过程装备与控制工程专业英语全部翻译
过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译
General Equilibrium Conditions of A System力系的一般平衡条件在这一局部，我们将研究为了使一个物体保持平衡，作用在其上的力和力偶所必须满足的条件。
根据牛顿第一定律，施加在一个静止物体上的力系的合力一定为零。
然而，请注意这个定律对力矩或力系的转动效应只字未提。
显然，合力矩也一定为零，否那么物体将会转动。
这里的根本问题是原先表达的牛顿第一定律〔和第二定律〕只适用于非常小的物体，或者尺寸可以忽略的非零质量的粒子。
然而，它可以扩展到如下所述的有限尺寸的物体。
考虑一个由两个质点组成的系统，假设1f 和2f 12f f =-。
假设还有质点与系统外物体之间的互相作用力施加在质点上，如1,2F F 和3F ,这些力称为外力。
显然，作用在一个特定粒子上的力一定有一样的应用，因为粒子的尺寸可以忽略。
假设系统内的每一个质点处于平衡，我们就可以说系统是平衡的。
在本例中，根据牛顿第一定律，作用在每个质点上的力的合力一定为零。
对质点A 我们有：∑=++=0121f F F F A而对质点B 有：∑032=+=F f F B作用在系统上的力的总和为：123120A B F F F F F F f f =+=++++=∑∑∑如今我们来研究这些力对于同一点P 的合力矩。
由图1.1，我们有：12()()P A B M r F r F =⨯+⨯∑∑∑ 由于力1f 和2f 有一样的作用线，力矩的条件可以改写为1121223()0P M r F F f f r F =⨯++++⨯=∑ 但12f f =-；所以力和力矩的条件简化为1210F F F F +=+=∑ 和111223()()()0P M r F r F r F =⨯+⨯+⨯=∑换句话说，假设系统处于平衡，那么作用在其上的合外力一定为零，而且这些力对于任一点的合力矩也为零。
内力不需要考虑，因为它们的效应互相抵消了。
假设系统处于平衡，那么0F =∑and 0P M =∑ (1.1)这里F ∑是作用在系统上的所有外力的总和，而P M ∑是这些力对任意点的合力矩，包括系统中可能作用有的力偶的矩。
过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译 19
Reading Material 19Shell-and-Tube Heat ExchangersShell-and-tube exchangers are made up of a number of tubes in parallel and series through which one fluid travels and enclosed in a shell through which the other fluid is conducted. The shell side is provided with a number of baffles to promote high velocities and largely more efficient cross flow on the outsides of the tubes. The versatility and widespread use of this equipment has given rise to the development of industrywide standards of shich the most widely observed are the TEMA standards. A typical shell-and-tube exchanger is presented on Fig. 4. 3.Baffle pitch , or distance between baffles, normally is 0. 2~1. 0 times the inside diameter of the shell. Both the heat transfer coefficient and the pressure drop depend on the baffle pitch, so that is selection is part of the optimization of the heat exchanger. The window of segmental baffles commonly is abort 25%, but it also is a parameter in the thermal-hydraulic design of the equipment.In order to simplify external piping, exchangers mostly are built with even number of tube passes. Partitioning reduces the number of the tubes that can be accommodated in a shell of a given size. Square tube pitch in comparison with triangular pitch accommodates fewer tubes but is preferable when the shell side must be cleaned by brushing.Two shell passes are obtained with a longitudinal baffle. More than two shell passes normally are not provided in a single shell, brt a 4~8 arrangement is thermally equivalent to two 2~4 shells in series, and higher combinations is obtainable with shell-and –tube exchangers, in particular:●Single phase, condensation or boiling can be accommodated in either the tubes or the shell, in vertical or horizontal positions.● Pressure range and pressure drop are virtually unlimited, and can be adjusted independently for the two fluids.●Thermal stresses can be accommodated inexpensively.● A great variety of materials of construction can be used and may be different for the shelland tubes.