Pr ct, Pr vity are unambiguous.Com.could be read as …Commission” or …committee” while C on and C tee are unambiguous.Rule: If you have time write a word as completely as possible, however, if a word must be abbreviated, then write some of the first and last letters rather than trying to write as many letters as possible from the start onwards.B. INDICATING GENDER AND TENSEHaving abbreviated a word or an idea (be it by the use of a symbol or a contraction of its component letters) it can also be very helpful to give an indication of gender4 and tense).Thus in the expression: …I will come back to this a little later”, noting the future tense will render the words …a little later”superfluous. We will see below that …I speak” can be noted : I ”. Therefore we note : I ll”The expression: …those mentioned”, must be noted : rf d; because rf alone could be read back as …those which mention”.4 Rozan was working from and into French. Gender is meaningless for those noting in English, however, the idea could be usefully adapted for use in, for example, the Slavic languages where nouns have gender.Rule: To indicate gender5 and number we add e or s to the symbol or abbreviation. To indicate tense we add ll for the future and d for the past.See also the examples in Part 3.C. ABBREVIATING THE REGISTERThe expression …which have contributed to” is long. The word help is short. Wherever possible we must abbreviate by using a word which conveys the same meaning but is shorter.Similarly, …...which are worth looking at” can be noted int g (interesting).…In order to arrive at some conclusions” can be noted to end.…Taking into account the situation at the present time” can be noted as sit on now.Examine closely the abbreviations in Part 3.3. LinksThe part of any speech that is both the most important and the most difficult to note is the sequence of ideas and the links between them. (Jean Herbert)An idea can be distorted completely if its relation to the previous idea is not clearly indicated. When taking notes then, we should never miss out the links. Indeed what we actually see is that if the links are noted well the rest of the idea can be summarised in just a few strokes of the pen.A. Noting links becomes very simple if we use the key words that follow. (Over time this will become automatic.)as, why and that is because, this is the reason why, since, given the fact that, (in some instances) given that; to convey explanation.tho although, despite the fact that; to convey oppositionbut on the other hand, but, nevertheless, however; to convey limitationsif it is possible that, assuming that; to convey supposition.as to as far as x is concerned, on the matter of; to convey referencetfe therefore, one can then conclude; to convey conclusion.The three symbols below (which can also be found in Part 2) are also extremely useful. =the same goes for, one might say the same of; to convey the idea ofequality or correspondanceon the other hand, contrary to; to convey the idea of difference or lackof correspondancein + in addition, furthermore, if we also take account of; to convey the ideaof additional precision.5Again the ‘e’ represents the French feminine ending. Any letter can be used and this will depend on the languages involved.B. Linking is not just about representing the idea; it will often impacton the very content of the speech. It is a question of notingquickly and without repetition the group of subject words and thegroup of complement words to which the idea relates. This problemcan be solved quickly and easily by using the the recall arrow (JeanHerbert)Examine carefully the examples of links in Part 3.4. and5. Negation and emphasisNegation and emphasis are two essential elements of any speech and as such should be noted unambiguously (See Jean Herbert pp46-47).1. NEGATIONNegation might be noted by means of a line running through a word or symbol. Example:If we use OK to signify …agree”, then …disagree” will be OK . It is also possible to write the word no before the word to be negated (thus in our example we would note no OK). This second method is clearer and since …no” is a very short word using it is not a problem.2. EMPHASISTo emphasize a word we can underline it (twice if we are dealing with a superlative or absolute).Example:…(The study) is interesting” : int g…(The study) is very interesting” : int g…(The study) is extremely interesting” : int gIn some cases the line may be replaced by a circumflex to avoid confusion arising from the use of verticality.Alternatively emphasis can be noted with a dotted line.Example:…This report might be useful” : usefulThe use of underlining to denote nuance allows us to qualify the word (or idea) underlined without noting the qualifier.Example:…important question” becomes : ?…we should look at this very carefully” becomes : look at…I would like to say in the strongest possible terms” becomes : I say…...an imperfect solution” becomes : sol tn6. VERTICALITYIt is the principles of Verticality and Shift (described in the next section) which form the backbone of the note-taking system described in this book.Verticality means taking notes from top to bottom rather than from left to right. This method makes it possible to:a) group ideas logically, allowing a complete and immediate synthesis when we come to read back our notes,b) to do away with many links which would otherwise be essential to the clarity of the text.A. STACKING…Stacking6” consists of placing different elements of the text above or below one another.…the report on western europe”R ort .W Eur.…the report on western europe is an interesting document”R ort int gW Eur.…Since the French, US and UK delegations....”…Since the French, US and UK delegations have suggested....”FreAs USUKFreAs US suggest dUK…T he chapters of the report which deal with economic situation in Europe offer additional information and new statistics”Ch rs info_________ give newEc.Eur stat ics6…Superposition” in FrenchIf (as we will see in part 2) the sign → is used to denote …offer” and the sign + to denote …additional” and …new” then our notes will look like this:Ch rs info_________ → +Ec.Eur stat icsSee the examples in the practical exercises in part 3 and study them carefully.B. USING BRACKETSBrackets are an important part of the verticality system. In every speech there will be certain elements, which are mentioned to clarify an idea or to highlight a particular point, but which are not integral to the speaker’s train of thought.These parts of a speech should be noted in brackets, below the main element to which they refer.Examples:…....which leads to new investment, particularly in the transport sector”→ + inv ts(T ort)…(We hear that our exports will suffer as a result of increases in factor costs), which will make them less competitive.”(so - comp ive)See also the examples of the use of parentheses given in the practical exercises at the back.To encourage a natural use of the verticality technique it is recommended that you use relatively large but narrow pieces of paper. This will allow you to note the maximum amount of text on one page whilst automatically bringing your notes back to the left hand side of the page.7. SHIFTShift and Verticality are the fundamental principles underlying this note-taking system.To explain Shift let us take an example: …Over the course of 1954, prices rose, although not to the same extent as income, thus the population’s net income increased.” Our notes will be as follows ( the symbol ⌦ denotes increase):54, prices ⌦but ───── no = ⌦ incomeso ────Pop on⌦Word for word on the first line : Over the course of 1954, prices rose,Word for word on the second line : although not to the same extent as income,Word for word on the third line : thus the population’s net income increased.Having used Shift to give our notes a vertical layout on the page, noting the links is almost enough to give us an accurate and full version of the text.Shift means writing notes in the place on a lower line where they would have appeared had the text on the line above been repeated.The examples below show how notes would be positioned during interpretation, but have not been abbreviated.…The report on the economic situation in Europe is a fine document which discusses some interesting topics”:R ort goodEc.Eurdiscusses interesting topics…to understand the program, one must”to understand the programone must…The effectiveness of the Social and Economic Council’s efforts at solving.....”effectiveness efforts Ecosocat solving.....…Thus in the Report and the Study we find a theoretical and practical analysis which will help in the adoption of......”tfe(in R ort)Studytheoreticalthere is analysis practicalwhich will help in the adoption of See also examples of Shift in part 3.。
