国科大英语A汇报(图片版)
2022年考研考博-考博英语-中国科学院考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷(带答案)试题号：89
2022年考研考博-考博英语-中国科学院考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题Parents often fall into the trap of offering other food in order to（） the child to eat. 问题1选项A.temptB.manipulateC.incenseD.escort【答案】A【解析】考查动词辨析。
tempt “吸引，诱使”；manipulate “操作，操控”；incense “使激怒”；escort“护送，陪同”。
句意：家长们常常陷入困境，通过别的食物来吸引孩子好好吃饭。
选项A符合句意。
2.翻译题Directions: Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Write your Chinese version in the proper space on your Answer Sheet.In the U.S., citizens tend to rely on electronic media such as TV rather than print media. TV news tends to provide numerous visuals and abbreviated textual information. (1) Although TV news stories pitch “on-the-scene reporting”, and other eye-catching images to viewers, the actual stories are generally so brief that were the reports transcribed into newspaper copy, no single story would have enough text to cover a third of a page. It is remarkable to consider how little information is conveyed between all the exciting visuals. (2) It is also remarkable to stop and think about how inadequately informed citizens may be if their primary source of political knowledge is the picture-rich and data-poor TV evening news. Moreover, because U.S. media companies are primarily privately owned, (3) media professionals are under pressure to present news in an entertaining way in order to expand their audiences and corresponding advertising revenues. Large audiences create higher profits from advertising sales. With a few exceptions, U.S. TV and radio stations are like other businesses: They need to generate money to cover operating costs and make profits. If media professionals are convinced that viewers want entertaining news rather than in-depth details, this assumption affects the kind of news they produce. Not surprisingly, political scientists have found that news coverage of election campaigns tends to focus on the personal lives of candidates rather than on issues, and (4) when issues are reported the emphasis is often on the immediate and most dramatic implications of the issues, not on the historical, long-term, or global dimensions of those issues.At the same time, insofar as television and Internet-based news must be generated quickly, time pressures impede extensive independent investigations. Because U.S. citizens conceptualize news as something occurring by the hour or minute, U.S. media professionals are often putting together news stories under severe time restraints. (5) Some analysts believe that this increases the tendency of reporters to get information from official sources rather than from the reporters’ own independent investigations of newsworthy events. Think about this issue from the standpoint of reporters and editors. If you are a reporter assigned the task of doing a story on a state’s new prison system, for example, you will find it is quicker and easier to get a governor’s press release on the new prison than it is to go to libraries, data banks, and university research centers to investigate the topic on your own. This does not suggest that investigative journalism never occurs; rather, many scholars believe that time pressures tend to encourage the use of information provided by official sources (for example, political leaders and their press secretaries) rather than the collection of facts through ongoing independent research.【答案】【参考译文】（1）虽然电视新闻故事多推崇“现场报道”或者其他吸人眼球的形象，但是实际上这些故事通常都很简短，要是把这些报道转写成报纸版面的话，它们任何一个都占不了三分之一的版面。
九年级英语全册 Unit 2 I think that moon cakes are delicio
Unit 2 I think that mooncakes are delicious!第1课时Section A(1a—2d)Ⅰ.根据图片提示，在横线上写出相应节日的英文名称。
1. 2. 3.4. 5.1．__the__Chinese__Spring__Festival__2．__the__Water__Festival__3．__the__Dragon__Boat__Festival__4．__the__Mid－Autumn__Festival__5．__the__Lantern__Festival__Ⅱ.用方框内所给单词的适当形式填空。
（导学号：56834016）strange， relative， pound， lantern， watch1．Mrs. Green bought two __pounds__ of meat.2．Mother often tells me not to speak to __strangers__．【高频考点】3．The famou s star’s new movie is fun __to__watch__．4．He has few friends and __relatives__. He is new here.5．There are two red __lanterns__ hanging over there.Ⅲ.用括号内所给词的适当形式填空。
（导学号：56834017）1．I don’t want to go to the supermarket on Sundays. It’s too __crowded__(crowd)．2．__Unluckily__ (luck), Mary didn’t pass the English exam at last.3．The little boy feels sick because he __ate__ (eat) some bad food this morning.4．In my hometown, August is the __hottest__ (hot) month of a year.5．It’s time for __having____ (have) a rest. Let’s stop working.Ⅳ.单项选择。
中国科学院大学英语B考试样题Sampletest
中国科学院大学英语B考试样题声明：北京理工大学出版社出版的《中国科学院博士学位英语考试应试指南》依据的是旧的大纲，实际考试形式以本样题为准。
This exam paper includes two parts: PAPER ONE (100 minutes, 75 points) and PAPER TWO (50 minutes, 25 points).(第100分钟时收Answer sheet I)A Sample TestPAPER ONEPart I Listening ComprehensionSection A (10 points)Directions: In this part, you will hear 10 short conversations. At the end of each conversation, a question will be asked about what is said. Eachconversation and the question will be spoken only once. When you hear thequestion, read the four choices of the answer given and choose the best oneby marking the corresponding letter A, B, C, or D on your Answer Sheet I.1. A. Go back home.B. Mail a letter.C. Do the shopping.D. Ask the way.2. A. Dennis always alters his idea about an outing.B. Dennis has no choice but to come with them.C. It’s surprising that Dennis would come with them.D. Dennis has at last agreed to go out.3. A. Go out for fun with the girl.B. Travel with the girl to Holland.C. Try not to spend so much money.D. Let the girl pay her own bill.4. A. The man should reschedule the trip.B. She has no idea when the semester ends.C. She’ll call the travel agency to confirm the date.D. The man should spend his holidays somewhere else.5. A. He forgot to mail the letter.1B. He left the letter in his office.C. The letter slipped off his desk.D. He should have put the letter in his bag.6. A. He was exhausted.B. He was drunk.C. He was worried.D. He was late for work.7. A. In a mall.B. In a pharmacy.C. In the cleaner’s.D. In a department store.8. A. The woman argued for her innocence at court.B. The woman complained that she was forced to pay the fine.C. The woman has got away with many violations of traffic law.D. The woman pleaded ignorance this time of her violation of the traffic law.9. A. Jack has to meet a tight deadline.B. Jack has completed his assignmentC. Jack got himself burnt last night.D. Professor David is a pleasant figure.10．A. He does not like Beth.B. He thinks the world is too crowded.C. He is too excited to do anything about the party.D. He will not help arrange for the party.Section B (10 points)Directions: In this part, you will hear three mini-talks and each of them will be spoken only once. While listening to them, read the questions that follow each talk.You will be asked to write down your answer on your Answer Sheet II,using one sentence only, either complete or incomplete. Your answer shouldbe concise and to the point.Questions 11 to 13 are based on Mini-talk One:Mini-talk One11: How much grain do rats destroy each year in India?12: Where do rats live?13: How do rats spread diseases indirectly?Questions 14 to 16 are based on Mini-talk Two:Mini-talk Two14: What education does the vast majority of US Postal Service jobs require?15: When can one know the special requirements for some postal jobs?216: In addition to the variety of paid leave, what other benefits are provided for a postal employee? (List at least two.)Questions 17 to 20 are based on Mini-talk Three:Mini-talk Three17: Why is popular art said to be primarily entertainment?18: What is the distinction in art between a professional and an amateur?19: How does high art differ from popular art financially?20: What are people interested in high art often required to do?Part II Use of English and Reading ComprehensionSection A (15 points)Directions: There are 15 blanks in the following passage. Read the passage carefully and fill in each of the blanks by choosing the right word or phrase from thelist given below. Write your answer on the Answer Sheet II. Capitalize theword when it is necessary. The words and phrases listed are twice as manyas the blanks. Once a word or phrase is chosen, it must be used only once.Many of the most damaging and life-threatening types of weather—torrential rains, severe thunderstorm, and tornadoes—began quickly, strike suddenly, and dissipate rapidly, devastating small regions 21 leaving neighboring areas untouched. One such event, a tornado, struck the northeastern section of Edmonton, Alberta, in July 1987. Total damages from the tornado 22 $ 250 million, the highest 23 for any Canadian storm. Conventional computer models of the atmosphere have limited value in predicting short-lived local storms 24 the Edmonton tornado, because the available weather data are generally not detailed enough to allow computers to discern the subtle atmospheric changes that 25 these storms. In most nations, for example, weather-balloon observations are taken just 26 every twelve hours at locations typically 27 by hundreds of miles. With such limited data, conventional forecasting models do a much better job predicting general weather conditions over large regions 28 they do forecasting specific local events.Until recently, the observation—intensive approach needed for accurate, very short-range forecasts, or “Nowcast”, was not 29 . The cost of equipping and operating many thousands of conventional weather stations was prohibitively high, and the difficulties involved in rapidly collecting and processing the raw weather data from such a network were insurmountable. 