第二讲 相对优势理论
第二讲 绝对优势理论与比较优势理论
绝对优势理论 绝对优势理论 比较优势理论 要素禀赋学说
国际贸易理论的四个中心问题 1. 国际贸易的原因 2. 国际贸易的条件 3. 国际贸易的格局 4. 国际贸易的利益
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2.1 绝对优势理论
亚当斯密是英国古典经济学的奠基人，他在《 亚当 斯密是英国古典经济学的奠基人，他在《国民财富的性 斯密是英国古典经济学的奠基人 质和原因的研究》（1776年），简称《国富论》一书中提出了绝对 质和原因的研究》 年），简称《国富论》 简称 优势理论。（具体介绍见附录 ） 优势理论。（具体介绍见附录1） 。（具体介绍见附录
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亚当斯密 亚当 斯密 大卫李嘉图 大卫 李嘉图 ADAM SMITH （1723-1790） DAVID RICARDO （1772） 1823） ）
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2.2.2 比较优势理论的内容
大卫李嘉图在他的《政治经济学及赋税原理》 大卫 李嘉图在他的《政治经济学及赋税原理》书中提出了比较优势理 李嘉图在他的 。（具体介绍见附录2） 具体介绍见附录 论。（具体介绍见附录 ）
一国不仅在本国商品相对于别国同种商品处于绝对 优势时可以生产和出口该种商品，在本国商品相对 优势时可以生产和出口该种商品， 于别国同种商品处于绝对劣势时可以进口该种商品， 于别国同种商品处于绝对劣势时可以进口该种商品， 而且即使一个国家在生产上没有任何绝对优势， 而且即使一个国家在生产上没有任何绝对优势，只 要它与其他国家相比，生产各种商品的相对成本不 要它与其他国家相比， 仍可以通过生产相对成本较低的产品并出口， 同，仍可以通过生产相对成本较低的产品并出口， 来换取自己生产中相对成本较高的产品， 来换取自己生产中相对成本较高的产品，从而获得 利益。 利益。 简单地讲就是“两优取重，两劣取轻” 简单地讲就是“两优取重，两劣取轻”。
相对优势&H-O理论
CHAPTER 1 SPECIALIZATION AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE1.The technological approachHistory --- = mercantilism protectionism (wealth comes primarily from the land, amount of gold = wealth of the nation)The classics: free tradeInternational exchange is due to the necessary international division of labor among nations leads to a lower production cost.The international division of laborInternational trade is the result of division of labor that occurs throughout the world. International exchange is needed because countries can not produce all the goods and services they need.European countries and require raw materials that do not exist at home while other countries seeking their high-tech products.Each country can specialize in the production of a certain type of good practice and exchanges with other countries with a specialization.The distribution of different specializations among all countries of the world is da DIT.It is never final, even if for very long, the DIT was founded on the exchange of raw materials and commodities from developing countries against manufactured goods exported by industrial countries.At this former DIT, which assigned each nation a special place, was followed by a less rigid DIT, as new countries can quickly play an important role in international trade (NPI), and more complex.Western countries have become the world's leading producers of agricultural products, the new STI is rather based on the exchange of manufactured consumer goods produced by labor cheap and abundant in developing countries against more sophisticated products, incorporating new technologies and manufactured in industrialized countries.Adam Smith (1776) "Research on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations"David Ricardo (1817) "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation"= Competitiveness comparative advantage / specialization∙Absolute advantage (Smith): a country has a lower cost than the other countries∙Relative advantage / comparison (Ricardo): the cost of producing a good i reported production costs of all goods will be less for a good i in a countryrelative to the outside.NOTE: reasoning in the context of a trade between countries (within a branch).For a firm specific advantage.1.absolute advantage: SmithUnit cost in terms of number of hours per person.Hypothesis: 2 workersEngland: absolute advantage sheets as + or - timePortugal: absolute advantage in wine as + or - timeConditions:∙agreement of the countries on terms of trade∙absolute advantage∙Minimum yields constant2.relative advantage: RicardoTotal 220 + 170 = 390Portugal: absolute advantage in wine and cloth as + or - timeSmith: no exchangeRicardo: trade in goods whose country has a comparative advantageSituation after specializationTotal gains200 20160 10360Over the terms of trade2.technological approach HOSWhy is there a price difference of resources?The cost factor is determined by supply and demand.The relative abundance of production factors in different countries."In a situation of free trade, each country specializes in producing the good intensive in the factor that is relatively better equipped, and déspécialise in intensive good factor that is relatively long."HO theorem 1934Example:AustraliaMany earth little labor inputThe relative price of land relative to labor is low and vice versaThe country specializes in production using much land and little labor (agriculture, livestock)EnglandMany labor input and little landThe relative price of labor relative to land is low and vice versaThe country specializes in production using little land and a lot of work (textile industry).Equalization theorem of international factor rewards:"International trade tends to produce a wage equalization factor, which equalization can not be absolute."HOS theoremEffects of specialization on factor pricesDifferent staffing→ →EQ Specialization Remuneration of production factors→decrease the difference in production cost→decrease the incentive to trade, international trade continues to grow.SUMMARY: Traditional explanations of international tradeSeeking to defend the idea of free trade, Adam Smith shows, in the late 18th century, a country should not hesitate to buy out that foreign producers can produce more cheaply than domestic producers .The country that sells a product cheaper than all other countries and has an absolute advantage for this product.Smith then indicated that a country should specialize in the production of goods for which he had this absolute advantage and buy all other goods.This analysis showed the disadvantage