《礼记》之《学记》全文(ThebookofRitesofthelearning)
《礼记》之《学记》全文（The book of Rites of thelearning）《礼记》之《学记》全文(The book of Rites of the learning)"The book of Rites" of the "learning"The "book of Rites" of the "learning"Send into the constitution, kind-hearted, enough to Xiao smell, not enough to focus on the body; Xian far enough to focus, not enough people. The gentleman for its will by almost influence the people and form moral customs!Act plan carefully thinking, moral good people to seek to help him, can get a small reputation, can not be moved closer to the masses; awise man, and his close to the alienation of the people, the masses can be touched, but can not play the role of educating people. If a gentleman wants to educate people and form good customs, he must pay attention to teaching and learning!The good-for-nothing; people do not learn, do not know. Therefore,the king of ancient times, the founding of the people, the teaching is the first. "The life" said: "read the code to start. "That's what it means."!Jade can not be made into good implements without cutting and polish, and people will not understand it without learning. Therefore, the ancient kings, the establishment of the state, the rule of the people, first of all to set up learning and teaching. In the article of the bookof Shang Shu, he said, "the idea is always to set up learning and teaching."!Although Jia Yao, put food, do not know its purpose; have to, not learn, not good. Therefore, learning, then lack ofknowledge, teaching, and then know sleepy. Lack of knowledge, andcan also reflexive; know the difficulties, and then can self, therefore: Teaching benefits teachers as well as students. also. "To life," said: "learning half.". "That's what it means."!Although delicious dishes do not eat, they do not know how delicious they are; in spite of the profound truth, they do not learn, nor will they understand the benefits of it. Therefore, through learning to know their shortcomings, by teaching people can feel confused. If you knowthe inadequacy of your studies, you will in turn be strict with yourself, feel confused and be able to study tirelessly. Therefore, teaching and learning are mutually improved. "Teach people to advance half of their learning," said the book. That's the truth!The ancient church, a private school, the party has the operation, orderly, state-owned science. In school, middle school. A year as Lijingbianzhi, three years as through five years, parents and teachersXi Bo, seven years depending on the school to take friends, is small; nine years of knowledge mastery, strong legislation and not against,that great. The husband then to Huaminyisu near and far, persuasion,Huai Zhi, this is the way of university. The book says, "when a moth is alive. "That's what it means."!Ancient science teaching, each of the twenty-five "village" has a school called "school", each of the five hundred "party" has its own school called "Xiang", each of the twelve thousand and five hundred home "surgery" has its own school called "order", a university in the capital of the emperor or princes. The school enrolls students each year and examines them every otheryear. The ability of first year students to punctuate divided into chapters and distinguish between ambition, third years to check whether students focus on learning and happy to get along with classmates, whether students can learn fifth years of extensive and close to the teacher, seventh year students discuss their ability and non recognition of friends, if you can do it, is called "small". Ninth years, students can extrapolate, reasoning, and have strong faith, not contrary to the teachings of the teacher, is called "Dacheng.". Only in this way, to educate people, improve customs, the people around can be convinced, those who are far away will come to him, this is the purpose of University teaching. The ancient books often said: "the ant and thetitle of the mound, and then make a big nest. That's the truth!University teaching, flap offering dishes, respectful way; "Xiao Ya" to the beginning of three, the official entrance; drum trunk, sun Qiye; Xia Chu two objects, they also not regarded as Wei; uncertain, Kwong also view tour; when not, save their children; listen to not ask, also learn step by step. The seven, teachers also dalun. "Remember" said:"the first thing that the government, Shi Xian zhi. "That's what it means."!To enter university, (emperor or officials) dress, worship Confucius algae with celery, said students should study "honour the teacher and respect his teaching; Book of Songs."< >, Xiaoya Luming < four >, < s > three, Hua text narrative poems and harmony, by their national service experience; to open out the students according to the drum books books, is to learn from them; a pointer for corporal punishment, they haveto comply with etiquette distrust. (; student enrollment in the spring for summer) Emperor princes without sacrifice, not to test students, let students have ample time to learn according to their own voluntary calm. The teacher always observe the students, not repeated instructions, so they think; (older students consult teachers), young students should pay attention to, and do not insert ask, because learning should be gradual, not beyond the level. These seven are the general order of the teaching order. The ancient saying: "in the teaching activities, the first official school to teach any official Ministry of science, people should first cultivate noble spirit. That's the truth!The university education, teaching will be on the back, there willbe interest in. Learn not to learn playing, not an Xian; no Boyi, not an "poem"; no miscellaneous service, not an Li; in addition to the art, not music school. Therefore, the gentleman in learning, but also hidden Yan,the repair of Yan, the rest of the Yan, swim yan. Therefore, the study of natural, safety and pro its divisions, its letter road and lucky friends. Therefore, although we leave the teacher's assistant, we will not oppose it. "Against fate," said: "respect for the sun, time sensitive, and later repair comes.". "That's what it means."!The university teaching activities, carried out by four seasons, each have formal work; the rest of the time, also have homework. Don't make harps play miscellaneous tunings, not good; do not learn all kinds of metaphor, you can not learn Book of Songs; do not understand all kinds of dress, can't learn etiquette. Therefore, it is impossible for us to like what we have learned without learning all kinds of art. So, the gentleman treat study,heart often think, when industry should learn the course, even the rest of the game, to learn. Only in this way can we study at ease, get close to our teachers, like our friends, and believe what we have learned. Even if we leave our teachers, we will not go against the teacher's teachings. In his book, the book says, "only concentration, humility, respect, and quick study can lead to academic success.".That's the truth!This church, which accounted for more than the Bi Shen, hearing, speaking, and Gu Jian, make people not by their sincerity, teach people as its material; its application is also contrary to the demand of the Buddha. The husband, however, has hidden its learning and disease, and its division, the pain is difficult, but I do not know its benefits, buteven after the end of its industry, its going to speed. There is no penalty for teaching!Now the teachers only recite the text, a lot of indoctrination, and blindly catch up with the progress, and ignore the students thoroughly understand, no, so that they can not calm down to study. It is not