30 , scientific and technological advances have 31 most of these problems. Radar systems, automated weather instruments, and satellites are all capable of making detailed, nearly 32 observations over large regions at a relatively low cost. Communications satellites can transmit data around the world cheaply and 33 , and modern computers can quickly compile and analyze this large volume of weather information. Meteorologists and computer scientists now work3together to design computer programs and video equipment capable of 34 raw weather data into words, symbols, and vivid graphic displays that forecasters can interpret easily and quickly. 35 meteorologists have begun using these new technologies in weather forecasting offices, nowcasting is becoming a reality.Section B (20 questions×1.5 points= 30 points)Directions: Read the following passages carefully and then select the best answer from the four choices given to answer each of the questions or complete each ofthe statements that follow each passage. Mark the letter of your choice onyour Answer Sheet I.Passage 1For centuries, the gravel and sand of Georges Bank and the great canyons, muddy basins, and shallow ledges of the Gulf of Maine have supported one of the world’s most productive fishing regions. But big boulders have historically protected a 1050-square-kilometer region at the bank’s northeastern tip from dredging boats in search of scallops and trawlers hunting down groundfish. However, those boulders are becoming less of a deterrent against improved and sturdier gear. So when geologist Page Valentine of the U.S. Geological Survey in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, stood before his colleagues last month and defended his proposal to safeguard this rare, undisturbed gravel bed, he knew that he was also standing at the crossroads of science and politics. Valentine’s presentation was part of a 2-day workshop held at the New England Aquarium here to build support for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), a controversial concept aimed at preserving biodiversity in coastal waters. The meeting, organized by Elliott Norse, founder of the Marine Conservation Biology Institute in Redmond, Washington, featured talks by 21 experts across a range of marine habitats and species and represented the marine community’s biggest push fo r MPAs.The discussion generated a map that nominated 29% of the ocean floor off the coast of New England and Canada’s Maritime Province for protection, as well as 25% of pelagic (open-ocean) waters. The next step will come in the fall, when the scientists discuss the plan with government officials, commercial stakeholders, and environmental activists—meetings that are likely to be contentious. “The conservation groups will want to see if various species are covered. And various fishermen will be convinced that their livelihood is threatened,” says Mike Pentony, an analyst for the New England Fishery Management Council, who was an observer at last month’s workshop. The areas could be established by the National Marine Fisheries Service or under existing U.S. and Canadian laws to protect endangered species and habitats.36. Which of the following can be the best title of the passage?A.Fishery Industry in New England.B.Plan to Protect Coastal waters of New England.C.Restoration of Marine Life in the Gulf of Maine.D.Problems Critical to Ecological Balance in Georges Bank.37. The abundance of fish in the area has been a result of ________.A.the perpetual fishery closureB.the stringent ban on overfishingC.the effective fishery management4D.its unique geographic features38. Boulders used to be a deterrent to ________.A.scallopB.groundfishC.fishing boatsD.improved gear39. At the two-day workshop, the scientists reached an agreement on ______.A.the marine areas to be preservedB.how to rescue the endangered speciesC.the guarant ee of the fishermen’s livelihoodD.what to discuss with the government officials40. Which of the following CANNOT be concluded from the last paragraph?A.The fishermen will be worried about their livelihood.B. A decision is soon to be made on the protected areas.mercial stakeholders may be at odds with scientists.D.Conflicting interests will arise between fishermen and scientists.Passage 2Some people are accustomed to thinking that facts must either be believed or they must be disbelieved—as if beliefs were like a light switch with only two positions, on or off. My use of the bathtub hoax is intended to illustrate that belief does not have to operate as a simple yes or no choice, all or nothing. Belief can be more conditional; it can be something that we d ecide to have “up to a point.” And so, the question we might ask ourselves while reading does not have to be “Should I believe it or not?” but instead can be “How much should I believe it?” This later question implies that the belief we have in any given fact, or in any given idea, is not determined by whether it sounds right or whether the source is an authority. It means that our beliefs are determined by the reasons that justify them. Belief is not a mechanical action, brought about by invariable rules of nature. It is a human activity, the exercise of judgment. With this in mind, we might say that we perform this action better when we know what the reasons are that have led to our belief, and why they are good reasons.These observations do not deprive us of our ability to believe in what we read. They are not intended to transform you from credulous believers into stubborn doubters. The process of weighing beliefs against the quality of reasons is one that you already go through all the time, whether you are aware of it or not. We all do. The practice of critical reading is the exercise of this kind of judgment on purpose. By doing it, we protect ourselves from being led into belief for inadequate reasons, but at the same time we open up our minds to the possibility of arriving at belief for adequate ones. If we decide to grant or withhold consent based on the quality of the reasons that we are given we admit at the same time that two things are possible: We admit that we might consent less in the future if we discover that the reasons are not so good after all; and we admit that we might consent more if we are ever presented with better reasons than we had formerly known. This attitude is not pure skepticism any more than it is pure credulity. It is somewhere in between. It is the attitude of an open-minded thinker, of someone who wishes to be responsible for deciding for herself or himself what to believe.541. The author’s use of the bathtub hoax is meant to suggest that __________.A. facts must be believed unconditionallyB. belief is more than a simple yes or no choiceC. nothing should be believed or disbelievedD. belief is nothing but a light switch42. To believe or disbelieve what you read should be based on ________.A. the facts that you are givenB. whether the author is an open-minded authorityC. the quality of reasons provided by the materialD. the assumption that you know everything about it43. As a human activity, weighing the facts about something is actually _______.A. determined by the rules of natureB. a performanceC. brought about even at birthD. experienced by everyone44. According to the author, which of the following is true?A. Our attitude toward what we read may change if we are given better reasons.B. An open-minded thinker is responsible for what he or she says.C. Critical reading can make us believe more in what we read.D. We ought to question the value of what we read if its source is not authoritative.45. What is the topic of this passage?A. Judgment and Responsibility.B. Reading and Belief.C. Trust and Faith.D. Reading and Human Activity.Passage 3Things don’t come easily to Matteo, a 4-year-old New Yorker with brown bangs and cowboy bandanna. Afflicted by cerebral palsy, he moves awkwardly. He thinks slow ly and doesn’t talk much. Small frustrations upset him terribly. But when Matteo visits Clive Robbins, his music therapist, he bangs gleefully on a snare drum, placing one hand on the rim to steady himself, he uses the other to rap in tempo to Robbins’s improvised song. As the tune progresses, Matteo moves his act to the piano, banging along with one or two fingers and laughing excitedly. By following the rhythm, he is learning to balance his body and coordinate the movement of his limbs. He’s also learning to communicate. “He is grown much more motivated and intent,” says Robbins, the co-founder of New York University’s Nordoff-Robbins Center for Music Therapy.Disabled children aren’t the only ones feeling the therapeutic power of music. A 79-year-old stroke survivor listens to Viennese waltzes on his headphones to help him to relearn to walk. A woman in labor had LeAnn Rimes’ country tunes blaring from a stereo to help her keep in step with her contraction. And, yes, ostensibly healthy people are listening to airy New Age discs, and maybe lighting a candle or two, to lessen stress and promote well-being. They may all be on to something. Mounting evidence suggests6that almost any musical stimulus, from Shostakovich to the Spice Girls can have therapeutic effects.Music therapy isn’t mainstream health care, but recent studies suggest it can havea wide range of benefits. In 1996, researchers at Colorado State University tried giving10 stroke victims 30 minutes of rhythmic stimulation each day for three weeks. Compared with untreated patients, they shared significant improvements in their ability to walk steadily. People with Parkinson’s disease enjoyed similar benefits. A musical beat from any genre seemed to provide a rhythmic cue, stimulating the brain’s mot or systems.Other body systems seem equally responsive. Scottish researchers have found, for example, that a daily dose of Mozart or Mendelssohn significantly brightens the moods of institutionalized stroke victims. Using psychological tests, the Scottish team showed that patients receiving 12 weeks of daily music therapy were less depressed and anxious, and more stable and