●Extended surfaces for improved heat transfer can be used on either side.● A great range of thermal capacities is obtainable.●The equipment is readily dismantled for cleaning or repair.Several considerations may influence which fluid goes on the tube side or the shell side.The tube side is preferable for the fluid that has the higher pressure, or the higher temperature or is more corrosive. The tube side is less likely to leak expensive or hazardous fluids and is more easily cleaned. Both pressure drop and laminar heat transfer can be predicted more accurately for the tube side. Accordingly, when these factors are critical, the tube side should be selected for that fluid.Turbulent flow is obtained at lower Reynolds numbers on the shell side, so that the fluid with the lower mass flow preferably goes on that side. High Reynolds numbers are obtained by multipassing the tube side, but at a price.A substantial number of parameters is involved in the design of a shell-and –tube heatexchanger for specified thermal and hydraulic conditions and desired economics, including: tube diameter, thickness, length, number of passes, pitch, square or triangular; size of shell,number of shell baffles, baffle type, baffle windows, baffle spacing, and so on. For even a modest sized design program, it is estimated that 40 separate logical designs may need to be made which lead to ????????? different paths through the logic. Since such a number is entirely too large for normal computer process, the problem must be simplified with some arbitrary decisions based on as much current practice as possible.阅读材料19管壳式换热器管壳式换热器是由一定数量的内有液体流动的平行管子和将其包围住的内有另一种液体的壳体组成的。
过程装备与控制工程专业英语
######Manufacturing Engineering Processes1.Classification of Manufacturing ProcessesThe following table shows the classification of manufacturing engineering processes used in shaping materials. Note that only typical examples are mentioned in the table.2.Examples of Manufacturing ProcessesForging .Forging can be characterized as: mass conserving, solid state of work material (metal), mechanical primary basic process-plastic deformation. A wide variety of forging processes is used .The most common type of forging is drop forging .The metal is heated to a suitable working temperature and placed in the lower die cavity .The upper die is then lower so that the metal is forced to fill the cavity. Excess material is squeezed out between the die faces at the periphery as flash, which is removed in a later trimming process. When the term gorging is used, it usually means hot gorging. The material loss in forging processes is usually quite small. Normally, forged components require some subsequent machining, since thetolerances and surfaces obtainable are not usually satisfactory a finished product. Forging machines include drop hammers and forging presses with mechanical or hydraulic drives. Es involve simple .The machines involve simple translatory motions.Rolling Rolling can be characterized as: mass conserving, solid state of material, mechanical primary basic process-plastic deformation. Rolling is