sincerity that directs the people, but not the full development of the students' abilities. The method of teaching violates the principles of teaching and does not conform to the requirements of students. In this way, the students will detest his studies, and resentment of his teacher, suffering for academic difficulties, but does not understand its benefits. Although he has finished his studies, he will soon forget what he has learned, and the reason why he can not succeed in education is here!The law of the university is forbidden by the absence of the word, and when it can be called, it is not the tomb, but thesun, the good and the good. Of these four, the teaching is the beginning and the beginning. Hair then banned, is to defend Georgia victorious; however, when I, hard and hard into the application without the sun; miscellaneous, bad chaos without repair; science alone without friends, is solitude and smell; Yan Yan Peng inverse teacher; the school opened waste. The six are the ones that teach.The teaching method of college students, in the error does not occur to prevent, called prevention; education, at the appropriate time is not timely; beyond the age and degree of education and education, it iscalled order; choose a good watch each other, called watch. These four are the reasons for the success of teaching. Wrong to ban, there is firm and not easy to break the trend; missed the opportunity to learn, remedial, despite hard efforts, still difficult to succeed; out of order and not according to the degree of order of teachers to teach, students will be reduced to fragments without learning to a complete system to study alone,No friends to discuss, it will form a little learning, not informative; don't make decent friends, will defy the teacher's teachings; not engaged in decent behavior, will be abandoned their studies. These six are the causes of teaching failure.A gentleman knows both what he teaches and what he does, and what he teaches is what he teaches. The gentleman teaches Yu, and not pulls, strong but not stunning, but not reaches open. While not pulls and strong, not easy and open, but not reaches; and easy to think, is a good metaphor.Gentleman not only knows the successful experience of teaching, but also understands the reason of teaching failure, then can be a good teacher. So the gentleman's teaching is to inspire students, without pulling force induced by him, he exhorted and not forced on repression; and trivial explanation. By not pulling, students will feel warm; and exhortation is not mandatory, students can learn to feel inspired; but not trivial, students will study and thinking. Students can feel thegentle, feel easy to learn, and independent thinking, can be said to be a good inspiration.Scholars have four loss, teachers must know the. The study of man,or the loss of more, or loss of small, or loss is easy, or lost only then. Of these four, the heart is not the same. Know the mind, then can also save the lost. He who teaches is always good, and he who saves is lost.The students have four kinds of faults in the study, is to teach people to know the reason: people learn to fail, or because too much, or knowledge Pianzhai, or change, or fear of suspension. The four are due to students' different mentality. Teachers understand the different attitudes of an educated person in order to help them overcome their shortcomings. The function of education is to enable educators to exert their advantages and overcome their shortcomings.A good singer makes one follow his voice; a good teacher makes one follow his wishes. He is about to, and micro, can explain clearly with few illustrations of Zang, KEISHI.Singing, not only sweet voice, but also make people unable torestrain the emotions to strike a deep chord, sing along; will teach people not only give people the knowledge, but also guide students to consciously follow him to learn. Teachers should be simple, clear, concise and perfect. Examples are few, but they can explain the problem. Only in this way can students achieve the purpose of following them consciously.To learn to know a gentleman, and know the beauty of evil, and canthen be able to megametaphoric megametaphor; teacher; teacher can thenas long as long as can; then you. Therefore, teachers are also, so learning is king also. Therefore, the choice of teachers should not be careless. "Remember" said: "the four generation of Kings only division. "That's what it means!Gentleman should be difficult to learn according to studentslearning, so as to see the quality of the students' ability, and thencan do the difference, the students are inspired and inspired in many ways. Can be inspired by many aspects of induction, in order to become a good teacher. Can be a good teacher can do the head, can do the head,can be a man Jun. So, to be a teacher is to learn to be a leader. Forthis reason, teachers are not to be taken seriously. Ancient books said: "the three generations of the founding, the four generation ofgovernance of the people, are respected teachers.". That's what it means!Where the study of the road, a difficult. Division strict, then road respect, road respect, then people know, respect study. Therefore, the king's place is not to his ministers. Two: when he is a corpse, he isalso a minister, and when he is a teacher,he is also a minister. The University of the ceremony, although inthe Imperial Emperor, so also no respect for North.In the course of study, it is difficult to respect teachers. Respectfor teachers, in order to attach importance to the teachings he taught; can value the truth, and then the people can concentrate on learning. Sothe king under two kinds of situations do not treat as subordinates: when men dress up by the worship of gods men, not to look at his courtiers as; when men don't teacher when the king, as his servant see. According to the University's ritual, although he was the emperor summoned, can be removed from the north for the courtiers of etiquette, this is to show respect for the sake of teachers.Good scholar, division Yi and work times, and thus mediocre; not good scholars, teachers and work, half, and thus complain of it. A good questioner, such as a fortified wood, is the first to be the easy one, and the latter is long,。
Brief Introduction of the Palace Museum
The Palace MuseumLocated in the center of Beijing, the Palace Museum, historically and artistically one of the most comprehensive museum in China, was established on the basis of the Forbidden City, a palace of the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1840), and their collection of treasures.The Forbidden City used to be the imperial palace of the Ming and Qing dynasties. It is nearly 600 years old, with construction started in 1406 and completed in 1420. The principles of Feng Shui, the ancient Chinese system of geomancy, governed the whole process. The rectangular palace covers an area of some 720,000 sq. km -- 961 m in length and 760 m in width. It has a total of 9999.5 room spaces (an area enclosed by four poles). In 1924, the imperial family of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1840) was removed from the Forbidden City, and in 1925 the Palace Museum was established here.Emperors of the Ming and Qing dynastiesfrom 1420 to 1911 held court and livedwithin the walls of the Forbidden City.After the republican revolution, this palaceas a whole would have been sequesteredby the Nationalist government were it notfor the "Articles of Favorable Treatment ofthe Qing House" which allowed Puyi tolive on in the Inner Court after hisabdication. In 1924, during a couplaunched by the warlord Feng Yuxiang,Puyi was expelled from the Forbidden Cityand the management of the palace fell to the charge of a committee set up to deal with the concerns of the deposed imperial family.According to a 28-volume inventory published in 1925, the treasure trove left by the Qing numbered more than 1.17 million items. Shortly before the outbreak of World War II，the museum authorities decided to evacuate its collection rather than let it fall into enemy's hands or risk destruction in battle. For four frantic months between February and May 1933, the most