sociable, than other patients in the same facility. Music therapy has also proved useful in the management of Alzheimer’s and other neu rological diseases. And Deforia Lane, a music therapist at University Hospitals in Cleveland, has shown that music can boost immune function in children. That’s consistent with a 1995 finding by Louisiana researchers that preemies exposed to lullabies in the hospital went home earlier.46. Which of the following would be the best title for this passage?A.Why Music is PowerfulB.Music and Pain MedicationC.Music and Disabled ChildrenD.The Medical Power of Music47. What does the passage say about Matteo?A. He is suffering a paralysis of the brain.B. He is late in his ability to walk and talk.C. He plays music better by taking the advice.D. He’s ambitious to become a professional drummer.48. Paragraph 2 mainly tells that ________________.A.music helps pregnant women undergo contractionsB.music stimulates promotion of people’s well-beingC.music seems to have therapeutic effects on all peopleD.sick people benefit a lot from listening to music49. By mentioning the Spice Girls, the author gives an example of musicA.which is popular among children.B.which is good for health.C.which may harm one’s health.D.which is losing popularity.50. According to the context, the word “preemies” probably means________.A.sick children coming to see a doctorB.children with infectious diseasesC.newly recovered young patients7D.premature babiesPassage 4In terms of lives lost and property destroyed, the Civil War was the most terrible armed conflict Americans have ever known, but that has not prevented them from remembering it with enduring fondness. The Civil War remains the most written-about period in American history, and it provides boundless entertainment in the United States and around the world. Instead of an object lesson in the dangers of political polarization, racial inequality, and human cruelty, fans consider their favorite war an exercise in nobility—a bloodbath that somehow forged the unbreakable bonds of American national identity.Most Civil War historians were reared in this romantic tradition, and they have yet to fully free themselves from it. They still view the struggle through rose-colored glasses, making excuses for flawed heroes who have the reputations they never deserved. With the publication of While in the Hands of the Enemy: Military Prisons of the Civil War, Charles W. Sanders has distinguished himself as one of the few scholars capable of addressing the Civil War with utter frankness. His brilliantly researched book is a ringing indictment of the prisoner-of-war (POW) systems maintained by both sides of that war, as well as the politicians and soldiers who deliberately sent thousands of men to needless suffering and death. There are no heroes in this study, just too many unnecessary victims.Sanders sets his study in context by first tracing the evolution of POW policy during the American Revolution, War of 1812, and Mexican War. Americans knew that POWs were vulnerable to mistreatment, and the quickest way to improve their lot was to negotiate exchanges with the enemy. At the outset of the Civil War, neither side was prepared to cope with the many foes their armies captured, and prisoners inevitably suffered from inadequate housing, food, medical care, and other necessities. Abraham Lincoln delayed the implementation of general exchanges until July 1862 for fear it would allow rebellious southerners to claim de facto recognition of the Southern sovereignty. Once implemented, the exchange system quickly emptied prisons in the North and South, but it began breaking down by the end of the year.51. Most Civil War historians would agree that the Civil War may haveA. taught a useful lesson about human nature.B. started political struggles in America.C. raised the awareness of the race issue.D. strengthened American national identity.52. Civil War historians usual ly believe that “flawed heroes”A. should be forgiven.B. should be criticized.C. should be studied further.D. should be evaluated objectively.53. According to Charles W. Sanders, the Civil WarA. created various heroes.B. brought pointless misery.C. started the first POW system.8D. was brutal but inevitable.54. In the early days of the Civil War,A. the POWs were in difficult situations.B. the number of the POWs was small.C. the POW exchanges were frequent.D. both sides used the POWs for political purposes.55. What does the passage say about the POW exchange system of 1862?A. It had been postponed deliberately.B. It put the South at a political advantage.C. It became a successful model for later time.D. It raised the public awareness of the POW problem.Section C (10 points)Directions: There are two passages in this section. In each of the passages, five sentences have been removed from the original text. They are listed from A toF and put below the passage. Choose the most suitable sentence from the listto fill in each of the blanks numbered 56 to 60 and 61 to 65. There is onesentence that does not fit in any of the blanks. Mark your answers on yourAnswer Sheet I.Passage 1China’s growth is not uniformly high. Like every other e conomy in the world, China’s is shaped by its geography, in this case an east-west divide and a north-south divide. ___56___ China’s east coast is the Pacific Ocean, and some of the most important port cities in the world can be found there, including (from north to south) the ports of Tianjin, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and Hainan Island. The coastal provinces have the advantage of proximity, both in time and transport costs, to major world markets by sea-based trade. ___57___ Both are forbidding borders, with enormous transport costs and great distances to major world trading centers. It is not surprising that the western provinces have been growing much less rapidly than the eastern provinces, and that foreign investors focus their investments almost entirely on the eastern coastal provinces____58____ This is economic geography, and the east-west growth divide is natural. It won’t go away. It will be addressed partly through an internal migration of job seekers leaving the west and heading east. This trend has already produced the largest migration occurring in the world today, with perhaps 150 million people having moved either permanently or seasonally between the interior and the coastal provinces. ___59___ These investments will help improve infrastructure, industrial development, and social development, through better schools and better health services.The Chinese north-south divide is a little bit less conspicuous, but it is also very significant. The north is dry compared to the south. ___60___ Already China is talking about spending tens of billions of dollars to divert rivers from the south to the north in three great canals whose costs, effectiveness, and ecological effects are hard to assess with precision, but the risks are very large.910Passage 2Doctors have long known that lung cancer, which kills 160,000 Americans each year, takes a heavier toll among black Americans, particularly black men, than among whites. ___61___ It also has to do with differences in income and access to medical care. But there has always been a lingering suspicion that some of the gap might be due to either overt or subconscious discrimination. A study in last week’s New England Journal of Medicine appears to support that disturbing conclusion.___62___ Even so, about 20% of lung-cancer patients are found to have a tumor whose biological characteristics and small size give them a good chance of being cured if the malignant growth is surgically removed.Researchers at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City and the National Cancer Institute in Bethesda, Md., looked at data from more than 10,000 white and black Medicare patients whose tumors were found early enough to make them candidates for surgery. About 77% of the white patients underwent the procedure, compared with 64% of blacks. The difference was sufficiently large to reduce the overall survival rate for black patients to 26% after five years, compared with 34% for whites. ___63___ “People are dying needlessly,” says Dr. Peter Bach of Memorial Sloan-Kettering,who led the study. He suspects “some combination of the procedure not being offered or pushed by doctors, and patients not accepting it.”