写作教程Types of Words
Main Types of Word Meaning
Main Types of Word MeaningWord meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meanings. Two main types of word meaning are grammatical and lexical.A. Grammatical meaning:Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm.1. Word-class:When a dictionary lists the function of a word, the definition does at least two things: it describes the word’s lexical meaning and also gives what is traditionall y known as the part of speech of the word, which modern linguists call the word-class; e.g.: modern will be marked as an adjective, modernize an a verb, and modernization as a noun. The word-class is essential, for when we use a word in a sentence, we have to take into consideration two factors: its specific lexical meaning and the position it normally occupies in a sentence, which is determined by the word-class to which the word belongs.As already discussed in the section on “Content words and function words” in Chapter 1, lexical meaning is dominant in content words, whereas grammatical meaning is dominant in function words, but in neither is grammatical meaning absent. The two kinds of meaning can be demonstrated by nonsense verse. Nonsense sentences of verses are not strings of random words put together. The words are combined according to regular rules of syntax with grammatical signals, i.e. function words, except that the content words are arbitrarily invented without lexical meaning and what is le ft is only grammatical meaning. Lewis Carroll’s “ Jabberwocky”, which appears in his book Through the Looking Glass, 1871, is probably the most famous poem in which most of the content words have no meaning—they do not exist in the vocabulary of the Englis h language. Yet all the sentences “sound” as if they should be English sentences.2. Inflectional paradigm:When used in actual speech, words appear in different forms; e.g.: cat-cats, mouse-mice; to walk, walks walked, to write, writes, wrote, written, etc. The set of grammatical forms of a word is called its paradigm. Nouns are declined, verbs are conjugated, and gradable adjectives have degrees of comparison. The lexical meaning of a word is the same throughout the paradigm the paradigm; that is, all the word-forms of one and the same word have the same lexical meaning, yet the grammatical meaning varies from one word-form to another, e.g.: cat is grammatically singular in meaning while cats is plural; writes denotes third person, singular, present tense, whereas wrote denotes past tense.On the other hand the grammatical meaning is the same in identical sets of individual forms of different words, for example, the past-tense meaning in the word-forms of different verbs(played, sang, worked, etc.), or the grammatical meaning of plurality in the word-forms of various nouns(desks, data, boxes, etc.).B. Lexical meaningAnother component of word meaning is lexical meaning, which is different from grammatical meaning in two aspects: first, the lexical meaning of a word is the same in all the forms of one and the same word while the grammatical meaning varies from one word-form to another; second, every word has a different lexical meaning, whereas the grammatical meaning is the same in identical sets of individual forms of different word. Hence we may describe lexical meaning as that component of meaning proper to the word as a lexical item. Lexical meaning may be subdivided into denotative meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning and affective meaning.1.Denotative meaning:Denotative meaning is sometimes called the conceptual meaning. It is the central factor in linguistic communication. One of the functions of words is to designate or describe something, such as an object, a property, a process or a state of affairs. Users of a language cannot talk about their knowledge of a physical object or a natural phenomenon, unless this knowledge is expressed in words which have the same meaning for all speakers of a given community. This is the denotative meaning of a word.“Denotative meaning involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers...” (Crystal 1980:104) For instance, if we talk about a “chair”, and there is no actual chair around for us to see, we can gi ve the denotative definition: “it is a piece of furniture for one person to sit on, having a back and, usually, four legs”. This denotative meaning of the word chair can readily be understood by all English-speaking people. Denotative meaning is used when the emphasis is on the relationship between languages, on the one hand, and the thing, events, or processes, which are external to the speaker and his language, on the other.The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary. It is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible. There is no doubt that a chemist knows more about wate r than a layman, or that a physician possesses a much deeper knowledge of what edema implies than a patient. Nevertheless, a layman and a chemist or a physician and his patient can both use the words water and edema, and understand each other. Therefore, denotative meaning is the central factor in linguistic communication.2.Connotative meaning:Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind; it is the supplementary value which is added to the purely denotative meaning of a word. For instance, the denotative meaning of the word mother is “female parent”, but it generally connotes love, care, and tenderness. The word January denotes” the first month of the year”, but the connotations of the word may include cold weather, a biting north wind, snow, central heating, skating or