important pieces in the collection were packed into 13,427 crates and 64 bundles and sent to Shanghai in five batches. From there they were dispatched toNanjing where a depository was built and a branch of the Palace Museum established. And in 1938, the treasures were movedagain, this time by three routes to Sichuan,where they were secreted in threelocations, Baxian, Emei and Leshan. Onlyat the end of the war were theyconsolidated in Chongqing, whence theywere returned to Nanjing in 1947.Between the end of 1948 and the dawn of1949, the Nationalists picked relics to fill2,972 crates for shipping across the Strait.A rival Palace Museum was set up in Taipei to display these antiquities. In the early 1950s, shortly after theestablishment of the People's Republic, thePalace Museum looked resplendent oncemore after repair and redecoration. All thetall buildings were equipped with lightningconductors, and modern systems of fireprotection and security. As for thecollection of antiquities, a systematicinventory was completed during the 1950sand 1960s, redressing the legacy ofinaccurate cataloguing of former times. After more than a decade of painstaking effort, some 710,000 relics from the Qing palace were retrieved. At the same time, through national allocations, requisitions and private donations, more than 220,000 additional pieces of cultural significance were added.The Forbidden City is China's largest and most intact ancient building complex. It is laid out symmetrically along a north-south axial line. The well-designed palace appears magnificent, solemn and harmonious, representing the long cultural tradition of China and its outstanding architectural accomplishments five centuries ago. It is a truly superb masterpiece in every sense. A Treasure House of Rare and Valuable Art Works The Palace Museum in the Forbidden City has the country's largest collection of ancient art works, some of which are invaluable national treasures. Art works in the museum's collection total 1,052,653, including paintings, pottery, bronze wares, inscribed wares, toys, clocks and court documents.The Forbidden City is encompassed by a Array wall 10 meters high, and surrounded by amoat 5.2 meters wide. The palace has fourentrance gates: the main Meridian Gate(Wumen) to the south, the EasternFlowery Gate (Donghuamen), the WesternFlowery Gate (Xihuamen), and the Gate ofDivine Prowess (Shenwumen) to thesouth. One has to pass through seven gatesto arrive at the Palace of Heavenly Purity(Qianqinggong), the emperors' livingquarters. These seven gates, starting fromthe very southern gate of the imperial city, are: Zhengyangmen, Damingmen, Tiananmen, Duanmen, Wumen, Taihemen and Qianqingmen, which symbolize the celestial Plough.The palace grounds are divided into two parts: the Front Palace (Qianchao) to the south and the Inner Palace (Neiting) to the north. The Front Palace consists chiefly of three halls -- the Hall of Supreme Harmony (Taihedian), the Hall of Central Harmony (Zhonghedian) and the Hall of Preserving Harmony (Baohedian). Here, important ceremonies, such as the accession of a new emperor to the throne and the emperor's birthday and wedding, were held. There are two groups of buildings on each side of the three great halls: the Hall of Literary Glory (Wenhuadian) and the Imperial Library (Wenyuange) on the east and the Hall of Military Prowess (Wuyingdian) on the west. The Inner Palace mainly includes the Palace of Heavenly Purity (Qianqinggong), the Hall of Prosperity (Jiaotaidian) and the Palace of Earthly Tranquility (Kunninggong), where emperors and empresses lived.Behind them is the Imperial Garden. On each side of the inner three great halls are six eastern palaces and six western palaces, respectively, which were used as residences for concubines. The six eastern palaces are Jingrengong, Yanxigong, Chengqiangong, Yonghegong, Zhongcuigong and Jingyanggong. The six western palaces are Yongshougong, Taijidian, Yunkungong, Changchungong, Chuxiugong and Chengfugong.There are some Buddhist sanctuaries to the east of the six eastern palaces and to the west of the six western palaces. Besides the inner and outer courts, there are also two major building compounds: the Outer Eastern Road (Waidonglu) and the Outer Western Road (Waixilu). To the south of the Outer Eastern Road are the Southern Three Halls (Nansansuo), residences for princes. To the north are the Hall of Supreme Royalty (Huangjidian) and the Hall of Peaceful Longevity (Ningshougong). Further northward there are the Hall of Mental Cultivation (Yangxidian), the Hall of Happiness and Longevity (Leshoutang), the Hall of Harmony (Yihexuan) and the Garden of the Hall of Peaceful Longevity. To the south of the Outer Western Road is the Hall of PeacefulBenignity (Cininggong), and to its north are some Buddhist sanctuaries.Since yellow is the symbol of the royal family, it is the dominant color in the Forbidden City. Roofs are built with yellow glazed tiles; decorations in the palace are painted yellow; even the bricks on the ground are made yellow in special process. However, there is one exception. Wenyuange, the royal library, has a black roof. The reason is that it was believed black represented water then and could extinguish fire.The Palace Museum is China's largest museum. It houses a collection of one million valuable art works, most of which were in the possession of the imperial families of the Ming and Qing dynasties. These art treasures include paintings, pottery, bronze wares, gold and silver wares, embroidery, sculptures, jade wares, lacquer wares and lacquer enamel wares. In addition, there are also court articles, including jewels, accessories, clocks, medicines, furniture and furnishings. It is a unique, superb building complex, integrating the outstanding achievements of ancient Chinese architecture. In 1961, the Forbidden City was included in the List of Key Historical Monuments under State Protection. In 1987, it was put on the World Heritage List of UNESCO.。
The Seven Habits
The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, first published in 1989, is a self-help book written by Stephen R. Covey. It has sold over 15 million copies in 38 languages since first publication, which was marked by the release of a 15th anniversary edition in 2004. Covey argues this is achieved by aligning oneself to what he calls "true north" principles of a character ethic that he believes to be universal and timeless.[1]The book was enormously popular, and catapulted Covey into public-speaking appearances and workshops. He has also written a number of follow-up books:∙First Things First∙Principle Centered Leadership∙The Power Of The 7 Habits: Applications And Insights∙Seven Habits of Highly Effective Families∙Beyond the Seven Habits∙Living the Seven Habits, a collection of stories from people who have applied the seven habits in their lives∙The 8th Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness, a sequel to The Seven Habits published in 2004Sean Covey (Stephen's son) has written a version of the book for teens, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective Teens. This version simplifies the 7 Habits for younger readers so they can better understand them. In October 2006, Sean Covey also published The 6 Most Important Decisions You Will Ever Make: A Guide for Teens.This guide highlights key times in the life of a teen and gives advice on how to deal with them.Stephen Covey's eldest son, Stephen M. R. Covey, has written a book titled The Speed of Trust.The 7 HabitsDependence to Independence∙Habit 1: Be Proactive: Principles of Personal Choice∙Habit 2: Begin with the End in Mind: Principles of Personal Vision∙Habit 3: Put First Things First: Principles of Integrity & Execution Independence to Interdependence∙Habit 4: Think Win/Win: Principles of Mutual Benefit∙Habit 5: Seek First to Understand, Then to be Understood: Principles of Mutual Understanding∙Habit 6: Synergize: Principles of Creative CooperationContinual Improvement∙Habit 7: Sharpen the Saw: Principles of Balanced Self-RenewalThe chapters are dedicated to each of the habits, which are represented by the following imperatives:1.Habit 1 - Principles of