extensively used in the manufacturing of plates, sheets, structural beams, and so on. An ingot is produced in casting, and then, in several stages of rolling it is reduced in thickness, usually while hot. Since the width of the work material is kept constant, its length is increased according to the reduction. After the last hot-rolling stage, a final stage is carried out cold to improve surface quality and tolerances and to increase strength. In rolling, the profiles of the rolls designed to produce the desired geometry.Powder Compaction Powder compaction can be characterized as; mass conserving, granular state of material, mechanical primary basic process-flow and plastic deformation. In this context, only compaction of metal powder is mentioned, but generally compaction of molding sand, ceramic materials, and so on, also belong in this category.In the compaction of metal powders, the die cavity is filled with a measured volume of powder and compacted at pressures typically around 500N/mm2. During this pressing phase, the particles are packed together and plastically deformed. Typical densities after compaction are 80% of the density of the solid material. Because of the plastic deformation, the particles are”welded” together, giving sufficient strength to withstand handling. After compaction, the components are heat-treated—sintered—normally at 70%~80% of the melting temperature of the material. The atmosphere for sintering must be controlled to prevent oxidation. The duration of the sintering process varies between 30 min and 2h. The strength of the components after sintering can, depend on the material and the process parameters closely approach the strength of corresponding solid material.The die cavity, in the closed position, corresponds to the desired geometry. Compaction machinery includes both mechanical and hydraulic presses. The production rates vary between 6 and 100 components per minute.加工工艺过程1.加工工艺过程的分类2.锻造工艺过程分类锻造锻造过程的特性可表述如下，质量守恒，工作材料为固态，力学基本过程为塑性变形过程。
过程装备与控制工程英语
过程装备与控制工程英语1.过程装备(Process equipment)The process equipment in the factory is responsible for manufacturing products efficiently.2.控制工程(Control engineering)Control engineering plays a crucial role in ensuring the stability and reliability of industrial processes.3.设备(Equipment)The factory invested in state-of-the-art equipment to improve production efficiency.4.流程(Process)The production process includes multiple stages, each with its own specific requirements.5.控制(Control)The control system allows operators to monitor and adjust various parameters for optimal performance.6.自动化(Automation)Automation has greatly improved efficiency in manufacturing processes.7.传感器(Sensor)Sensors are used to collect real-time data and provide feedback for control purposes.8.测量(Measurement)Accurate measurement of process variables is crucial for maintaining quality standards.9.监控(Monitoring)Continuous monitoring of process parameters is essential for early detection of issues.10.仪表(Instrumentation)Instrumentation plays a vital role in collecting and displaying data from various sensors in a process.11.