the New Year.Connotations may be considered on two levels: connotations pertaining to individualsand connotations pertaining to a group.Each individual has his own sphere of experience, and his connotations of words ma well be based on personal experience with the referent. For example, father will have different connotations for different people because of their individual experiences. Tradition, physical environment, education, and a common cultural background link people into a whole. And the people who from such an entity share much in the way of outlook and attitudes. So the same word or expression may not possess the same connotation to people of different countries. Take the word communist for example, it is almost a term of abuse in some countries but a term of praise in others.Sometimes the connotative meaning is not limited to one speech community; semanticists write about “semantic universals”. For example, white, to most Chinese and Westerners, has certain similar favorable connotations: “morally or spiritually pure; spotless, innocent”. In most cases, however, connotations are apt to vary considerably not only from age to age. A significant example is the word radioactivity:“...Actually, until the bombardment of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 the idea of radioactivity was associated in the public mind with the treatment of cancer and was therefore beneficent in tone. Metaphorically it implied a sort of admirable energy. In 1927 Logan Pearsall wrote of ‘this radioactive quality of popular idiom’ and C.E. Montague’s Disenchantment mentioned ‘the radioactivity of gifted teaching’. It is clear that the whole concept of radioactivity has changed since these days and now stands chiefly for a fearful threat hanging over mankind.”(Foster 1971:126) Hence connotation is relatively unstable, as compared with denotation, which changes too, but not so quickly.3. Social or stylistic meaning:Language must be adjusted to fit different contexts or situations where it is used for a specific purpose; one adjusts one’s language so as to make it appropriate in various situa tions in terms of（1）social relationship between the speakers or correspondents which may be that of friend to friend, or professor to student; (2) the occasion which may be a class reunion or an official reception; (3) subject matter which may be about serious political issues or about films, swimming or food; (4) the mode of discourse spoken or written. We have a scale of speech styles as shown in the following quotation:“Martin Joos (1967) provided one of the most common classifications of speech styles using criterion of formality; this criterion tends to subsume subject matter, the audience, the mode of discourse, and the occasion. Joos recognized five different levels of formality, each implying different forms of speech to fit separate functions: (1) oratorical or “frozen”, (2) deliberate or formal, (3) consultative, (4) casual, (5) intimate”. The frozen and deliberate styles generally occur in written report or in dignified public speech prepared beforehand with a written draft. Words marked in dictionaries as formal, literary, poetic or archaic are to be used in these two styles. Consultative and casual styles occur in everyday use. Consultativestyle is a polite and fairly neutral style; it is used when we are talking to a person whom we do not know well, or to someone who is senior to ourselves in terms of age or social position. Common words are used in this style. Casual style is used in conversation between friends or in personal letters, when the language is informal, familiar, relaxed, warm and friendly. A word or meaning labeled colloquial of informal is appropriate in the casual or intimate style. The frozen and intimate styles do not have much practical use for us. We may further simplify the style into three levels: formal, neutral and informal. None of these styles is better than any other; appropriateness is the key to the good use of the various styles.3.Affective meaning:Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer. There are a small number of words in English whose main function is to express emotion. Some words are used not as a mere statement of fact, but to express the speaker’s approval of the person or thing he I talking about. They are purr words. On the other hand, words like gang, niggardly, and to boast always show disapproval or contempt on the part of the speaker. They are snarl words. Such words are permanently charged with emotion, even when they appear in isolation. Therefore affective meaning is one of the objective semantic features proper to words as lexical items, and forms part of the word meaning, independent of the associations of the individual.。
Main-Types-of-Word-Meaning
Main Types of Word Meaning1、Grammatical MeaningGrammatical meaning refers to that part of meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as the word class, singular and plural forms of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms (forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting).2、Lexical meaningLexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. E.g. ‘go, goes, went, gone, going’possess different grammatical meaning. But they have the same lexical meaning expressing the process of movement.3、Contextual MeaningThe context generally shows in what sense the word is used, in its primary sense or its figurative sense. The meaning of the word is defined by the context. e.g. 1) Some of this country are much warmer than others.2) What does a farming country mean? 3) The country is opposed to war.4、Conceptual meaningConceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. e.g. Sun: a heavenly body which gives off light, heat,and energy；Mother: a female parent .5、Associative meaningAssociate meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. Comparing with conceptual meaning, it is secondary and open-ended. It varies according to culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education and other contextual factors.6、Connotative meaningIn contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations which a word suggests or implies. It shows th e user’s emotions, attitudes towards what the word refers to. e.g. sob, cry, weep, wail；Mother (a female parent) is often associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, ‘tenderness’, ‘forgiving’, etc；Home (a dwelling place) may suggest ‘family, warmth, safety, love, conv enience’, etc. ‘East or west, home is best’.For people with different cultural backgrounds, a word might evoke different associations.7、Stylistic meaningWords may have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. This stylistic difference is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and stylistic meaning. e.g. male parent, father, daddy Example:(1)Common words: brother, mother, hand, arm, grass, moon, bed, home. Eat, hear, big, good(2)Formal words: purloin (steal) overtones( hint, suggestion)(3)Informal words: a) Colloquialisms: nippy (nimble) daddy (father) tell of (to scold) b) Slang: bread dough lolly chickenfeed ---money c) Vulgarisms: gent (gentleman)d) Jargon: sucker e) Argot: can-opener dip (pickpocket)8、Affective meaningAffective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards t he person or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: Appreciative or commendatory: words of positive overtones used to show appreciation or approval. Pejorative or derogatory: words of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.This affective difference is especially true of synonyms.9、Collocative meaningCollocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.‘A bit or a little’ collocates with words of negative conno tations: drunk, jealous, gloomy, tired, worried…‘Highly’ collocates with words of positive connotations: important, significant, intelligent, sensitive…。
英语说明文写作课教案
英语说明文写作课教案【篇一：高三英语写作课教学设计】高三英语写作课教学设计（时间:2009-3-11 15:04:26 ）一、教学目标知识目标：1、明确高考书面表达的要求，学会在规定时间内完成审题、确定文体、抓住要点、组织语言、书写修改等一系列工作。
2、学会内容表达的完整性、行文的连贯性、遣词造句的准确性。
能力目标：提高学生写作水平和综合运用英语的能力。
二、教学辅助：多媒体三、教学过程：（一）lead-in导入的任务是唤起注意，酝酿情绪，带入特定的语言交际场。
在教师的指导下进行回答问题，小组讨论。
1、要求学生回答下列问题：what is pocket money?do you have pocket money?2、四人小组讨论下列题目：how do we deal with our pocket money?通过以上提问，让学生尽快进入角色，对如何使用零花钱，说出自己的看法。
让学生分小组活动，四人一组，教师巡视，需要时给予帮助，并参与学生的讨论。
引导学生扩大词汇量和英语惯用法，指导他们掌握英语基本句型，尤其是五个基本句型和动词句型。
然后，选出某一小组的代表向全班汇报他们小组讨论的内容，再请1—2位学生发表他们的观点。
3、将“how to use our pocket money?” 写在黑板中的上方。
向学生布置接下来的任务：today we are going to discuss how to write a report on “how to use pocket money for high school student?”（二）presentation指导学生分析写作材料，找出所有内容要点，已有材料，掌握事实。
用大屏幕展示写作材料：书面表达（满分25分）（nmet2004天津卷）假设你班将举行一次英语班会，主题为“中学生应如何使用家长给的零花钱”。
请你根据提示写一篇发言稿。
使用方式好处存入银行养成节约的习惯购买书籍获取知识其他培养兴趣（音乐、体育、集邮等）注意：1、词数：100左右；2、考词汇：零用钱——pocket moneydearfriends,_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _______________ 要求学生认真阅读材料，读完材料后，问学生有关问题：1) what should we write?2) what expressions and sentence can we use?3) how can we organize the necessary information and the related ideas we want to write?再要求学生分小组讨论（4人1组）。
English Writing---Types of Writing
Argumentation
1. avoid mistakes in logics refer to ‘Love is A Fallacy’ 2. use accurate words
Description of a place
Places may be described for their own sake, as in essays on visits to famous scenic places Places may also be described for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood Write about things that make the place different from other places The Middle Eastern Bazaar
Exposition
The type of writing most frequently used by students, scientists, or other professionals In a library: books about philosophies, histories, literary essays, theories of economics, studies of government and law, the findings of sociology, the investigations of science, etc It explains or explores sth, such as the process of making a machine, the causes of a natural or social phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution to a problem It answers how and why
Chapter 6 Minor Types of Word Formation
6.1.3 Acronym
Acronym is a kind of shortening. The word comes from Greek, meaning heads of names. An acronym is a word composed of the initial letters of the words of a phrase and is pronounced as a word, e.g. ASEAN—Association of Southeast Asian Nations, UNESCO—United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Other examples are as follows: APEC—Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, DOS—disk operating system, LAN—local area network, RAM—random access memory, ROM—read only memory, TOEFL—Test of English as a Foreign Language.
5) A word is added to the end of the other, e.g. air + hotel—airtel, book + automobile—bookmobile, fact + fiction—faction, guess + estimate—guesstimate, talk + marathon—talkathon, travel + catalogue—travelogue.
大学英语写作教程1 第五单元
2. Types of attributives
1) pre-modifiers 2) post-modifiers
1) Pre-modifiers
The three good-looking clever girl
students
My brother’s first novel
2) Post-modifiers
THE APPOSITIVE FRAGMENT
An appositive is a word or group of words which closely follows a noun or pronoun and identifies or explains it. Such a word is “in apposition with” the word it explains. An appositive can never stand alone as a sentence; it is always a part of the sentence which contains the word it explains.