Personal Choice: Covey emphasizes the original sense of theterm "proactive" as coined by Victor Frankl. You can either be proactive or reactive when it comes to how you respond to certain things. When you are reactive, you blame other people and circumstances for obstacles or problems. Being proactive means taking responsibility for every aspect of your life. Initiative and taking action will then follow. Covey also argues that man is different from other animals in that he has self-consciousness. He has the ability to detach himself and observe his own self; think about his thoughts. He goes on to say how this attribute enables him: It gives him the power not to be affected by his circumstances. Covey talks about stimulus and response. Between stimulus and response, we have the power of free will to choose our response.2.Habit 2 - Principles of Personal Vision: This chapter is about setting long-termgoals based on "true north" principles. Covey recommends formulating a "Personal Mission Statement" to document one's perception of one's own vision in life. He sees visualization as an important tool to develop this. He also deals with organizational mission statements, which he claims to be more effective if developed and supported by all members of an organization rather than prescribed.3.Habit 3 - Principles of Integrity & Execution: Covey describes a framework forprioritizing work that is aimed at long-term goals, at the expense of tasks that appear to be urgent, but are in fact less important. Delegation is presented as an important part of time management. Successful delegation, according to Covey, focuses on results and benchmarks that are to be agreed in advance, rather than on prescribing detailed work plans. Habit three is greatly expanded on in the follow on book First Things First.4.Habit 4 - Principles of Mutual Benefit: An attitude whereby mutually beneficialsolutions are sought that satisfy the needs of oneself as well as others, or, in the case of a conflict, both parties involved.5.Habit 5 - Principles of Mutual Understanding: Covey warns that giving out advicebefore having empathetically understood a person and their situation will likely result in that advice being rejected. Thoroughly listening to another person's concerns instead of reading out your own autobiography is purported to increase the chance of establishing a working communication.6.Habit 6 - Principles of Creative Cooperation: A way of working in teams. Applyeffective problem solving. Apply collaborative decision making. Value differences.Build on divergent strengths. Leverage creative collaboration. Embrace and leverage innovation. It is put forth that when synergy is pursued as a habit, the result of the teamwork will exceed the sum of what each of the members could have achieved on their own. “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”7.Habit 7 - Principles of Balanced Self-Renewal: Focuses on balanced self-renewal:Regain what Covey calls "production capability" by engaging in carefully selected recreational activities. Covey also emphasizes the need to sharpen the mind.。
food safety
Food SafetyIntroductionFood safety refers to the practices and measures taken to ensure that food is safe for consumption and free of any harmful contaminants. It is essential to maintain high levels of food safety to protect consumers from foodborne illnesses and ensure the overall well-being of the population. This document aims to provide an overview of food safety, discussing its importance, key principles, and strategies for ensuring safe food handling and preparation.Importance of Food SafetyThe importance of food safety cannot be overstated. Contaminated food can lead to various health issues, ranging from mild discomfort to severe illness, and in some cases, even death. Foodborne illnesses such as salmonella, E.coli, and listeria can result from consuming contaminated food. Therefore, it is crucial to implement stringent measures to prevent contamination and ensure the safety of the food supply.Key Principles of Food Safety1. HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points)HACCP is a systematic approach used in the food industry to identify and assess potential hazards and establish criticalcontrol points to prevent, eliminate, or reduce these hazards to an acceptable level. The seven principles of HACCP include:•Conducting a hazard analysis.•Identifying critical control points (CCPs).•Establishing critical limits for each CCP.•Monitoring CCPs.•Establishing corrective actions.•Verifying that the system is working effectively.•Documenting all procedures and records.2. Personal HygieneMaintaining good personal hygiene is essential for food handlers to prevent the spread of harmful bacteria and other contaminants. Key aspects of personal hygiene include:•Regular handwashing using soap and warm water.•Wearing clean and appropriate protective clothing, such as hairnets, gloves, and aprons.•Avoiding working while sick or suffering from infections.•Avoiding touching face, hair, or other body parts while handling food.3. Cross-contamination PreventionCross-contamination occurs when harmful bacteria or other microorganisms are transferred from one food item to another, usually through contact with contaminated surfaces, utensils, or food handlers. To prevent cross-contamination:•Keep raw and cooked foods separate.•Use different cutting boards and utensils for raw and cooked foods.•Clean and sanitize surfaces, utensils, and equipment regularly.•Practice proper storage, ensuring that raw meats are stored separately and adequately wrapped to avoid anyleakage.4. Safe Food Handling PracticesProper food handling practices are crucial in preventing foodborne illnesses. Here are a few essential practices:•Thoroughly cook food at appropriate temperatures to kill bacteria.•Store food at safe temperatures (below 40°F/4°C for refrigeration, above 140°F/60°C for hot holding).•Use safe water and ingredients for food preparation.•Ensure proper thawing of frozen foods.•Minimize the time food spends in the temperature danger zone (40°F/4°C to 140°F/60°C).Strategies for Ensuring Food Safety1. Implementation of Food Safety Management SystemsFood establishments should adopt comprehensive food safety management systems, such as ISO 22000 or the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) recognized standards. These systems provide a framework for effectively managing food safety by addressing potential hazards and implementing appropriate controls.2. Regular Inspections and AuditsRegulatory authorities should conduct regular inspections and audits of food establishments to ensure compliance with food safety regulations. These inspections help identify any potential issues and provide guidance for improvement.3. Employee Training and EducationProperly trained and educated staff is essential for maintaining food safety standards. Food handlers should receive regular training on proper food handling, personal hygiene, and cleaning and sanitization practices. Ongoingeducation programs can help ensure that employees stay up-to-date with the latest food safety guidelines.4. Public Awareness and EducationCreating public awareness about food safety is crucial for consumers to make informed choices. Educational campaigns can help people understand the importance of proper food handling, storage, and preparation. Additionally, providing information about common foodborne illnesses and their symptoms can empower individuals to take necessary precautions.ConclusionFood safety is a critical aspect of public health and well-being. By implementing the key principles of food safety and adopting appropriate strategies, we can prevent foodborne illnesses and ensure the safety of our food supply. It is the collective responsibility of food establishments, regulatory authorities, and consumers to prioritize food safety and work together to promote a healthy and safe food environment.。
chpt7-1
1. The meaning of a word greatly depends upon its occurrence in a given context.
2. In its primitive use, language functions as a link in concerted human activity; it is a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection.