采样(Sampling)Regular sampling of raw materials ensures their quality meets the required standards.12.环境监测(Environmental monitoring)Efficient control engineering systems enable real-time environmental monitoring.13.压力(Pressure)The pressure in the system is carefully controlled to ensure stable operation.14.温度(Temperature)Temperature control is crucial for maintaining the desired chemical reaction rate.15.流量(Flow rate)Monitoring and controlling the flow rate of liquid or gas is important for process efficiency.16.液位(Liquid level)Accurate measurement of liquid level ensures proper functioning of the process.17.控制阀(Control valve)Control valves regulate the flow rate or pressure offluid in a process.18. PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)PLCs are widely used in control engineering to automate and monitor industrial processes.19.数据采集(Data acquisition)Data acquisition systems collect and record data from various sensors for analysis.20.仪器仪表校准(Instrument calibration)Regular instrument calibration ensures accurate measurement and control.21.故障诊断(Fault diagnosis)Advanced control engineering systems can detect and diagnose faults in real-time.22.实时控制(Real-time control)Real-time control engineering allows for immediate adjustments to process conditions.23.可靠性(Reliability)Reliability is a key factor in choosing process equipment and control systems.24.自适应控制(Adaptive control)Adaptive control algorithms constantly adjust process parameters to optimize performance.25.能源管理(Energy management)Efficient control engineering strategies can help optimize energy consumption in industrial processes.。
过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译
Heat exchangers are equipment primarily for transferring heat between hot and cold have separate passages for the two streams and operate most versatile and widely used exchangers are the shell-and-tube types but various plate and other types are valuable and economically competitive or superior in some other types will be discussed briefly but most of the space following will be devoted to the shell-and-tube types primarily because of their importance but also because they are most completely documented in the they can be designed with a degree of confidence to fit into a other types are largely proprietary and for the most part must be process designed by their manufacturers.Plate-and-Frame Exchangers Plate-and-frame exchangers are assemblies of pressed corrugated plates on a frame. Gaskets in grooves around the periphery contain the fluids and direct the flows into and out of the spaces between the spacing and the presence of the corrugations result in high coefficients on both sides several times those of shell-and tube equipment and fouling factors are accessibility of the heat exchange surface for cleaning makes them particularly suitable for fouling services and where a high degree of sanitation is required as in food and pharmaceutical pressures and temperatures are limited by the natures of the available gasketing materials with usual maxima of 300 