___64___ So getting the word out that there is a proven treatment could help close the gap. It’s also vital for doctors and patients to make sure they understand each other.Better communication will be even more important as treatments become more complex . Currently there’s no screening test for finding lung cancer early. (Chest X rays almost always catch it too late.) But Dr. Claudia Henschke of the Weill Medical College at Cornell University in New York City and her colleagues believe they have found a way to identify very small tumors with low-dose CAT scans. ___65___PAPER TWOSection A (10 points)Directions:Read the following article and write a summary of between 120 and 150 words on your Answer Sheet II. You should NOT copy the original sentences This year, like every other year within the past couple of decades, uncountable trillions of mosquitoes will inject malaria parasites into human blood streams billions of times. Some 300 to 500 million full-blown cases of malaria will result, and between 1 and 3 million people will die, most of them pregnant women and children. That’s the official figure, anyway, but it’s likely to be a substantial underestimate, since most malaria deaths are not formally registered, and many are likely to have escaped the estimators. Very roughly, the malaria death toll rivals that of AIDS, which now kills about 3 million people annually.But unlike AIDS, malaria is a low-priority killer. Despite the deaths, and the fact that roughly 2.5 billion people (40 percent of the world’s population) are at risk of contracting the disease, malaria is a relatively low public health priority on the international scene. Malaria rarely makes the news. And international funding for malaria research currently comes to a mere $150 million annually. Just by way of comparison, that’s only about 5 percent of the $2.8 billion that the U.S. government alone is considering for AIDS research in the next fiscal year.The low priority assigned to malaria would be at least easier to understand, though no less mistaken, if the threat were static. Unfortunately it is not. It is true that the geographic range of the disease has contracted substantially since the mid-20th century, but over the past couple of decades, malaria has been gathering strength. Virtually all areas where the disease is prevalent have seen drug-resistant strains of the parasites emerge—a development that is almost certainly boosting death rates. In countries as various as Armenia, Afghanistan, and Sierra Leone, the lack or deterioration of basic infrastructure has created a wealth of new breeding sites for the mosquitoes that spread the disease. The rapidly expanding slums of many tropical cities also lack such infrastructure; poor sanitation and crowding have primed these places as well for outbreaks—even though malaria has up to now been regarded as predominantly a rural disease.What can current policy offer in the face of these threats? The medical arsenal is limited; there are only about a dozen anti-malarial drugs commonly in use, and there is significant malaria resistance to most of them. In the absence of a reliable way to kill the parasites, policy has tended to focus on killing the mosquitoes that bear them. And that has led to an abundant use of synthetic pesticides, including one of the oldest and most dangerous: dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane, or DDT.11Section B (15 points)Direction:Now China has a growing number of old people. How will this trend affect China? Write an English essay of at least 200 words to explain your answer. Use the proper space on Answer Sheet II.******************************************************************Reference key to Sample TestPart ISection A1—10 C D D A A B C C B DSection BMini-talk One11: Ten million tons of grain each year.12: Any place they can get into—homes, shops, farm buildings and farm and home storage areas.13: By carrying fleas, mites and other organisms that cause sickness.Mini-talk Two14: Four years of high school or less.15: Any special requirements will be stated on the announcement of examination. 16: Retirement support, life insurance and health insurance.Mini-talk Three17: Many of them are hits for a few weeks then they disappear.18: A professional tries to make a living by working in art, while an amateur does all the artistic work just for pleasure.19: Popular art usually makes a lot of money, while high art often lacks funds.20: To give money to make future performances possible.Part IISection A21. while 22. exceeded 23. ever 24. like 25. precede 26.once 27. separated 28. than 29. feasible 30. Fortunately 31.overcome 32.continuous 33.instantaneously 34.transforming 35. AsSection B36. B. 37. D. 38. C. 39. A. 40. B. 41. B. 42. C. 43. D. 44. A. 45. B. 46. D. 47. A. 48. C. 49. B. 50. D 51. D 52. A 53. B 54. A 55. A Section C56—60. ADECB61—65. BFACE12。
中国科学技术大学各专业考研复试经验精编
中国科学技术大学各专业考研复试经验精编➢物理化学专业复试分为笔试和面试，笔试综合化学，只有选择题和填空题，推荐科大出版社的小黄书以及历年的综合化学真题。
面试分为英语面试和学术面试。
英语面试为朗读一段英文文献并翻译，通常老师会问你联系的是哪个方向的老师或者你喜欢哪个方向，然后给你一段相关文献。
学术面试大概有十个老师左右，自我介绍中英文都可以，然后老师会随机问一些问题，有可能是课本上的问题，或者你对某个研究方向的理解，甚至你为什么选择科大。
➢有机化学专业复试由综合面试（110分）和实验（40分）两部分构成。
面试的流程如下：研究生办教学秘书按初试名次顺序挨个喊人，依次进场，进场桌子上放着ABC三张A4纸，每张纸上有大概三分之二篇幅三四百单词数的英文，教学秘书说你随机从里面选一张，给你三分钟时间看，有不会的单词你可以问，三分钟后翻译成中文说出来。
英文面试后面试组的老师会开始就专业、综合能力、科研经历、毕业设计等方面展开第二轮面试提问。
如果跨专业报考的话，老师通常还会问下考研选择该专业的原因。
实验：我当时考察的实验是HCI溶液滴定Na2CO3测算含量。
实验过程中有两个老师监考，而且在考试的时候老师还现场进行指导。
个人认为实验还是很简单的。
➢电子工程与信息科学专业复试通常包括笔试、机试和面试（特殊时期除外，如今年疫情）。
笔试：虽然是三门课，好像很厉害的样子，但是考的题目有限，就拿计算机网络来说吧，考的都是大题，题库不超过30个题，全部背掉吧。
要知道你若能进复试，面对的都是高手，你不好好准备，就会被淘汰！！！这是每年唯一不变的地方。
微机原理，考得很细，甚至有点偏，上课好好上，网上有周何琴教授的视频，实在不行自己下载了看。
通信原理也是很多题库，都看看，理解了就行了，今年考了循环码，没考卷积码！机试：word 、excel 、ppt今天都考了，但是PPT就是来打酱油的，3分，好多人都不做！主要是前两个。
然后就是C语言了，题目不是很难，多练习练习，大家都没问题的。
国科大英语A课文翻译 在普通物理学中理论家,实验主义者以及他们之间的偏见
在普通物理学中理论家，实验主义者以及他们之间的偏见
大多数人都听说过保罗狄拉克，但很少有人知道卡尔安德森，他通过观察云室中的粒子轨迹，发现了正电子
1. 大多数对物理学感兴趣的人都会告诉你谁提出了夸克的想法——默里盖尔曼。
2. 现在，聚集在一群了解盖尔曼的人周围，问问他们谁是亨利·肯德尔、杰罗姆·弗里德曼和理查德·泰勒。
你很有可能会引来一片茫然的目光。
3. 然而，“想到这个想法”就是盖尔曼在1964年他和乔治·茨威格独立开发这个概念时所做的那样。
如果没有肯德尔，弗里德曼和泰勒1968年在斯坦福直线加速器中心（SLAC）进行的实验，那么夸克仍然就仅仅是一个理论，一个像鬼火一样的假设，但它的存在始终没有被证实。
4. 在普通物理学观点中，类似的主题也在激增。
每个人都知道保罗·狄拉克猜想正电子的存在，但是有多少人知道卡尔·安德森和他的合作者塞斯·尼特迈耶尔真正地找到了它？人们同样知道沃尔夫冈·泡利和恩里科·费米在30年代声明要找到一种叫做中微子的幽灵粒子，但是问科普爱好者他们是否知道雷蒙德·戴维斯30多年对中微子的不懈追求，那么你们可能会看到他们皱着眉头。
最后，即便在今天，一个学童可能会知道爱因斯坦对恒星引力场中星光弯曲的预测，但亚瑟·爱丁顿对这一事实的验证却鲜为人知。
国科大英语A口语期末考试对话
Unit 1 Introductions and Conversation StartersImagine you are in a job interview. Try to introduce yourself in an impressive way to the prospective employer.A: Excuse me. May I see Mr. Lu?B: It's me. What can I do for you?A: Nice to meet you, Mr. Lu. I'm coming here for an interview by appointment.B: Are you Mr. He?A: Yes, I am.B: Nice to meet you, too. Did you have any difficulty finding our company?A: Not really, I am familiar with this area.B: Well, Mr.He, tell me a little bit about yourself, please.A:My name is Heyaoxi and I live in Beijing. I was born in 1991. I graduated from Yu nnan University. My major is Genetic Biology.B: How did you get on with your studies in university?A: I did well and I was one of the top students in the class.B: What kind of person do you think you are?A: Generally speaking, I am an open-minded person.B: How would you describe your ideal job?A: I think the job should make use of the professional experience I have obtained. B: Where do you want to be in 5 years?A: I don't want to have any specific title. I just want to enjoy what I am doing.B:Well, that’s all for the interview. Do you have any questions?A:When will I know your decision?B:We will give you our decision in a few days. Thank you for your interest in this job. A:Thank you, sir. I expect to hear from you as soon as possible.Unit 2 Describing the Appearance and Character of PeopleAsk your friend to pick up your parents at the railway station. Make sure your friend will be informed of all the important information.A:Hello,Lu. Do you have time tomorrow afternoon?B:Let me see. I’m free tomorrow. What's wrong?A:My parents come to see me and they will arrive at Beijing tomorrow afternoon. But I have an important lesson at that time so I can't pick up them at the railway station as I promised. Could you help me to pick up them?B:Sure. Which train will they take?A:T34, from Kunming to Beijing.B:Which station will the train arrive at? I remember it arrives at bus, but I’m not sure. A:Yes, you are right. It arrives at Beijing South Railway Station.B:Well, when will the train arrive?A:A quarter past two.B:The traffic is bad at that moment, I’d better set off earlier.A:You are so thoughtful. The weather forecast say that it rains tomorrow, don’t forget to take an umbrella.B:Thanks. Then how can I recognize your parents?A:My father has a round face and bushy hair. He is about 175 centimetres tall.B:What does your mother look like?A:My mother has short curly hair and big eyes. She is as tall as me.B:OK, I got it. But I think it’s a bit difficult to recognize.A:I will send their photos to your e-mails and I will tell you what they wear tomorrow in advance.B:That’s fine. I will wait for them at the front door of KFC.A:OK.I will tell them and give your phone number to my parents. When they arrive, they will call you.B:When I meet your parents I will let you know at once.A:Thanks very much. It’s so kind of you.B: Don't mention it. That’s my pleasureUnit 3 Asking for and Giving InformationYou are planning to rent an apartment. Ask your friend for information.A: Hello, Lu, how is your house hunting going?B: Not very well. I haven’t found anything within my price range yet.A: There is so much information and I found several in today’s newspaper.B: Really? So tell me a little about it ?A: uh...I don’t know where to begin. What do you want to know ?B: well...I can only afford about 1000 yuan a month;A: Looks like you’re not going to get more than a bedroom in a shared flat with that. B: Really? That’s a lot of money to pay for one room.A: Well, if you want to live in Beijing, you have to pay the price!B: Do you know of anyone who needs a roommate?A: I can ask around at work. Do you have a preference for smokers or non-smokers? B: I’d prefer non-smoking roommates. Well, Could you tell me something about the apartment? how large is it? And I wondering whether the apartment is furnished or unfurnished ?A: There are two bedrooms, a bathroom, and a kitchen. It’s about 98 square meters. of course, furnished means a higher price. You know that you’ll have to pay utilities on top of the rent, right?B: No, I thought that would be included in the rent.A: It’s not usually included, so you’ll have to spend about 100 yuan more each month on utilities.B: I don't think I can afford that.A: Don’t worry. Sometimes people will give you a discount if you promise to do the cleaning or take care of their children.B: That’s a good idea. I’ll look into finding something like that. See you.A: See you!Unit 4 Inviting, Accepting and Refusing an InvitationBrian did something that made his girlfriend Mary pretty mad at him. Now he tries to fix things up by suggesting to take her to a fine restaurant and movie afterwards, but Mary is still quite angry.Lu: Mary, don’t be angry, please.He: What do you want to make up for me, Brian.Lu: We go to the cinema and see Breakup Buddies.He: You just comfort me like this.Lu: After this movie we go to eat steak which you favourite.He: No. I don’t want to eat anything.Lu: Why, what did I do make you unhappy.He: Have you ever seen your old flame? If the shoe fits, wear it.Lu: We are a company's colleague, so often met. You needn't angry for this matter. He: I saw you smooching with her just outside your company yesterday.Lu: This is a misunderstanding. Please keep your shirt on, give me a chance to explain.He: You know what, you always have reason.Lu: She is going to our branch in China,. That is to say goodbye to me.He: I don’t believe you.Lu: I only have eyes for you. I really didn’t cheat you. If you don’t believe, you can call her.He:I will believe you this time.Lu: Let's go to that movie.He: All right..Unit 5 Finding and Giving DirectionsHow to get to the Fragrance Hill?Lu: Excuse me, this is my first time come to beijing. Can you tell me the way to Fragrance Hill?He: You can take the Bus 318. The driver will tell you where to get off.Lu: Yes, but I'm driving my own car.He: Oh, then you drive along this street, turn right at the third cross, then take the first left. Keep straight on until see a road sign that says "Fragrance Hill", and then you follow the sign. It will direct you to Fragrance Hill.Lu: Drive along this street, turn right, turn left, keep straight, and then I'll see the road sign?He: That's right.Lu: Are you sure that I won't bump into any one-way streets?He: Well,...I don't think you will....I don't see any car around here. Where is your car? Lu: I parked it over there. You see?He: Oh, no. You'd better move it before a policeman sees you parking there.Lu: Why? I don't see any "No Parking" signs.He: But you're parking in a bus zone.Lu: Here comes a policeman. I'd better run....Thank you, miss....Oh, by the way, how long will it take for me to get to Fragrance Hill?He: About half an hour.Lu: Thanks again. You've been very helpful.He: Hurry up, or you'll get a ticket.。
中国科学院大学-PPT模板
01 短标题格式 03 第三章节标题 05 第五章节标题
02 第二章节标题 04 第四章节标题 06 第六章节标题
• 第一章节标题
• 第二章节标题
• 第四章节标题
• 第五章节标题
• 第六章节标题
01 长标题格式目录页 02 与研究内容相结合的标题一般比较长 03 与研究内容相结合的标题都挺长 04 与研究内容相结合的标题可能非常长 05 第五章节标题 06 第六章节标题
37
公式格式展示页
对于同一页面多个格式不统一的公式，可以分别给他们框框装起来，请输入你的相关介绍请输入 你的相关介绍请输入你的相关介绍请输入你的相关介绍 对于同一页面多个格式不统一的公式，可以分别给他们框框装起来，请输入你的相关介绍
请输入你的公式名称请输入你的公式名称：
请输入你的公式名称：
38
名言、理论论著等引用页
学术活动
1.第10届人工智能会议，作《你的报 告题目》的报告 2.第XX届机器视觉会议，作《你的 报告题目你的报告题目》的报告 3.第10届人工智能会议，作《你的报 告题目》的报告 4.第XX届机器视觉会议，作《你的 报告题目你的报告题目》的报告
40
毕业论文系列-参加课题
课题类别
课题名称
省部级项目
28%
类目1 类目2 类目3 类目4
27
1图表展示页
数据分析显示： 若需修改形状使图表富有创意，可插入形状设置好颜色等参数后，选中该形状 Ctrl+C ， 再 选 中 需 修 改 的 柱 形 ， 首 次 点 击 选 中 该 系 列 ， 再 次 点 击 即 选 中 单 个 ， Ctrl+V即可改变柱形的形状
小标题
国科大慕课英语考试试卷
英语A期末测试卷样题PART I VOCABULARYDirections：Choose the best word or phrase from the choices A, B, C, or D to complete the following sentences.词汇选择1.For most people in the study, the only thing that changed in their lives was that some researchers tried to ________ them to do something new.A) demonstrateB) convinceC) refuteD) satisfy2.The 7301 participants ________ individuals > 50 years of age and their spouses of any age.A) containedB) consistedC) comprisedD) concluded3.Marine construction technology is very complex, somewhat _____ to trying to building a bridge under water.A) specificB) analogousC) peculiarD) comparative4.If schooling is a training in expression and communication, college is ________ the establishment of broad convictions.A) abundantlyB) significantlyC) essentiallyD) possibly5.Although most Asian students have good grammatical competence, they complain of the inability to speak, whereas European students often have the ________ complaint.A) subjectiveB) upsetC) reverseD) optionalPART II CLOZE TEST完型填空(MCQ)_ 1Directions: choose the appropriate verbs from the following box to complete theFinally, the VAERS deaths （6）so far are for the very short term. We have no idea what the death numbers will be in the intermediate and long-term; the clinical trials did not test for those.In a large, population-based study on nearly 400,000 individuals, we （7）that higher baseline participation in physical exercise was associated with a significant lower risk of the development of depression, one of the most prevalent psychiatric disorders.The waste anaerobic digestion (AD) （8）to be an efficient technology for sewage sludge treatment that allows generation of biogas as renewable energy from the same process.It should also be （9）that the consensus varied from 0.40 to 0.56 implying that there was neither perfect disagreement nor perfect agreement between the respondents regarding the effectiveness of online learning.A second wave of the epidemic was （10）on September 24, 2018 and can be explained by the unpredictable violent attacks on health teams and community members in the Ebola affected areas, hampering epidemiological surveillance efforts.完型填空(MCQ)_ 2Directions: choose the appropriate opinion markers from the following box to complete the sentences.In art criticism, people must （11）that the artist has a secret message hidden within the work so as to explore the deeper interpretation of the masterpiece.No one seems to （12）that the American dollar will eventually crash and burn along with many other currencies, but no one seems to have any real idea of what “should” replace it. The （13）aim was to analyze the influence of the second-opinion system on guideline implementation with a view to improving the quality of care.The appropriate people to blame here are the people that allowed these security measures to be pushed through without （14）training.The influence of review valence has received considerable attention both from scholars and practitioners (e.g., Lee and Youn 2009); （15）, findings regarding the role of review valence on consumers' evaluations are not straightforward.PART III ORDERING词组替换_ 1(ID=20001682)Directions: The following paragraph describes how climate change policies affect human health. The first few sentences are given below, while the rest five sentences are not in the correct order. Rearrange them in an appropriate order.There is high scientific confidence that processes associated with climate change affect human health, exacerbating existing global health challenges and creating new ones. Climate change, which has been characterised as the biggest global health threat in the 21 century, negatively impacts health outcomes: from changing diseases patterns to food insecurity and mental health.（16）、（17）、（18）、（19）、（20）PART Ⅳ READING COMPREHENSIONPassage 1阅读理解_ 1(ID=20001683)Directions: Read the following excerpt taken from a research paper on ecology, and then choose the best answer for eachquestion.Para. 1 Many bird species, including those of early successional habitats and those of small tree-fall gaps within mature forest, select disturbed habitats during some portion of the year (Hunter et al. 2001). Several studies have documented greater bird abundance in forest canopy gaps created by natural treefalls (Willson et al. 1982, Blake and Hoppes 1986, Martin and Karr 1986) or group-selection harvest (Kilgo et al. 1999, Moorman and Guynn 2001) than in the mature forest surrounding gaps. Some mature-forest breeders shift into more densely vegetated habitats between breeding and post-breeding periods (Anders et al. 1998; Vega Rivera et al. 1998, 2003; Pagen et al.2000; Vitz and Rodewald 2006). Birds use a variety of forested habitats during migratory periods (Petit 2000, Rodewald and Brittingham 2002), but mature-forest edges and early-succession habitats may experience relatively greater use (Rodewald and Brittingham 2004). Reasons for greater use of disturbed habitats by birds during certain periodsremain speculative, but abundant food and protection from predators have been proposed (Marshall et al. 2003).Para. 2 Arthropod（节肢动物）populations also are influenced by season and habitat type (Johnson and Sherry 2001, Greenberg and Forrest 2003) as well as canopy gap size (Shure and Phillips 1991). It should be advantageous for birds to choose sites with the greatest resource availability (Martin and Karr 1986), and greater invertebrate （无脊椎动物）biomass has been positively correlated to bird abundance (Blake and Hoppes 1986, Holmes et al. 1986), daily nest survival rates, growth rates of nestlings (Duguay et al. 2000), and timing of warbler （鸣鸟）migration (Graber and Graber 1983). Studies of experimental prey removal have not linked decreased prey abundance with negative consequences for the local bird community (Nagy and Smith 1997, Marshall et al. 2002, Champlin et al. 2009).Para. 3 Bowen et al. (2007) documented seasonal shifts in relative use by birds of canopy gap and forest habitat. They speculated these shifts may be driven by seasonal changes in arthropod abundance in gaps. Previous studies have not investigated seasonal shifts in avian habitat use as related to resource availability over multiple periods.Para. 4 Our objectives were to: (1) investigate whether bird use of forest gaps was associated with arthropod abundance or vegetation structure, and (2) ascertain if shifts in relative use of gap and forest understory were related to spatial and temporal variation in arthropod abundance. We predicted positive relationships between avian habitat use and arthropod abundance (i.e., relative bird use of gap vs. forest understory will shift based on changes in local arthropod abundance) from spring migration through fall migration.21. According to Para. 1, when will many bird species use disturbed habitats?A) during any portion of a yearB) before breeding seasonsC) during migration periodsD) whenever food is insufficient22. Which statement is the best paraphrase of the underlined sentence in Para. 1?A) Reasons for birds’ greater use of disturbed habitats in some periods are various, among which food and protection from enemies are two important ones (Marshall et al. 2003).B) Marshall et al. (2003) proposed that food and protection from predators are two major reasons for birds to use disturbed habitats in some st periods.C) Many researchers, including Marshall et al. (2003), have investigated the reasons why birds sometimes use disturbed habitats more frequently.D) Food and protection from predators are two issues (Marshall et al. 2003) to explore why birds use more disturbed habitats in someperiods.23. Why does the author shift the topic from bird’s habitats (Para. 1) to arthropod populations (Para. 2)?A) Because arthro pod populations influence birds’ habitat type.B) Because arthropods are the basic natural food for birds.C) Because arthropod populations are linked with bird abundance.D) Because arthropod activities affect birds’ nestling and breeding.24. What is th e most possible meaning of the underlined word “avian” in Para. 3?A) related to birdsB) related to arthropodsC) related to seasonsD) related to forests25. What is the writing purpose of the underlined sentence in Para. 4?A) to justify research objectivesB) to propose research hypothesisC) to illustrate research methodsD) to summarize research findings。