24
White black
red
Green yellow
blue
brown
Purple Pink Orange gray
Stage: I
II
III
IV
V
VI
25
In Dani (丹尼语：来自巴布亚语), there are
only two basic color words: mili (dark、dull、 black) and modla (light、bright、white).
16
Linguistic evidence of cultural differences
communication language teaching(CLT)交际教学法
A Brief Introduction to Communicative Language TeachingMethodDefinitionCommunicative language teaching is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as ―communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages‖ or simply the ―communicative approach‖.Background and development of communicative language teaching The idea of communicative language teaching developed in the UK in the early70s. The earliest reference to the term, according to Brumfit, was made in Candlin’spaper ―Sociolinguistics and Communicative Language Teaching‖ presented to theconference in London in 1971. The socio-linguistic theory emphasizes onmeaning and communication and attempts to develop learners’communicative competencefrom the socio-cognitive perspective. Rules should not be learned in isolation but should be linked with the functional usesof language. These specific functional needs of the learner have to be ascertained by aneeds analysis. Use, not merely usage, should be the objective of the CLTteacher. CLT thus posited an approach towards language teaching.Since the notion of ―communicative competence‖wasfirst put forward by Hymes in 1972, many researchers and scholars havedeveloped theoriesand practices of CLT method. With theadvance of the notion, CLT approach have developed as an important language teachingmethod and replaced the previous traditional grammar teaching methods gradually.Hymes introduced the concept of ―communicative competence‖ in order to contrast toChomsky's view of ―linguisticcompetence‖. Chomsky made a differentiation betweenlinguistic competence and linguistic performance.For Chomsky, the focus oflinguistic study is to show the speaker's abstract abilities which make them producegrammatically correct sentences. Hymes pointed out that such a view of linguistic study wasmeaningless, linguistic theory should be seen as part of a broader theory combiningcommunication and culture and stated that Chomsky'scategory of performance, which included just psychological restraints on performance and ignored all factors of socialinteraction.In Hymes' opinion, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires notonly the grammatical knowledge but also the ability to use the language as for if something isformally possible; if something is practical by the way of implementation available; ifsomething is appropriate in relation to a context that it is used; if something is done in fact.The main characteristics and principles of CLTCLT derives its essential characteristics from the fact that at every stage-the setting oflearning objectives, the development of learning contents, the elaboration and implementationof classroom activities, the judgment of learners' progress, and the definition of a syllabus—itfocuses on language as a medium of communication (Little, 1991). CLT has manycharacteristics which can be summarized as follows:(1) Language teaching should pay more attention on meaning rather thanform;(Johnson,1982; Bnunfit, 1981);(2)Fluencyshould be emphasized beforeaccuracy (Finocchiaro&Bnmifit, 1981);(3)After the learners have achieved fluency, the accuracy ofexpression should become the focus of teaching (Savignon, 1983);(4)The sequence of language presentation should be based on the semanticconsiderations and the analysis of learners' needs rather than according to linguistic structure(Munby,1978);(5) Since learning a language means learning to do things by way of the language,language teaching should be on the basis of activities (Littlewood, 1981);(6)CLT focus systematic on functional as well as structural views of language, integrating these views into a more fully communicative idea (Littlewood, 1981);(7)Since authentic communication needs a real exchange of information, classroom communication should have information gap (Prabhu,1987);(8)Since language use is the main goal of language teaching, learners should be exposedto real language in use on the basis of real materials (Allright,1981);(9)Learners should be encouraged to improve the strategies to communicate meaning inreal situations which may be above their present level of language proficiency (Canale,1983);(10) Learners should become subtle to the notion of suitableness in communication (Canale,1983).Richands and Rogers stated that ―there are some principles to be taken into considerationin practice: the task principle, the communication principle and theprinciple.‖ The followings are seven principles of CLT which s ummarized by Berns in 1990.(1) Language teaching is on the basis of the notion that language is used forcommunication. That is, language is viewed as a social tool which speakers use to makemeaning and communicate with someone about something for some purpose.(2) Diversity is recognized and accepted as a part of language development.(3) A learner's competence is viewed in relative, not in absolute aspects.(4) Over one variety of a language is recognized as a feasible sample for languageteaching and learning.(5) No single methodology or regular set of techniques is provided.(6) Language use is considered as serving textual, ideational, and interpersonal functionsand is bound up with the development of learners' competence.(7)It is fundamental that learners should be at devoted to doing things with language—that is, they use language for a lot of purposes in all periods of learning.Classroom ProceduresSano, et al (1984) argues that communicative language teaching should meet the local needs and the methodology of FL teaching should vary significantly according to the environments in which teachers find themselves working. Based on the teaching aim at the secondary schools in Japan "linguistic competence plus an ability to use the language appropriately", teachers from the communicative Teaching Society chose a method of teaching English which would be effective and appropriate in Japan and which was different from that of CLT developing in Europe at about the same time.Their procedures is :1) Warm-up.This offers learners interesting language activities to relax them and to let them use English creatively. Establishing a non-threatening environment is given prime importance here.2) Introduction of new grammatical items. This is usually carried out through conversion between the teacher and learners concerning objects or incidents familiar to them.... After eliciting appropriate responses for learners, the teacher explains the meaning of the items briefly in Japanese.3)Practice.This is generally carried out either by stimulating learners’ intellectual curiosity or by appealing to their emotional value judgments. Self—expression, activities, though sometimes quite limited in scope, are incorporated even at the earliest stage. C are is also taken to make learning and Production ―deep‖ .4) Reading the text.This includes listening to the tape of a ―gist‖explanation of the content, as well reading the text both silently and aloud.5) Communicative practice. This requires not only mastery of the target item, but also creative use of the knowledge of language so far acquired. It can be totally oral, but quite often involves some writing.There is another procedure designed by Terry Moston and Malcolm Sexton which is a systematic collection of exercise-types. They are:1) Organizing Information. Exercises in this phase focus on ways of encouraging learners to check their basic understanding of a variety of texts in a controlled way, using a range of matching and multiple choice exercises linked to various written, pictorial and heard stimuli.2) Implanting Skills. Here exercises introduce controlled simulations, designed to exploitthevariety of social meanings contained with particular grammatical structures in different situations. Once again the exercises make use of a range of stimuli.3) Developing Skills. Exercises in this phase are intended to enable the learner to make productive use of his language, but still within controlled situations.Gradually,however, the exercises encourage manage transfer to those situations and areas of interest which are personal to the hearer.4) Using Skills.In this open-ended phase, exercises concentrate