Sentence Fragments
SENTENCE In the distance a blue haze settled over the rooftops. SENTENCE FRAGMENT In the distance a blue haze over the rooftops SENTENCE FRAGMENT In the distance a blue haze settlING over the rooftops
PART IV WRITING PRÉ CIS
A summary or a precis is NOT a personal interpretation of a work or an expression of your opinion of the idea; it is, rather, an exact replica in miniature of the work, often reduced to one-quarter to one-fifth of its size, in which you express the complete argument!
基础写作课程教学大纲
基础写作课程教学大纲课程名称：基础写作/ English Writing学时/学分：72学时/3.5学分(36/1.5, 36/2)适用专业：英语专业开课单位：外语学院第一部分大纲说明一、课程简介基础写作是英语专业必修课。
开设英语写作课程能够对学生进行系统的写作训练，使学生具有较高的英语运用水平与能力。
基础写作课程与其他英语笔头训练有着根本的区别。
其他笔头训练侧重语言项目的掌握，而写作要求表达清晰完整的思想；写作课程的主要目的不是帮助学生熟悉某些语法项目或词汇，而是提高用英语表达思想的能力。
在写作过程中，学生自然会复习到旧的语法与词汇，而且也会接触并促进新的语法与词汇的掌握，但是这种复习与学习是以有助于表达思想为前提的。
因此，写作课不像语法课或词汇课那样以基础知识传授为主，而是研究如何表达思想的课程。
基础写作课程安排的总学时为72学时，总学分为3.5学分。
每学期各36学时，教学形式以讲授为主，适量的实训为辅。
二、与相关课程的关系基础写作课程是英语专业本科二年级学生的必修课，是英语专业学生在学习基础英语、阅读、语法的基础之上进一步接受英语写作课程训练的一门重要的理论与技能接续学习课程，能够为将来学习文学、语言学等高年级的课程，甚至能为将来的专业八级和研究生考试打下坚实的基础。
三、教学方法及教学形式建议写作课程的教学方法与学习方法是根据写作课程自身规律和特点而定的，因为该课程是一门实践性很强的课，是理论指导下的实践技能课程，既不能上成理论课也不能变成完全意义上的实践课。
学习研究写作规律、注重写作过程体验、学习写作技巧、重视语言基本功训练是写作课程的学习重点。
教师应力求遵循以下教学原则：1．将语言能力训练与教学能力训练相结合，所有的实践活动（包括课堂讨论）尽可能采用目标语。
2．将教学技能训练与写作模式学习训练相结合，强调各种技能的综合运用，课堂学习与自我感悟相结合，形成对写作课程的深刻理解。
3．力求所有的教学活动具有比较真实的教学任务。
Types-of-Essay-Writing教学文案
A. Topic Sentence 1. Support…
B. Topic Sentence 1. Support…
C. Topic Sentence 1. Support…
Expository Essay Essay
I. Introduction
Paragraph
General Statements Thesis Statemene A. Support… B. Support… C. Support… Concluding Sentence
Types of Essay Writing
I. Expository Essay II. Narrative Essay III. Descriptive Essay IV. Argumentation
Types of Essay Writing
Types of Paragraphs
★ narrative: tells a story ★ persuasive: tries to convince the
audience ★ descriptive: describes something ★ expository or explanatory: gives
information or explains something
Expository Essay
The most common type of essay writing is expository essay or exposition. The purpose of this writing is to inform or explain. The writer appeals to the readers understanding with provable facts and well-based information, and explains the material so that the reader will accept his point of view. Exposition is used to explain anything difficult to understand, for example, the explanation of a natural law, a scientific discovery, an invention, or a solution to a problem.
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purposes the most useful words form the core of the English vocabulary
2. formal and technical words
3. nonstandard words
Used by people who are not well educated or by people of special groups, such as people of a particular region or an age group
For example, slang, jargon, dialectal and obsolete words
Chapter 2 Using Proper Words
1. Types of Words
Three types of words
1. common words 2. formal and technical words 3. nonstandard words
1. common words
3. nonstandard words
Slang words: highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound offensive or funny e.g. ① On hearing that his father had kicked the bucket, we wrote him a letter to express our sympathies. (doesn’t sound sympathetic) ② The big banquet held in honor of the distinguished guests was really neat. (not serious in tone)
generally formal used by people of special professions or
fields, on special occasions or for special purposes be good for us to know some very useful words in various fields, and many of the words related to the field we will work in or be associated with For example, political, legal, scientific, technical, business and literary words