in-class——中科院英语(雁栖湖校区)
From Sentences to ParagraphsParagraph: A distinct division of written or printed matter that begins on a new, usually indented line, consists of one or more sentences, and typically deals with a single thought or topic or quotes one speaker's continuous words. (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language)Paragraphs may be developed by: exemplification, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, etc.Effective paragraphs should have two qualities: Unity and CoherenceUnityUnity means that the each paragraph should concern itself with a single focus.To achieve paragraph unity, a writer must ensure two things. First, the paragraph must have a single generalization that serves as the focus of attention—a topic sentence—which is usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, but could be in the middle or end, or even absent. (The first and final paragraphs usually have no topic sentences.)A good topic sentence does two important things: (a) helps you stay focused on the main idea of your paragraph; (b) helps readers to know what your paragraph will be about Secondly, a writer must control the content of every other sentence in the paragraph so that (a) it contains more specific information than the topic sentence and (b) it maintains the same focus of attention as the topic sentence.The rest of the sentences are called “supporting sentences”, and they explain or prove the topic sentence. Supporting sentences answer the questions such as Why and How. They support the topic sentence by giving details: reasons, examples, facts, statistics, quotations, causes, effects, predictions, etc.A typical outline of a paragraph: A topic sentence+ supporting sentencesParagraphs generally follow one of two patterns of development: from general to specific or from specific to general, with the first pattern more common.Example 1: For many Americans, work is now the emotional and spiritual center of life. Professionals labor an average of almost 44 hours a week. Some fields, such as law, finance and medicine, often require employees to work twice that much. Factory employees in the United States work 430 more hours annually—the equivalent of two months and a half—than their German counterparts.(supported by examples and numbers)Example: One of the most vivid demonstrations of the global reach of today’s chemical world comes from the Arctic. Research over the last few decades has revealed that some persistent organic chemicals travel thousands of miles from their source before reaching this remote part of the world. These chemicals “evaporate from soils as far away as the tropics, ride the winds north, then condense out in the cold air of the Arctic as toxic snow or rain,” explains Fred Pearce of the New Scientist. Certain harmful chemicals are particularly likely to follow this route, including PCBs, hexachlorocyclohexane, toxaphene, and chlordane. Scientists believe that these chemicals can circle the globe at a rapid rate, traveling as far as from India to the Arctic in as little as five days. (supported by quotations, examples and numbers)Do you think shopping is a pleasant activity (suppose you live close to the downtown area and have the money and time)? Why or why not? Write a paragraph to explain your answer. Remember to write a topic sentence and supporting sentences.Example A: Shopping is more than a necessary chore; it is a good way to spend leisure time. First, instead of sitting at home in front of the TV, shoppers get exercise walking around the stores. Shopping can also be a social activity, a bonding experience. For example, young women enjoy getting together to survey the new merchandise and serve as each other’s fashion consultants. Thirdly, living in our material world requires education. Savvy consumers have to learn about products and prices. Spending time in amall allows shoppers to comparison-shop and to get information from different salespeople. Finally, and most important, shopping is fun. Shoppers can gaze at colourful displays, watch other shoppers, stop for a coffee or a snack, listen to mall music, and imagine how all the high-tech goodies and trendy clothes will make their lives better. It is no wonder that so many people today view shopping as a pleasant pastime.Example B: People who choose to spend their free time shopping are misguided. Shopping is the curse of the modern consumer world, not a leisure activity. First, buying merchandise is stressful. Shoppers have to choose how to spend their hard-earned dollars on a bewildering array of items, including various models with practically imperceptible differences. Getting the best price requires hard work, patience, and good luck. While some people argue that shopping is good exercise, the benefits are negligible. Instead of a brisk walk in fresh air, shoppers meander about the aisles, spending much of their time standing around looking at items or waiting for service. Moreover, malls and stores are crowded, noisy places. Worst of all, the fact that so many people spend so much time shopping shows that our society has degraded to the lowest level of materialism. We care more about buying things than spending time with our family and friends in worthwhile pursuits. The evils of shopping cannot be avoided, but the activity should be limited to buying the bare necessities.Topic sentences are not always the first sentences of the paragraphs and paragraphs can develop from specific to general.Example: (“specific to general” pattern with the topic sentence placed at the end)Albert Einstein, one of the world’s geniuses, failed his university entrance examinations. William Faulkner, one of America’s noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during elementary school. These examples show that failure in school does not always predict failure in life.The concluding sentences, which are at the end of the paragraphs, summarize the information in the paragraphs. Concluding sentences are NOT always needed.CoherenceThis means that the different sentences in the paragraph should connect with each other, and also that the paragraph should connect with the paragraphs before and after it.You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.logical bridges:* The topic is developed from sentence to sentence and sentences in a paragraph should be sequenced in a specific order.There are three basic ways to organize details in paragraphs: by chronological order, by locations, and by order of importance.Example (by chronological order)Throughout human history, the physical universe has often presented dangers to explorers. For example, when primitive humans left their tribal villages to search for food and water, they risked death or injury from dangerous animals. Later, when people sailed the oceans in search of new lands for settlement or trade, many died in terrible storms. Similarly, the ocean of outer space has many dangers, but it also has several unique challenges for explorers.Example (by order of importance)The Women’s Movement has had several effects on the English language. It has created Ms, a title for women comparable to the title Mr. for men. The creator of the new title objected to the title Miss and Mrs. once given to women because these titles violated a woman’s privacy by indicating her marital status. The use of Ms now permits women to enjoy the same privacy that men have enjoyed with the use of Mr. Second, the Movement has changed the ending of many compound words from “man” to “person”. For instance, the word “chairman” has been replaced in many organizations with the word “chairperson”, and the word “salesman” has become “salesperson”. Feminists insist that the substitution of “person” for “man” makes the position more suitable for members of either sex. The most profound effect the Movement has had on the language is on the third person singular pronoun. Thirty years ago, most English instructors forced their students to use “he”, “him”, and “his” for the third person singular when the sex of the person was not known. Thus, students were taught to say, “Everyone has his books.” Today many English teachers permit students to follow the feminist lead and use the masculine and feminine pronouns together. Therefore, constructions such as “Everyone has his or her books” are common. Although the Women’s Movement may not have yet achieved all of its goals, it has made a mark on the English language.verbal bridges:1) Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel formExample 1: When the sun rose, I was happy because I was in love. When the noontime sun blazed, I was ecstatic because she said she loved me too. When the sun set that night, though, I was in despair because she had run off with my former best friend.Example 2: For everywhere we look, there is work to be done. The state of the economy calls for action, bold and