on language charts and discourse plans to stimulate the production of extended spoken and written communication.Evaluation(1)Advantages of CLTCommunication—According to AbilityWhether CLT should be considered an approach or a methodology is a more abstract debate and here I want to deal with its more practical aspects. In fact, it is those very elements, and the name itself, which have been used to challenge the future relevance of CLT. Firstly, the label implies a focus on communication and some might argue that this method can't be employed genuinely with low levels as there is no authentic communication, due to a limited vocabulary and restricted range of functions. Initially, many of a learner's utterances are very formulaic. As an aside, consider just what percentage of our own English expressions are unique, and how often we rely on a set phrase; just because it is delivered unselfconsciously and with natural intonation does not make it original. The aim is that the length and complexity of exchanges, and confident delivery, will grow with the student's language ability.With the emphasis on communication, there is also the implication that spoken exchanges should be authentic and meaningful; detractors claim that the artificial nature of classroom–based (i.e. teacher - created) interactions makes CLT an oxymoron. Nevertheless, a proficient teacher will provide a context so that class interactions are realistic and meaningful but with the support needed to assist students to generate the target language. We need to consider that producing language is a skill and when we learn a skill we practise in improvised settings. For example, before a nurse gives a real injection, they have punctured many a piece of fruit to hone their technique.Accuracy as Well as InfluencyThis focus on accuracy versus fluency is one of the issues not often considered in a discussion of CLT. The teacher decides to pay attention to one or other end of this band, depending on the type of lesson, or the stage of a particular lesson, and accuracy is their choice if they want to deal with students getting things right, take an opportunity for correction, or gauge the success of their teaching, for example. Freerspeaking involves more choice, therefore more ambiguity, and less teacher intervention. While CLT implies the lessons are more student-centered, this does not mean they are un-structured. The teacher does have a very important role in the process, and that is setting up activities so that communication actually happens. There is a lot of preparation; accuracy practice is the bridge to a fluency activity. By implication, CLT involves equipping students with vocabulary, structures and functions, as well as strategies, to enable them to interact successfully.Promoting LearningThis returns us to the consideration of who we are teaching, and why. Are our students aiming to learn or acquire English? Do they need to know lexical items and linguistic rules as a means of passing an exam, or do they want to be able to interact in English? For those inclined to maintain the dichotomy between learning and acquisition, and who argue that our primary focus is learners, CLT still has relevance. It is timely to review an early definition of CLT. According to Richards and Rodgers, in Guangwei Hu, CLT is basically about promoting learning.(2)DisadvantagesThe style also is potential limited to certain types of student. For instance, it might benefit field-independent students rather than field- dependent students, extroverts rather than introverts, and less academic students rather than academic students. The CLT is not appropriate to students with an interest in language structure or a desire for personal liberation.ConclusionCLT is an innovation in language teaching. It emerged as a new teaching method in Britain in the 1970s and became popular since than. It views language as a vehicle for communication. It recognizes as its aim the teaching of communicative competence, which includes grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence. Communicative activities play an important role in developing communicative competence and are an important part in communicative classrooms. In communicative classrooms, the teacher's role is facilitator and co-communicator while students become communicators. The communicative teaching procedure has no fixed format and can vary with local needs. Teachers can use CLT flexibly according to their teaching context. With theknowledge of CLT and a better understanding of CLT principles, teachers are likely to succeed in education.Reference(1)Allright, R 1981. Language leaning through communicative practice. In K. Johnson.& K. Morrow (Eds.), Communication in the Classroom. London: Longman.(2)Berns, Margie S. 1990. Contexts of Competence: Social andCultural Consideration inCommunicative Language Teaching. New York: Plenum Press.(3)Hymes, D. 1972. On Communicative Competence. [M]. Harmondsworth: Penguin.(4)Hymes, D. 1979. On Communicative Competence: The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching. Eds. C. J. Bnimfit&K Johnson. Oxfor3: Oxford University Press(5)Cai, Kun(蔡坤). 2002.交际教学法的理论、实践与思考，[J] 广西师范大学学报(1)。
Seven principles for task
Principles for Task-Based Language TeachingAbstract: This essay mainly focus on the seven principles of task-basked language teaching. The first part will introduce what is TBLT, second part is the principles of it, and last part will make a conclusion about these principles.Key words: TBLT seven principles1. IntroductionTasked-based language teaching is a further development of communicative language teaching. It shares the same beliefs, as language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life. However, it has stressed the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching. To put it simply, it refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of instruction in language.2. Seven Principles for Task-Based Language Teaching2.1. ScaffoldingAt the beginning of the learning process, learners should not be expected to produce language that has not been introduced either explicitly or implicitly. A basic role for an educator is to provide a supporting framework within which the learning can take place. This is particularly important in the case of analytical approaches such as TBLT in which the learners will encounter holistic ‘chunks’ of language that will often be beyond their curren t processing capacity. The ‘art’ of TBLT is known when to remove the scaffolding. If the scaffolding is removed prematurely, the learning process will ‘collapse’. If it is maintained too long, the learners will not develop the independence required for autonomous language use.2.2 Task dependencyThe task dependency principle is illustrated in the instructional sequence above which shows how each task exploits and builds on the one that has gone before. In a sense, the sequence tells a ‘pedagogical’ story, as learners are led step by step to the point where they are able to carry out the final pedagogical task in the sequence.Within the task-dependency framework, a number of other principles are in operation. One of these is the receptive-to-productive principle. Here, at the beginning of the instructional cycle, learners spend a greater proportion of time engaged in receptive (listening and reading) tasks than in productive (speaking and writing) tasks. Later in the cycle, the proportion changes, and learners spend more time in productive work. The reproductive-to-creative-language principle is also used in developing chains of tasks. This principle is summarized separately below.2.3 RecyclingRecycling language maximizes opportunities for learning and activates the ‘organic’ learning principle. An analytical approach to pedagogy is based on the assumption that learning is not an all-or-nothing process that mastery learning is a misconception, and that learning is piecemeal and inherently unstable. If it is accepted that learners will not achieve 100% mastery the first time they encounter a particular linguistic item, then it follows that they need to be reintroduced to that item over a period of time. This recycling allows learners to encounter target language items in a range of different environments, both linguistic and experiential. In this way they will see how a particular item functions in conjunction with other closely related items in the linguistic ‘jigsaw puzzle’. They will also see how it functio ns in relation to different content areas.2.4 Active learningLearners learn best by actively using the language they are learning. A key principle behind this concept is that learners learn best through doing–through actively constructing their own knowledge rather than having it transmitted to them by the teacher. When applied to language teaching, this suggests that most class time should be devoted to opportunities for learners to use the language. These opportunities could be many and varied, from practicing memorized dialogues to completing a table or chart based on some listening input. The key point, however, is that it is the learner, not the teacher, who is doing the work. This is not to suggest that there is no place at all for teacher input, explanation and so on, but that such teacher-focused work should not dominate class time.2.5 IntegrationLearners should be taught in ways that make clear the relationships between linguistic form, communicative function and semantic meaning. Until fairly recently, most approaches to language teaching were based on a synthetic approach in which the linguistic elements–the grammatical, lexical and phonological components–were taught separately. This approach was challenged in the 1980s by proponents of early versions of communicative language teaching who argued that a focus on form was unnecessary, and that all learners needed in order to acquire a language were opportunities to communicate in the language. This led to a split between proponents of form-based instruction and proponents of meaning-based instruction, with proponents of meaning-based instruction arguing that, while a mastery of grammar is fundamental to effective communication, an explicit focus on form is unnecessary. More recently, applied linguists working within the framework of systemic functional linguistics have argued that the challenge for pedagogy is to ‘reintegrate’ formal and functional aspects of language, and that what is needed is a pedagogy that makes explicit to learners the systematic relationships between form, function and meaning.2.6 Reproduction to creationLearners should be encouraged to move from reproductive to creative language use. In reproductive tasks, learners reproduce language models provided by the teacher, the textbook or the tape. These tasks are designed to give learners mastery of form, meaning and function, and are intended to provide a basis for creative tasks. In creative tasks, learners are recombining familiar elements in fresh ways. This principle can be deployed not only with students who are at intermediate levels and above but also with beginners if the instructional process is carefully sequenced.2.7 ReflectionLearners should be given opportunities to reflect on what they have learned and how well they are doing. Becoming a reflective learner is part of learner training where the focus shifts from language content to learning processes. Strictly speaking, learning-how-to-learn does not have a more privileged place in one particular approach to pedagogy than in any other. However, I feel this reflective element has aparticular affinity with task-based language teaching. Research suggests that learners who are aware of the strategies driving their learning will be better learners. Adding a reflective element to teaching can help learners see the rationale for the new approach.3. ConclusionTBLT is a very flexible form of teaching and learning. It can not only cater for different learning styles but also allow the teacher to focus on meaning as well as form. The attention to students’ needs, abilities and interests offers opportunities for teachers to energize students’ learning. These principles are useful and teachers should apply them into their teaching process and help learners improve their learning interest. (1100)ReferencesKrashen, S. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981.Nunan, D. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston: Heinle /Thomson Learning. 1999.王蔷. 英语教学法教程[M]. 北京：高等教育出版社，2006.5。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
e.g. 1
“Polite”—— We have received with many thanks your letter of Oct.7, and we take pleasure of sending you our latest catalog. We wish to draw your attention to a special offer which we have made in it. “Courteous”—— You will be particularly interested in a special offer on page 5 of the latest catalog enclosed, which you requested in your letter of Oct.7.
e.g.2 “Positive” —— We feel sure that you will be entirely satisfied. “Negative” —— We do not believe you will have cause for dissatisfaction
3. Completeness（完整） （完整）
2) Pay attention to the position of the modifiers
e.g. We shall be able to supply 10 cases of the item only. 我们仅能供应该商品 该商品10箱 我们仅能供应该商品 箱. We shall be able to supply 10 cases only of the item. 我们仅能供应10箱该商品 我们仅能供应 箱该商品 The modifier “only” in the above sentences modified two different words, so the two sentences have different meanings.
5. Conciseness（简洁） （简洁）
using concise sentences and fewest words to explain the meaning of a letter clearly, without losing completeness and courtesy. How to make a business letter concise?
3) Pay attention to the sentences structure.
e.g. We sent you 5 samples yesterday of the goods which you requested in your letter of May 25 by air. 按照贵公司5月 日航邮的信函要求 日航邮的信函要求， 按照贵公司 月25日航邮的信函要求，我们已于昨天向贵 方邮寄了该货物的5件样品 件样品。 方邮寄了该货物的 件样品。 We sent you, by air, 5 samples of the goods which you requested in your letter of May 25 yesterday. 根据贵公司在昨日即5月 日的信函要求 日的信函要求， 根据贵公司在昨日即 月25日的信函要求，我们已向贵方 空运了该货物的5件样品 件样品。 空运了该货物的 件样品。 4) Paragraph carefully and properly. One paragraph for each point is a good general rule.
to keep business letters complete, we can keep the following guidelines in mind: 1)Write down all the points you wish to cover and then arrange them in logical order. 2)If your letter is a reply, underline those parts which seek for information and answer all the questions asked.
4. Clarity(清楚 清楚) 清楚
The writer must try to express his meaning clearly to make the reader understand it well. How to make the letter clarity: 1) Avoid using the different understanding or unclear meaning words.
3）Use short sentences, simple words and clear ） explanation Use a word to replace a phrase： ： enclosed herewith enclosed at this time now due to the fact that because a draft in the amount of $ 1,000 a draft for $ 1,000 Use words to replace clauses: We require full-automatic washing machine which is of the new type. We require new-type full-automatic washing machine.
We can rewriting as the followings: 1）We have two direct sailings every month ） from Hong Kong to San Francisco. 2）We have semimonthly direct sailing ） from Hong Kong to San Francisco. 3) We have a direct sailing from Hong Kong to San Francisco every two months
Our competitors’ prices are 2%-3% lower than us (ours).
2)with verbs
It is one of the machines that was (were) delivered last week.
3)with conjunctions
This fridge not only is attractive (is attractive not only) in proper price, but also in good quality.
7. Correctness（正确） （正确）
Refer not only to correct usage of grammar, punctuation and spelling, but also to standard language and proper statement。 。 1) with pronouns
1）Avoid using wordy expression（避免废话连篇） ） （避免废话连篇） e.g. Wordy: Enclosed herewith please find two copies of … Concise: We enclose twd unnecessary repetition（避免不必 ） （ 要的重复） 要的重复）
e.g. As to the steamers sailing from Hong Kong to San Francisco, we have bimonthly direct services. Bimonthly has two meanings: twice a month, or once two months. So the reader will feel puzzled about the meaning.
4) with subjects While studying the report, the telephone rang. While I was studying the report, the telephone rang. 5）avoid using overstatements ） It is the lowest price available to you. It is the lowest price that we can offer you now.
e.g. Will you ship us any time during the month of December, or even November if you are rushed, for November would suit us just as well. Rewriting: Please ship us by the end of November.
A business letter is complete when it contains all the necessary information . A complete business letter can bring the following results: 1)to bring the desired results. 2)to build goodwill between buyer and seller. 3)to help avoid costly lawsuits.
e.g.2
“tactful”—— If I understand your letter correctly… “Rough”—— Your letter is not clear at all, I can’t understand it.