psig and 400 F.Since plate-and-frame exchangers are made by comparatively few concerns most process design information about them is proprietary but may be made available to serious factors and heat transfer coefficients vary with the plate spacing and the kinds of costs per unit of heat transfer are said to be lower than for shell-and-tube stainless steel construction the plate-and-frame construction cot is 50%-70% that of the shell-and-tube.Spiral Heat Exchangers In spiral heat exchangers the hot fluid enters at the center of the spiral element and flows to the periphery; flow of the cold liquid is countercurrent entering at the periphery and leaving at the transfer coefficients are high on both sides and there is no correction to the log mean temperature difference because of the true countercurrent'action. These factors may lead to surface requirements 20% or so less than those of shell-and-tube exchangers. Spiral types generally may be superior with highly viscous fluids at moderate pressures.Compact (Plate-Fin) Exchangers Compact exchangers are used primarily for gas they have surfaces of the order of 1200 m2 /m3 corrugation height mm corrugation thickness mm and fin density 230-700 fins/ large extended surface permits about four times the heat transfer rate per unit volume that can be achieved with shell-and-tube have been designed for pressiIres up to 80 atm or close spacings militate against fouling compact exchangers are used in cryogenic services and also forheat recovery at high temperatures in connection with gas mobile units as in motor vehicles compact exchangers have the great merits of compactness and light kind of arrangement of cross and countercurrent flows is feasible and three or more different streams can be accommodated in the same drop heat transfer relations and other aspects of design are well documented.Air Coolers In such equipment the process fluid flows through finned tubes and cooling air is blown across them with fans. The economics of application of air coolers favors services that allow 25-40 1" temperature difference between ambient air and process the range above 10 Mbtu/l air coolers can be e conomically competítíve with watercoolers when water of adequate quality is available in su Hicient amountDouble-Pipe Exchangers This kind of exchanger consísts of a central pipe supported withín a larger one by packíng glands. The straight length is limited to a maximum of about 20 ft;otherwise the center pipe wi1l sag and cause poor distribution in the is customary to operate with the high pressure high temperature high density and corrosive fluid in the inner pipe and the less demanding one in the annulus. The inner surface can be provide with scrapers as in dewaxing of oils or crystallization from longitudinal fins in the annular space can be used to improve heat transfer with gases or viscous greater heat transfer surfaces are needed several double-pipes can be stacked in any combination of series or parallel.Double-pipe exchangers have largely lost out to shell-and-tube units in recent may be worth