语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。
语言学概论知识梳理(期末重点)
语言学概论知识梳理一、导言1、中国、印度、希腊-罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出，存在于语言社团中每个人头脑中的共同的语言形式结构是语言学研究的真正对象。
3、运用语言进行交际的过程大体可以分为“编码—发送—传递—接收—解码”五个阶段。
三、第二章语言是符号系统1、语言是符号系统。
2、符号是具体事物的标记或代号，是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记，其作用是指称现实现象二、第一章语言的功能1、语言的功能：社会功能（信息传递、人际互动）、思维功能。
2、所谓“社会”，指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。
3、语言社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。
这一功能体现在语言上就是内容的表达。
4、语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段。
5、语言的社会功能的另一个重要的方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这可以称为语言的人际互动功能。
6、大脑的左半球管右半身的动作，还控制着语言功能以及相关的计数、分类、推理等功能，掌管抽象的、概括的思维。
7、大脑的右半球管左半身的动作，还在音乐等艺术感知、人的面貌识别、立体图形的识别、整体把握能力、内在想象力等方面起着主要作用，掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
8、儿童语言的学习与心智的发展是同步的，并且有所谓的“临界期”：人出生之后过了一定的期限，如果没有后天的正常的社会环境，其语言习得与心智发展的潜能就失去了。
9、聋哑人也是能思维的。
①和常人一样，生活在人类社会中，有健全的大脑和发音器官。
只是因听不见别人说话而学不会语言。
②聋哑人不能运用听觉符号传递信息表达思想，但可以通过别的感觉器官得到补偿（视觉符号，手语，动觉，触觉）。
10、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性与语言的性质密切相关。
语言的普遍性质是语言的最根本的性质。
3、符号包括形式和意义两方面，二者不可分离，相结合才构成符号，没有无意义的符号形式。
语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。
Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．任意性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。
二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。
3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。
4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。
移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。
5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。
2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如(鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。
3．“噗噗”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。
Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。
信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。
人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。
3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。
在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。
4．感情功能语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。
5．寒暄功能寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。
语言学概论期末复习重点
语言学概论期末复习提纲导言部分一、语言的三大发源地：中国、印度、希腊－罗马五、根据研究对象的不同把语言学分为专语语言学和普通语言学。
五、1共时语言学：以同时的静态分析的方法、研究语言相对静止的状态。
描写分析语言在某一个时期、某一个阶段的状况，时从横的方面研究语言。
（如现代汉语、当代英语）五、2历时语言学：从历时的、动态的角度研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵的方面研究语言的历史。
（如汉语史）五、3专语语言学：又称具体语言学、个别语言学，是以一种或几种有联系的语言为研究对象，研究某一语言的结构。
五、4普通语言学：以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言研究成果而建立起来的。
五、5现代语言学之父：瑞士索绪尔代表作《普通语言学教程》六、语言学流派：历史比较语言学，为后来的结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件，它在19世纪进入了系统的研究，是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
结构语言学的分支：布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派。
美国描写语言学代表人物：布龙菲尔德代表作《语言论》第一章语言的功能第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具一、语言是音义结合的符号系统，是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。
一、1语言的作用：语言是人类社会的交际工具，每个社会无论经济发达还是落后，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离布开语言这个交际工具。
语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物相区别的重要特征之一。
语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，没有语言，人类无法交际，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会崩溃，不复存在。
语言又是思维工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维，也无法把思维表达出来。
（如普通话是汉民族用来交流思想传递感情的工具）一、2语言同社会的联系：语言与人类社会息息相关，人类社会以外无所谓语言，不同民族、不同地域都有不同语言。
同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响。
语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。