swift, and we will act—not only to create new jobs, but to lay a new foundation for growth. We will build the roads and bridges, the electric grids and digital lines that feed our commerce and bind us together. We will restore science to its rightful place, and wield technology’s wonders to raise health care’s q uality and lower its cost. We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories. And we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the demands of a new age. All this we can do. And all this we will do. (Obama’s inaugural speech, 2009)2) Key words can be repeated in several sentences. Example: The life of a student is hard. It is hard because there is too much work and not enough time.3) Synonymous words can be used in several sentences.Example:We, the people, still believe that our obligations as Americans are not just to ourselves, but to all posterity. We will respond to the threat of climate change, knowing that the failure to do so would betray our children and future generations. Some may still deny the overwhelming judgment of science, but none can avoid the devastating impact of raging fires, and crippling drought, and more powerful storms. The path towards sustainable energy sources will be long and sometimes difficult. But America cannot resist this transition; we must lead it. (Obama’s inaugural speech, 2013)4) Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences.Example: It seems impossible for television programs to give anything but a falsely romantic account of doctors’lives. Currently there are four medical dramas on prime-time TV. These programs are immensely popular, but only a fool would mistake their heroes for the typical real-life physicians.5) Transitional words can be used to link ideas from different sentences.The first sample has no transition:People had always hoped to fly. Until 1903 it was only a dream. Some thought that human beings weren’t meant to fly. The Wright brothers launched the world’s first heavier-than-air flying machine. The airplane has become part of our everyday life.The second sample has transitions:People had always hoped to fly, but until 1903 it was only a dream. Before that time, some had thought that human beings were not meant to fly. However, in 1903 the Wright brothers launched the world’s first heavier-than-air flying machine. Since then, the airplane has become a part of our everyday life.Common transitional expressions include:To give examples: (for example, specifically, for instance, thus, to illustrate, namely, such as)To give additional information: (also, furthermore, in addition, moreover, and)To show how things are related in space: (above, below, here, there, opposite)To show how things are related in time: (after, before, meanwhile, in the past, then, later, finally)To show contrast: (despite, in spite of, although, though, but, however, in contrast, on the other hand, even so)To show comparison: (similarly, also, in the same way, likewise, in the same manner)To show cause and effect: (because, because of, so, thus, therefore, as a result, consequently, to this end)To show summary: (in summary, hence, in conclusion, finally, all in all)。
物理专业英语_科大版 (1)
中国科技大学物理学院物理学专业英语仅供内部学习参考！2014目录1 Physics 物理学 (1)Introduction to physics (1)Classical and modern physics (2)Research fields (4)V ocabulary (7)2 Classical m echanics 经典力学 (10)Introduction (10)Description of classical mechanics (10)Momentum and collisions (14)Angular momentum (15)V ocabulary (16)3 Thermodynamics 热力学 (18)Introduction (18)Laws of thermodynamics (21)System models (22)Thermodynamic processes (27)Scope of thermodynamics (29)V ocabulary (30)4 Electromagnetism 电磁学 (33)Introduction (33)Electrostatics (33)Magnetostatics (35)Electromagnetic induction (40)V ocabulary (43)5 Optics 光学 (45)Introduction (45)Geometrical optics (45)Physical optics (47)Polarization (50)V ocabulary (51)6 Atomic ph ysics 原子物理 (52)Introduction (52)Electronic configuration (52)Excitation and ionization (56)V ocabulary (59)7 Statistical m echanics 统计力学 (60)Overview (60)Fundamentals (60)Statistical ensembles (63)V ocabulary (65)8 Quantum m echanics 量子力学 (67)Introduction (67)Mathematical formulations (68)Quantization (71)Wave-particle duality (72)Quantum entanglement (75)V ocabulary (77)9 Special r e lativity 狭义相对论 (79)Introduction (79)Relativity of simultaneity (80)Lorentz transformations (80)Time dilation and length contraction (81)Mass-energy equivalence (82)Relativistic energy-momentum relation (86)V ocabulary (89)正文标记说明：蓝色Arial字体（例如energy）：已知的专业词汇蓝色Arial字体加下划线（例如electromagnetism）：新学的专业词汇黑色Times New Roman字体加下划线（例如postulate）：新学的普通词汇1 Physics 物理学Introduction to physicsPhysics is a part of natural philosophy and a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry,and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and philosophy.Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.Core theoriesThough physics deals with a wide variety of systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of nature (within a certain domain of validity).For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research, and a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642–1727) 【艾萨克·牛顿】.These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.Classical and modern physicsClassical mechanicsClassical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies at rest), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter including such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics pneumatics.Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received. Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics the physics of animal calls and hearing, and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light.Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy.Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.Modern PhysicsClassical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale ofobservation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on the very large or very small scale.For example, atomic and nuclear physics studies matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified.The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale, as it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in large particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsense notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics.Quantum theory is concerned with the discrete, rather than continuous, nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level, and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena.The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with relative uniform motion in a straight line and the general theory of relativity with accelerated motion and its connection with gravitation.Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in all areas of modern physics.Difference between classical and modern physicsWhile physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match their predictions.Albert Einstein【阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦】contributed the framework of special relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and space with space-time and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds approaching the speed of light.Max Planck【普朗克】, Erwin Schrödinger【薛定谔】, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales.Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity.General relativity allowed for a dynamical, curved space-time, with which highly massivesystems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be well-described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions; several candidate theories of quantum gravity are being developed.Research fieldsContemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics. Some physics departments also support research in Physics education.Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968)【列夫·朗道】, who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.Condensed matter physicsCondensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the electromagnetic force between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include the super-fluid and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials,and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices.Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics.Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group—previously solid-state theory—in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.Atomic, molecular and optical physicsAtomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter–matter and light–matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules.The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of the energy scales that are relevant. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus(see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of high-energy physics.Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light.Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects, but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm.High-energy physics (particle physics) and nuclear physicsParticle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy, and the interactions between them.In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high energy accelerators,detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally, but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model.●The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) thatinteract via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces.●Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons,W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively).●The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson. In July 2012CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson.Nuclear Physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology.Astrophysics and Physical CosmologyAstrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar system, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe was expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleo-synthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the cosmological principle (On a sufficiently large scale, the properties of the Universe are the same for all observers). Cosmologists have recently established the ΛCDM model (the standard model of Big Bang cosmology) of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy and dark matter.Current research frontiersIn condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers.In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. Particle accelerators have begun probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for the super-symmetric particles, after discovery of the Higgs boson.Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single theoryof quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity.Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies.Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sand-piles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems.Vocabulary★natural science 自然科学academic disciplines 学科astronomy 天文学in their own right 凭他们本身的实力intersects相交，交叉interdisciplinary交叉学科的，跨学科的★quantum 量子的theoretical breakthroughs 理论突破★electromagnetism 电磁学dramatically显著地★thermodynamics热力学★calculus微积分validity★classical mechanics 经典力学chaos 混沌literate 学者★quantum mechanics量子力学★thermodynamics and statistical mechanics热力学与统计物理★special relativity狭义相对论is concerned with 关注，讨论，考虑acoustics 声学★optics 光学statics静力学at rest 静息kinematics运动学★dynamics动力学ultrasonics超声学manipulation 操作，处理，使用infrared红外ultraviolet紫外radiation辐射reflection 反射refraction 折射★interference 干涉★diffraction 衍射dispersion散射★polarization 极化，偏振internal energy 内能Electricity电性Magnetism 磁性intimate 亲密的induces 诱导，感应scale尺度★elementary particles基本粒子★high-energy physics 高能物理particle accelerators 粒子加速器valid 有效的，正当的★discrete离散的continuous 连续的complementary 互补的★frame of reference 参照系★the special theory of relativity 狭义相对论★general theory of relativity 广义相对论gravitation 重力，万有引力explicit 详细的，清楚的★quantum field theory 量子场论★condensed matter physics凝聚态物理astrophysics天体物理geophysics地球物理Universalist博学多才者★Macroscopic宏观Exotic奇异的★Superconducting 超导Ferromagnetic铁磁质Antiferromagnetic 反铁磁质★Spin自旋Lattice 晶格，点阵，网格★Society社会，学会★microscopic微观的hyperfine splitting超精细分裂fission分裂，裂变fusion熔合，聚变constituents成分，组分accelerators加速器detectors 检测器★quarks夸克lepton 轻子gauge bosons规范玻色子gluons胶子★Higgs boson希格斯玻色子CERN欧洲核子研究中心★Magnetic Resonance Imaging磁共振成像，核磁共振ion implantation 离子注入radiocarbon dating放射性碳年代测定法geology地质学archaeology考古学stellar 恒星cosmology宇宙论celestial bodies 天体Hubble diagram 哈勃图Rival竞争的★Big Bang大爆炸nucleo-synthesis核聚合，核合成pillar支柱cosmological principle宇宙学原理ΛCDM modelΛ-冷暗物质模型cosmic inflation宇宙膨胀fabricate制造，建造spintronics自旋电子元件，自旋电子学★neutrinos 中微子superstring 超弦baryon重子turbulence湍流，扰动，骚动catastrophes突变，灾变，灾难heterogeneous collections异质性集合pattern formation模式形成2 Classical mechanics 经典力学IntroductionIn physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects in science, engineering and technology.Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. Besides this, many specializations within the subject deal with gases, liquids, solids, and other specific sub-topics.Classical mechanics provides extremely accurate results as long as the domain of study is restricted to large objects and the speeds involved do not approach the speed of light. When the objects being dealt with become sufficiently small, it becomes necessary to introduce the other major sub-field of mechanics, quantum mechanics, which reconciles the macroscopic laws of physics with the atomic nature of matter and handles the wave–particle duality of atoms and molecules. In the case of high velocity objects approaching the speed of light, classical mechanics is enhanced by special relativity. General relativity unifies special relativity with Newton's law of universal gravitation, allowing physicists to handle gravitation at a deeper level.The initial stage in the development of classical mechanics is often referred to as Newtonian mechanics, and is associated with the physical concepts employed by and the mathematical methods invented by Newton himself, in parallel with Leibniz【莱布尼兹】, and others.Later, more abstract and general methods were developed, leading to reformulations of classical mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. These advances were largely made in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they extend substantially beyond Newton's work, particularly through their use of analytical mechanics. Ultimately, the mathematics developed for these were central to the creation of quantum mechanics.Description of classical mechanicsThe following introduces the basic concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it oftenmodels real-world objects as point particles, objects with negligible size. The motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of parameters: its position, mass, and the forces applied to it.In reality, the kind of objects that classical mechanics can describe always have a non-zero size. (The physics of very small particles, such as the electron, is more accurately described by quantum mechanics). Objects with non-zero size have more complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the additional degrees of freedom—for example, a baseball can spin while it is moving. However, the results for point particles can be used to study such objects by treating them as composite objects, made up of a large number of interacting point particles. The center of mass of a composite object behaves like a point particle.Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist and interact. It assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes such as where an object is in space and its speed. It also assumes that objects may be directly influenced only by their immediate surroundings, known as the principle of locality.In quantum mechanics objects may have unknowable position or velocity, or instantaneously interact with other objects at a distance.Position and its derivativesThe position of a point particle is defined with respect to an arbitrary fixed reference point, O, in space, usually accompanied by a coordinate system, with the reference point located at the origin of the coordinate system. It is defined as the vector r from O to the particle.In general, the point particle need not be stationary relative to O, so r is a function of t, the time elapsed since an arbitrary initial time.In pre-Einstein relativity (known as Galilean relativity), time is considered an absolute, i.e., the time interval between any given pair of events is the same for all observers. In addition to relying on absolute time, classical mechanics assumes Euclidean geometry for the structure of space.Velocity and speedThe velocity, or the rate of change of position with time, is defined as the derivative of the position with respect to time. In classical mechanics, velocities are directly additive and subtractive as vector quantities; they must be dealt with using vector analysis.When both objects are moving in the same direction, the difference can be given in terms of speed only by ignoring direction.AccelerationThe acceleration , or rate of change of velocity, is the derivative of the velocity with respect to time (the second derivative of the position with respect to time).Acceleration can arise from a change with time of the magnitude of the velocity or of the direction of the velocity or both . If only the magnitude v of the velocity decreases, this is sometimes referred to as deceleration , but generally any change in the velocity with time, including deceleration, is simply referred to as acceleration.Inertial frames of referenceWhile the position and velocity and acceleration of a particle can be referred to any observer in any state of motion, classical mechanics assumes the existence of a special family of reference frames in terms of which the mechanical laws of nature take a comparatively simple form. These special reference frames are called inertial frames .An inertial frame is such that when an object without any force interactions (an idealized situation) is viewed from it, it appears either to be at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line. This is the fundamental definition of an inertial frame. They are characterized by the requirement that all forces entering the observer's physical laws originate in identifiable sources (charges, gravitational bodies, and so forth).A non-inertial reference frame is one accelerating with respect to an inertial one, and in such a non-inertial frame a particle is subject to acceleration by fictitious forces that enter the equations of motion solely as a result of its accelerated motion, and do not originate in identifiable sources. These fictitious forces are in addition to the real forces recognized in an inertial frame.A key concept of inertial frames is the method for identifying them. For practical purposes, reference frames that are un-accelerated with respect to the distant stars are regarded as good approximations to inertial frames.Forces; Newton's second lawNewton was the first to mathematically express the relationship between force and momentum . Some physicists interpret Newton's second law of motion as a definition of force and mass, while others consider it a fundamental postulate, a law of nature. Either interpretation has the same mathematical consequences, historically known as "Newton's Second Law":a m t v m t p F ===d )(d d dThe quantity m v is called the (canonical ) momentum . The net force on a particle is thus equal to rate of change of momentum of the particle with time.So long as the force acting on a particle is known, Newton's second law is sufficient to。