considering in these situations:1. When the shell-side coefficient is less than half that of the tubeside;the annular side coeHicient can be made comparable to the tube side.2. Temperature crosses that require multishell shell-and-tube units can be avoided by the inherent true countercurrent flow in double pipes.3. High pressures can be accommodated more economically in the annulus than they can in a larger diameter shell.4. At duties requiring only 100~200 sqft of surface the double-pipe may be more economical even in comparison with off-the-shell unts.Shell-and-Tube Exchangers This type of exchangers will be discussed in the following section.(Selected from: Stanley Chemical Process Equiment Butterworth Publishers 1988.)Words and Expressionsn.通道，通过a.多用途的，通用的a.专利的，私有的v.成波纹状，起波纹;corrugation nn.沟，槽n.系数n.密封垫片v.弄脏，堵塞;fouling factor 污垢系数n.卫生a.制药的；药物的n. ; a.逆流n.翅片;v.装翅片v.妨碍，起作用a.冷冻的，低温的n.恢复，回收，再生n.填料盖，密封套v.下垂，下沉n.环状空间; annular a环形的.v.脱蜡n.结晶，结晶体n.堆积，烟囱α.内在的，固有的v.调节，适度，容纳Unit 19 换热器的种类换热器起初是为了在热流和冷流中传热。
过程装备与控制工程专业英语词汇.
abrasiveness 研磨；腐蚀absolute 绝对的accumulate 堆积；积累acid 酸；酸性的，酸味的actuator 执行机构adjust 调整；调节agitation 搅拌air preheater 空气预热器air register 空气调节器airflow 气流alkali 碱allowance 公差，容差，容许量alloy 合金alternating current 交流电angle 角度，角apparatus 装置，仪器，仪表application 应用artificial 人造的；仿造的assembly 装配atmospheric 大气的，大气层的austenite 奥氏体automation 自动化，自动操作auxiliary 辅助设备，附属机构backflow 回流baffle 挡板；折流板；隔板batch 一批，批量bearing 轴承bellow 波纹管belt 带；腰带；地带blade 叶片blower 鼓风机boiler 锅炉bolt 螺栓bonnet 阀盖，阀帽，机罩box furnace 箱式炉brittle 易碎的，脆弱的burner 燃烧器bushing 轴衬；套管butterfly valve 蝶阀capacity 容积carbon steel 碳钢，碳素钢casing 机壳cast 浇铸catalyst 催化剂category 分类，种类cavity 腔；洞，凹处centrifugal force 离心力chamber 腔，室，船舱check valve 止回阀checklist 检查表，清单classify 分类；分等clockwise 顺时针方向的- 1 -coating 涂层，覆盖层coefficient 系数coil 盘管，线圈coking 结焦，焦化column 圆柱，柱形物combination 结合combustion 燃烧，氧化component 成分；组件；零件composition 组成，成分compressor 压缩机concentration 浓度concentric 同轴的，同心的condense 浓缩；凝结condenser 冷凝器；凝汽器conduction 传导cone roof 锥形顶constant 常量，常数contract 缩小，收缩contrast 对比，形成对照controller 控制器convection 对流convert 使转变；转换。
过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译1
The reactions for th1.2 (c)]can be found the same manner
For the cantilever beam[Fig.1.2(b)], the action of the applied load q is equilibrated by a verticalforce RAand a couple MAacting at the fixed support, as shown in the figure. From a summationof forces in vertical direction , we include that
过程装备与控制工程专业英语单词总结概要
exert n.用力,施力fundamental v.基本的negligible a.可以忽略的moment n.力矩(各种矩 equilibrium n.平衡的cancel out 相约,相消preceding a.以前的pulley n.滑轮,皮带轮relegate vt.归类,委托Component n.分力,分量Scalar n.;a.纯量,标量Statically determinate 静定transverse a.横向,横切symmetry n.对称性pin support 铰支座roller support 滚轴支座translate 平移lateral 横向的,水平的sustain 支撑,承受住cantilever悬臂overhang外伸intensity 强度,密度reaction反作用力magnitude大小,量级equilibrate(使平衡inverse相反的counterclockwise逆时针方向的deliberately审慎的,故意的stress 应力strain应变deformable可(易变形的shaft轴derivation 推导,导出axially-loaded 受轴向载荷的blend 混合tension 拉伸,张力shear 剪切,剪力prismatic 等截面的at right angles to与。