导论1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。
3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。
4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。
5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。
第一章语言的功能1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。
2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。
3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。
相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。
4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。
5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。
6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。
十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。
第二章语言是符号系统1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。
（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。
形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。
意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。
）2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。
3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。
语言学概论（本科）期末复习要点
语言学概论（本科）期末复习要点语言学概论（本科）期末复习要点导言一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务1．语言学是以语言作为研究对象的科学，它以人类的语言为研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，具体地说，语言学研究语言的性质、作用、结构，语言的发展变化，使人们懂得有关语言的理性知识，从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。
2．中国、印度、希腊－罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
3．我国的小学：小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。
训诂学解释字义，文字学分析字形，音韵学研究字音。
二、语言学在科学体系中的地位1．语言的研究和其它科学的关系十分密切，不仅与社会科学有联系，而且与自然科学也有十分密切的联系。
语言学是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。
2．语言交际的过程：语言交际过程可分“编码－发送－传递－接收－解码”五个阶段。
三、语言学的基本类别根据研究的对象的不同，语言学可以分为以下几类：共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学、。
各类语言学下面还可以进一步细分，如专语语言学下面可分汉语语言学（例如现代汉语、古代汉语、近代汉语、汉语史等）、英语语言学、俄语语言学等等，普通语言学下面可分语音学、词汇学、语义学、语法学、修辞学等等。
四、语言学流派比较重要的语言学流派主要有：历史比较语言学、结构语言学、布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派、转换-生成学派、系统-功能学派、社会语言学。
各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。
关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，请浏览《语言学网络课件》中的“望远镜”板块。
第一章语言的社会功能本章需要明确的要点是：第一，语言的两大社会功能；第二，语言是一种社会现象。
第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具1．语言的交际功能：语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带。
2．语言是一种社会现象：弄清楚语言是一种社会现象的内涵，语言不是自然现象，而是社会现象，是一定社会的产物，同社会的关系非常密切。
00541语言学习知识概论考试复习资料必备资料
第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式一、语言：1．语言是一种社会现象，不是一种物质实体。
2．言语交际是一个编码（说话）和解码（听话）的过程。
（语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为，有声的口头语言，即口语）3．语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言是不完全一模一样的。
二、口语和书面语的主要差别：1．口语：是有声的口头语言。
2．书面语：是经过加工提炼和发展了的口语书面形式。
3．口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
4．书面语比口语更精练、更精确。
5．书面语比口语省略成份少一些。
（多了一些成份）三、口语与书面语的关系：1．口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
2．书面语反过来影响和促进口语的发展。
3．口语、书面语基本是一致的。
（一般情况下）四、书面语产生具有重大的历史意义：书面语的产生克服了口语的时间、空间的限制，是人类进入文明社会的标志。
五、语言和民族：1．语言是民族的重要标志，但不是最可靠的标志。
（1）在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用一种语言。
（2）也有一个民族使用多种语言。
（犹太民族）（3）不同民族使用同一种语言。
（满族、汉族）（4）尽管语言是最直观的，最容易识别民族的标志，从目前了解到的情况来看，“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”，也许是维系一个“民族”的最根本的因素。
因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
不能单凭“互相理解程度”来区分语言和方言。
（广东上海）六、语言与种族的关系：语言和种族没有必然的联系，但不是完全没有联系。
特别就“语系”而言，两者之间的联系还是比较明显的。
（汉语、汉藏语系都有声调）七、语言和种族没有必然联系的根本原因是：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但是语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是先天遗传的，它是一种社会现象，完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
八、语言的客观存在形式：口语、书面语。
语言的客观存在形式首先表现为有声的口头语言即口语，而当出现了文字以后，又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。