垂直analogous类似的hydrostatic流体静力学submerge浸没,沉没denote 表示,指示resultant合力;合成的centroid质心,矩心,重心elongation伸长,延伸率adjacent 相邻的,临近的free-body自由体bendin moment弯矩convention协定,惯例algebraic 代数的truss 桁架unknowingly 无意中,不知不觉的lowercase 小写visualize 假设patently 明白的perpendicular 垂直,直立vector 矢量squash 压缩tangential 切向subscript 下标,脚码say 假定algebraic 代数差unidirectional 单向,单自由度的postulate 假设ductile 可塑,可锻,韧性的criterion 标准,规范rupture 断裂,破坏specimen 样本,试件monitor 监视,控制multitude 众多,大批sin 罪恶,犯罪ignorance 未知yield-point 屈服点longgitudinal 轴向的,纵向的circumferential 圆周的,环形的oscillatory 振荡的,摆动的confront 面临,面对wear 磨损,耐磨性fatigue 疲劳acute 敏锐,尖锐impair 损害,减少symmertrical 对称的,均匀的propeller 螺旋桨,推进器compact 压实,压紧chaff 废物,渣滓thresh 猛烈摆动glider 滑翔机panel 底座helical 螺旋(线,面,形 springboard 跳板,出发点pendulum 振动体bob 振子球displacement位移,平移customary 通常,习惯的reciprocal 相互的,倒数的amplitude 振幅angular 角,成角度的dissipative 损耗,消耗的damp 阻尼,减震viscous 粘性的constrain 约束coordinate 坐标specify 指定,确定detect 探测,检测knife-edges 韧性支承rotor转子armature 电枢,转子crankshaft 曲轴,centtrifugal 离心式的,离心机rock 摇动,摆动bearing 轴承equivalent 相等的,等价的converse 逆的,反的oz. ounce 盎司alloy 合金crystal 结晶,晶体lattice 晶格aggregate 集合,集合体valence 化合价electrostatic 静电的conductor 导体wrought 精制的,可锻的cast 浇铸,铸件ferrous 含铁的nonferrous 不含铁intake 吸入,入口manifold 集气管aluminum 铝magnessium 镁beryllium铍brass 黄铜bronze 铜tin 锡zinc 锌elusive 难以理解的ductility 韧性,延展性fracture 破裂brittle 脆性的interplay 相互作用manufacture 加工制造strength of materials 材料力学rheology 流变学outset 开头,开始relevant 有关的,相关的component 分量,组件scope 范围,工作域realm 领悟,范围concept 概念,原理harden 变硬,硬化classification 分类,分级conserve 保存,守恒melt 融化,熔融evaporation 蒸发,汽化forging 锻造characterize 表征,表示。
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昆明理工大学过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译Unit 6 金属大约现有元素中的四分之三可归类为金属；而大约一半金属元素都有一定的工业或商业上的重要性。
尽管严格定义的金属只局限于纯金属，但是普遍的用法是把它扩展到更广范围的金属合金。
尽管纯金属有很多特性，他们在商业中的应用也很局限。
金属合金由两种或两种以上的元素组成，用途非常广泛，正是由于这种结构上的原因，很多金属被用于工业上。
金属材料是晶状固体。
单个晶体是由单元晶粒按有规则模式重复而形成的三维晶格。
一块金属则是成千上万相联晶体的集合体，而这些晶粒都沉浸在从晶体原子中脱离出来的带负电的价电子云中。
由于这些自由电子对带正电的金属原子或离子有静电吸引力，因此可以将晶体结构紧凑的结合在一起。
而由于金属结晶结构致密本质导致的这种很大的结合力是造成金属一般都具有良好机械性质的原因。
同样，电子云使大多数金属有很好的导电性和导热性。
在大多数情况下，根据生产金属的模板来辨认金属。
当金属已经以固体的形式存在或形成时，并且是塑性的，被称为可锻金属。
将液体金属倾倒入模型形成的金属称为浇铸金属。
金属材料分为两类：黑色金属和有色金属。
所有黑色金属的基本成分都是铁元素。
这些金属涉及的范围从含碳90%以上的铸铁和碳钢到特种铁合金，在这些铁合金中，各种其他元素的总和几乎占总成分一半。
除商业纯铁之外，所有含铁的原料，包括铁和钢，都被认为是主要的铁碳合金系统。
虽然碳含量很少（钢材中少于1％，铸铁中不超过4％）而且通常低于其他合金元素，但它仍然是机械性能发展和控制的主要因素。
就定义而言，那些铁元素不是主要成分的金属原料被称为有色金属。
大约十几种有色金属有相对广泛的工业用途。
排在第一位的是铝，它仅次于钢铁，被广泛的应用于今天的结构金属中。
铝、镁、钛和铍被认为是轻金属，因为它们的密度比钢铁的密度小的多。
从消耗量方面来说，铜合金是排在第二位的有色金属。
铜合金有两大类：一类是黄铜，它是以铜和锌为基础的二元合金；另一类是青铜，它原本是铜锡合金系统。
而现在，青铜还包含其他铜合金系统。
由于锌、锡、铅和锑的熔点都低于800F（427C），因此把它们归类为低熔点合金。
锌的主要结构用途是拉模铸造，它的消耗量仅次于铝和铜，排名第三。
铅和锡在应用中是非常局限的，仅适用于需要熔点低和其他特性的场合。
另一类广泛的有色合金被称为难熔金属。
这些金属有钨、钼和铬，它们的熔点都在3000F（1649C）以上，常用在必须抵抗异常高温的产品中。
最后，贵金属，价值高是它们的共性。
另外，他们一般具有较高的耐腐蚀性，有许多有益的物理特性。
Unit 16 压力容器及其部件压力容器时不泄露的容器。
它们有各种尺寸。
最小的直径不到一英寸，最大的直径能达到150英尺甚至更大。
某些是埋在地下或海洋深处，多数是安放在地上或支撑在平台上，还有一些实际上是在航天飞行器中的贮槽和液压装置中。
由于内部压力，容器被设计成各种形状和尺寸。
内部的压力可能低到1英寸，水的表面压力可能达到300000多磅。
普通的单层表面建筑压力是15到5000磅，虽然有很多容器的设计压力高出或低于这个范围。
ASME锅炉和压力标准中第八卷第一节指定一个范围从15磅在底部到上限，然而，内部压力在3000磅以上，ASME标准，第八卷第一节，指出考虑特殊设计的情况是必要的。
压力容器的典型部件描述如下：圆柱壳体在石化工业中对于结构压力容器圆柱壳体是经常被用到的，它是很容易制造、安装并且维修很经济。
虽然在一些场合应用载荷和外压控制，要求的厚度通常由内压决定。
其他因素如热应力和不连续压力可能有要求厚度决定。
成型的封头许多的端封头和过度部分有设计工程师选择。
用一种结构相对另一种依靠很多因素，如成型方法、材料成本、和空间限。
一些经常应用的成型封头是：带凸缘的封头这些封头通常在较低压力的压力设备中，例如汽油罐和锅炉。
有些也应用在较高压力的但是较小直径的设备中。
设计和结构的许多细节在ASME标准，第八卷第一节中给出。
半球形封头通常，在一个给定温度和压力下半球形的要求厚度是相同直径和材料圆柱壳体的一半。
假如我们用镍和钛昂贵的合金建造实心或覆盖形半球形封头，这样是很经济的。
假如使用碳钢，然而，由于这高价的制造费用就不比凸缘形和碟形的封头经济。
半球形封头经常通过部分三角形结构加工，也可以通过旋转法或施压法加工。
由于半球形封头比与它们连接的圆柱壳体薄，所以在封头与壳体连接区域必须是等高的，以便减小不连续区域的影响。
椭圆与准球形封头这样的封头是十分普遍的在压力容器中。
它们的厚度与连接壳体是一样的。
这就简化了焊接安装的工作。
因此，由于这边意外的区域所需的厚度小于封头的实际厚度，多余的部分就可以用于这些区域内接管的补强。
许多工厂都可以提供不同直径和厚度的封头而且在价格上有很强的竞争力。
锥型和准锥形封头这些封头在漏斗型和塔容器中作为底部封头应用，而且它们也可用做不同圆柱直径的过渡区域。
由于在链接区不平衡应力，这圆锥到圆柱的链接区必须考虑成圆锥形设计的一部分。
因为较大的力，ASME标准，八卷一节中，规定当锥形内部施加压力顶角限制成小于30度。
盲板，覆盖版，和法兰一个较为普遍形式的压力容器封头是无支撑的扁平封头或覆板。
这可能由完整壳体组成或由壳体焊接而成，可能由螺栓或快速开关装置连接而成。
可能是圆形、方形、矩形或其他形状。
螺栓被安装应用垫圈的地方的扁平封头称为盲板。
通常，盲板被连接在两个边缘区之间放一个垫圈的容器封头上。
虽然扁平的封头可能是圆形或非圆形的，但是它们有均匀的厚度。
开口和接管所有的工艺容器都需要有输入和输出的物料。
对于一些容器，物料是大量的或内部经常变化的，通常是通过连接的整个封头或一部分来给开一个较大的通道。
然而，对于大多数容器，物料的进口与出口通过与管道相连接的封头或壳体的开口。
另外还有一些开口还是需要的，例如方便人进入的人孔。
对以一些从外面检测容器的手孔的开口也是必要的。
另外一些清理容器的和排水口也必须有。
这些开口不总是有一个接管被安装在开口。
有时闭口有一个人孔盖或或手孔盖直接被焊接或用螺栓连接在容器上。
支撑大多数直立容器由裙座支撑。
由于它们传递剪切力所以裙座是经济的。
它们总是通过地脚螺栓和轴承板把力传递到地基上。
支脚容器是较轻的并且支脚到容器的底部提供较容易的通道。
一个经济的设计是支脚直接连在容器上并且力是由剪切产生的。
水平容器通常由鞍座支撑。
由于壳体太薄有时加强环可能被用把力传递到鞍座上。
热膨胀问题应该被考虑。
Unit 17 压力容器的设计容器的选择虽然很多因素决定着容器的选择，但是影响选择的两个基本要求是安全和经济。
许多内容都被考虑，像材料的可获取性，抗腐蚀能力，材料的强度，类型和载荷的大小，安装的位置包括风载荷和地震载荷，制造的地点，容器安装的方位和在设备制造地点劳动力的可用性。
随着特殊压力容器在石油化工和其他工业的广泛应用，恰当材料的应用很快变成一个主要问题。
对于容器的最主要的材料是碳钢。
许多其他特殊材料也被应用在抗腐蚀或者储存液体材料的性质不衰减的能力方面。
材料的替代十分广泛并且覆盖层和涂层被广泛应用。
设计工程师必须与过程工程师进行交流为的是所有备用材料归因于容器的整体完整性。
对于这些容器要求野外安装与在现场建造的相比，尽管容器制造的不利条件，但是在焊接处的质量安全必须保证。
对射线探伤，应力消除，和其他在野外的操作预测必须建立。
对于那些在低温环境下运行或盛装液体的容器，必须注意保证材料在低温下的抗击能力。
为了满足性能容器可能要求高合金钢，有色金属，或一些特别的高温要求。
那种压力容器标注被应用首先考虑的是是否有一项标准在安装方面。
如果有就按规定标准进行。
如果管辖部门已经决定采用ASME 规范的第八篇，那么需要确定的只是选用第一分篇还是第二分篇。
有很多操作需要用第一分篇而不是第二分篇，但是底线是经济的情况下。
第一分篇用近似的公式，图表，和曲线图在简单的计算。
第二分篇，在另一方面，用复杂的公式、图表、在压力报告中必须被描述的分析设计方法。
有时，由于对按第一分篇设计的容器在最低要求之外又增加了许多附加要求，因此按第二分篇设计选取较高的需用应力可能更为经济。
特殊的设计要求在所有单元增加标准信息，像压力、设计温度、形状和尺寸，其他的信息内容也是必要的并且必须被记录下来。
腐蚀和侵蚀量被给并且一个合适的材料和保护方法必须被记录。
液体的类型必须被包含，像致命因子，必须被提到由于要求的特殊设计细节。
支撑位置，水平或竖直，并且支撑点像来自支撑容器和管子的力一样必须被记录。
坐落位置也得给出一边风、雪、地震的要求可能被确定。
冲击力和周期要求也要包括。
对于ASME标准，第八篇第二分篇，是否作为疲劳分析的说明已经通过AD-160给出。
如果疲劳分析被要求，这个特殊的周期和力也被给出。
另外，设计说明书指出是否包括恒力或瞬时力。
需用压力包含很多种形式的力设计报告和计算ASME标准，第八篇第二分篇，规定一种正式形式的带有假设设计报告在使用说明书中在压力分析计算方面。
这些计算被准备和鉴定由一个专业的工程师在压力容器的设计试验中。
如同用户设计条件一样，制造商的设计报告以及有关制造厂数据报告的证书嗾使强制性的。
这有制造厂保存成文件保存五年。
材料的说明书所有的标准都有材料的详细说明书和要求用于描述哪种材料是允许的。
被允许的这些材料特殊的标准被列出或被限制在被允许的应力值范围内。
根据这个章程和标准，对于一个特殊进程的容器的许用材料是被规定的。
例如，仅SA与SB的标准材料可能用在ASME锅炉和压力容器制造中。
安全因素为了提供一个设计与实际公式的差距，那个被建立在复杂的理论与不同失效模式下，实际的设计公式应用在减小厚度和压力水准，一种安全因素被应用在多种材料性能，这种性能决定着许用应力。
安全因素直接与理论和失败模型、没中规定的特殊设计要求和被确定和估计的多种真实压力水准的程度有关。
纵观世界，多种安全因素被用在材料的寿命上去建立锅炉、压力容器和管子的设计许用压力。
对于这个温度变化到建立许用压力的缓慢破坏的温度，这所有建立的许用压力是在屈服强度的基础上的。
在许多国家，一种因素被应用在经过许多次试验而建立起来的一系列数据上。
在其他国家，数据是由低的屈服强度和高的屈服强度决定的。
在另外的一些国家，对于设计部件这真正的数据是由多次测试而确定的。
部分的设计归因于设计的公式。
并不是所有国家用极限抗拉强度作为确定许用应力的标准。
Unit 18 蒸馏设备定义蒸馏是一种以分离材料的相对挥发度和原始混合物的相变化为基础的分离工艺。
举个简单的例子，液体混合物的成分通过加热被蒸发掉。
相对不易挥发的成分作为液体残留物被留下。
也有小小的例外，在储存蒸发成分的方式上，蒸馏不同于蒸发和干燥。
在困难程度上，在操作的复杂程度上，当不知一种蒸发成分被分离，通常蒸馏适用于液体混合物。