语言学概论复习内容
导言1.语言，是研究语言的科学。
语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，具体地说，语言学研究语言的性质、作用、结构，语言的开展变化，使人们懂得有关语言的理论知识，从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。
2.语言学的三大发源地：中国、印度、希腊-罗马。
3.我国的传统语文学就是通常所说的“小学”，即文字、音韵、训诂。
训诂学解释字义，文字学分析字形，音韵学研究字音。
第一章：语言的动能语言的功能主要包括社会功能和思维功能两个方面。
语言的两个社会功能：信息传递功能和人际交互功能。
第二章：语言是符号系统L语言学在19世纪成为独立的学科，其标志是历史比拟语言学的出现。
现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》。
4.组合关系和聚合关系组合关系：语言中的每个符号都可以跟别的符号组合，构成高一级结构。
结构中各个成分的关系就是组合关系。
符号的组合是横向进行的，在线性序列上展开。
相同的符号成分, 如果线性序列不同，那么会形成不同的组合结果。
聚合关系某些语言符号或单位在组合结构的某一环节上可以互相替换且替换后结构关系不变。
这些符号彼此间的关系叫做聚合关系。
在链条的某一环节上，具有聚合关系的成分自然的聚集成群，能够互相替换。
第三章：语音和音系L音素、音位、音节的概念。
音素是人类语音从音质的角度切分的最小的线性语音单位。
音位是一个具体语言(或方言)中有区别词的语音形式功能的最小的线性语音单位。
音节是音位和音位组合起来构成的最小的语音结构单位，也是听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小的语音单位。
5.国际音标的转写。
汉语拼音里所有的声母，韵母以及调值。
6.语音四要素：音高、音强、音长、音质4,元音和辅音的区别：(1)是否受阻。
发元音时，口腔大开，呼出气流不受任何阻碍；发辅音时，发音器官的某一部位要闭合形成阻碍。
(2)发音器官紧张状况不同。
发元音时，发音器官的各局部保持均衡紧张；发辅音时，只有形成阻碍的部位比拟紧张。
语言学教程课堂笔记
语言学教程课堂笔记第一章导论一、性质、对象、任务语言学的性质：既古老又年轻的学科,介于自然科学与社会科学之间的学科。
语言学的研究对象：人类自然语言语言学的任务：⑴“描写—解释”层次。
从宏观、微观两个方面描写和解释语言现象、语言的结构规律和应用方式。
使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
宏观上：把语言作为一个整体对象来研究,研究它的起源、发展、本质、功能,它和思维、意识的关系等等。
微观上：对语言内部结构进行研究,研究语言内部的结构规律,各要素的关系及发展、演变等。
⑵“认知—思维”层次。
探索人类语言符号行为的奥秘,语言是怎样组织意义的,语言是怎样划分世界从而把现实符号化的,人是怎样在思维和交际中运用语言符号的,语言和心灵的关系是怎样的,语言和文化的关系是怎样的。
⑶“技术—实用层次。
积极地为计算机对语言文字进行信息处理等工程技术服务,为言语矫治等语言病理的治疗工作服务,或者为语言教学、外语教学等服务。
二、语言学的分类⑴根据研究性质、范畴和对象,可分为理论语言学和应用语言学A、理论语言学：是语言学的主体,是研究语言的功能和结构的一般理论。
B、应用语言学：研究语言应用的一切学科,包括语言教学、机器翻译、失语症治疗、语言规划。
⑵从研究对象的范围上分,语言学可分为具体语言学和普通语言学。
三、语言学发展简史⑴传统语言学【语文学（语言文字学）】时期1、时间与特征：一般讲19世纪历史比较语言学产生以前的时期称为“传统语言学时期”、“古典语文学时期”。
这一时期,语言研究处于附庸地位。
还没有发展为独立的学科。
主要是为经典作注解。
2、传统语言学的三大发源地：古希腊—罗马、古印度和古代中国3、传统语言学的作用⑵索绪尔语言学理论1、区分语言（language）和言语（parole）语言：从言语中概括出来为社会公认的词语和规则的总和。
言语：个人说或写的行为和结果2、区别组合关系和聚合关系3、语言和言语的关系：A、一般和个别B、抽象和具体四、语言学的功能（为什么要学语言学概论）1、便与从事与语言相关的工作2、有利于语言规划、信息处理等语言应用3、便于观察语言现象、发现并解释语言规律4、便于提高发现、分析与解决问题的能力5、在语言理论的指导下,透过语言使用我们可以洞悉人类心理的奥秘,为更好地掌握和利用心智打下基础五、怎样学习语言学概论1、勤观察,培养对语言现象的敏锐洞察力2、多思考,培养强烈的问题求解意识3、三个充分：观察充分、描写充分、解释充分第二章语言的本质与起源一、语言的本质（什么是语言？）1、①（为什么）语言是人类特有的、②（为什么是）最重要的全民交际工具。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》期末考试复习笔记
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one canderive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events;(4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies,the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to whichthe members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoypriority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced bypsychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speechsoundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction ofthe palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.] Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change ofquality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as onedistinctive vowel of a particular language but really involvestwo vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel []high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulationof two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more likethe following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays theinfluence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, itis perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonantsbecome nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order toexpress meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak//, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation. Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the caseof progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as thesame lexeme even when i nflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit thatcan constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is onewhose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determinethe kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the wordinternationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root anda derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart,teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb.E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:。
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第一章语言学导论
复习笔记
Ⅰ．语言的定义
语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。
Ⅱ．语言的定义特征
语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．任意性
任意性是语言的核心特征，是指符号的形式或者声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。
虽然语言从本质上讲是任意的，但也不是完全任意的。
一些词语，例如一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。
2．二重性
二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。
二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。
3．创造性
创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。
4．移位性
移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。
移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。
5．文化传递性
语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6．互换性
互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
Ⅲ．语言的起源
1．圣经的记载
语言是上帝的恩赐。
2．“汪汪”理论
语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如 (鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。
3．“噗噗”理论
语言来源于人本能的情感声音，表达疼痛或喜悦。
4．“哟一嘿一吼”理论
语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
5．进化理论
语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。
Ⅳ．语言的功能
1．信息功能
语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。
信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
2．人际功能
人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。
人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会
地位。
3．施为功能
语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。
在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。
4．感情功能
语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。
5．寒暄功能
寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。
6．娱乐功能
语言的娱乐功能是指纯粹为了娱乐而使用语言，例如婴儿的呀呀学语，歌者的吟唱。
7．元语言功能
语言的元语言功能是指语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
V．语言学的定义
语言学通常被定义为研究科学的语言，或对语言的科学研究。
它不仅仅关注某种特定的语言，而是基于一些语言结构的综合理论，对语料进行的系统研究。
语言学研究的科学性可以归纳为：穷尽性、一致性、简洁性以及客观性。
Ⅵ．语言学的分支
1．微观语言学
语音学
音系学
形态学
句法学
语义学
语用学
2．宏观语言学
心理语言学
社会语言学
应用语言学
计算语言学
神经语言学
VⅡ重要概念及其区分
1．描写式与规定式
把语言说成描述性的科学是说语言学家试图发现和记录同一语言共同体的成员所遵循的规则，并不是强加给它们其他规则或正确的标准。
规定式的语言学目的在于为正确使用语言定下各种规则，一劳永逸地解决用法上的争议。
它们最主要的区别就在于前者描述事情怎样而后者规定事情应该如何。
2．共时与历时
语言研究可以是在一个给定的时间也可以是一段时间。
当我们集中在某一点时间来研究语言时就叫做共时语言学。
当我们研究随着时间发展的语言时就叫做历时语言学。
共时语言学集中研究历史任何时期点的语言现状，而历时语言学集中研究几十年或几百年的时期内两个或比两个更多的语言状况的差异。
3．语言与言语
索绪尔用语言和言语来区分说话者的语言能力和言语上 (表达的)的实际表现或语料。
语言是指一个语言群体的所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统。
言语是指语言的具体实现和运用。
4．语言能力和语言应用
(1)乔姆斯基提出了语言能力和语言应用的根本区别。
(2)一名语言使用者对于语言规则系统的潜在认识称为他的语言能力。
(3)语言运用指在具体场景中语言的实际运用。
5．唯素的与唯位的
(1)唯素的是指具有“素”的语言单位，如音素、词素，是对语言事实的细节描写，不具有区别性特征，最早用于音素描写。
(2)唯位是指具有“位”的抽象语言单位，如音位、词位，用来描述抽象的语言规则，具有区别性特征，最早用于音位描写。
6．传统语法与现代语法
传统语法是规定式的，是基于“高度的”书面语。
它为语言使用者提供可供遵循的模式。
但是现代语法是描写式的，对法的研究是基于真实的并且主要是口语化的语言数据。
它应该是比较科学和客观的，而语言学家的任务也应该是描述人们如何在实际中使用语言，无论其是否“正确”。
7．语言潜势与实际语言行为
韩礼德认为，通过语言说话者可以在其生活的文化环境里做一系列广泛的事情。
从语言功能的角度来看，“做”的可能性就被定义为语言潜势。
说话者在某一特定的场所对某个特定的个体来说，是从其所能说得多种可能的内容中挑选而来的。
这种说话者从言语中所做的实际选择就做就实际言语行为。