of excluding the international exchange of the nations that had no absolute advantage.This is another English economist, David Ricardo, who demonstrated in the early 19 th century, that even if a country was less well placed than others to all the property he was to specialize in the production for which its disadvantage was less.This is the theory of comparative advantage.Take the example of Ricardo, the trade in wine and cloth between England and Portugal.With the same number of hours worked, Portugal produces 20 meters of cloth and 300 liters of wine while England produces 10 meters of cloth and 100 liters of wine.Ricardo then shows that England has an interest in specializing in the production of cloth, where it has a comparative advantage, because with 10 meters of cloth she will get 150 liters of wine from Portugal (against 100 in it).Conversely, Portugal should specialize in wine production since the exchange with England of 300 liters of Portuguese wine he will produce 30 meters of English cloth instead of 20 meters of cloth Portuguese.Portugal has a comparative advantage in wine production.Ricardo's analysis, which calculates the value of goods from the amount of work required to produce them (the theory of labor value), shows that specialization based on comparative advantage allows a simultaneous increase in production wine and cloth.Free trade is good for all nations reap the benefits.The theory of comparative costs was thorough in the 20th century by economists Heckscher, Ohlin and Samuelson who sought to explain differences in comparative costs between countries.According to them, each country should specialize in production using the factors of production (labor, capital, land) which he has in abundance and import of goods produced with factors that have a lesser amount. Specialization is thus explained by factor endowments of each country (HOS theorem states, the names of these economists) as shown in the example of England in Australia.The first has the capital and labor in abundance and therefore will specialize in manufactured goods will exchange it against Australian agricultural products, since land is the factor in relative abundance in Australia.The exchange also allows an equalization of prices of these products.The comparative advantagesComparative advantage is a benefit production efficiency in an economic activity. There is no advantage to "absolute" of a country in the exchange, and any country can develop comparative advantage in making choices of specialization: economictheory demonstrates that a country always pays to specialize and that, whatever its initial position relative to its competitors, it more or less efficient in all areas.The comparative advantage rests on the same principle as that of professional qualifications in the business world: even if a very qualified individual can do the job for an unqualified person, the company has no interest in it does so, conversely, if an unauthorized person makes less work of a qualified person, it gets to focus on what she does best.It's the same for countries willing to trade with each other.The origin of comparative advantages can be natural or artificial, which allows anyone to possess: natural resources, be they raw materials, farmlands or landscapes constitute sunshine data; human factors (population size, professional capacity of the workforce) also, the degree of scientific and technological development, the accumulated wealth and capital provide other types of benefits, consumption preferences of the population , its sociological characteristics, conditions regulating economic and social activities can also be a source of advantage.Adam Smith says the accumulation of precious metals is not the bulk of wealth and he supports free trade among nations: according to him, interventions in favor of exports do not lead to an optimal division of work, he believes that countries should specialize in the type of production where it is most effective.This doctrine, known as absolute advantage, will be refined by Ricardo, who, with the theory of comparative advantage says that countries should specialize in goods where its disadvantage is the lowest.NOTE 1 Size and global demandRicardo / Mill: A great country earns less than a small influence because global demand and hence the world price.Invertible argument for protectionism.NOTE 2 Growth impoverishingBhagwati→stimulation of the HOS theorem: When factors accumulates, there is absolute reduction in the production of goods using this factor less intensively, while the production of goods using this factor intensively increases more than proportionally to the expected increase.→Bhagwati: by specializing in a particular product→ →income reinvested in the sector.In order to increase my offer globally but As I represent a large share of the global market, I am more and more dependent on the level of world demand and therefore may be affected by variations significant price.The fact to develop a resource can paradoxically impoverishing the country.→Trap primary specializations.Specialization has an impoverishing consequence if:→growth is systematically oriented exportable good;→the economy has a high degree of openness (ratio of export / GDP rate)→weak global demand price elastic (excess supply will fall dramatically the equilibrium price)→the country is a major exporter (by strong market), that is to say that the increase in exports alter the conditions of global equilibrium.NOTE 3 Terms of tradeDegradation of TEEconomic arguments:→tendency to saturation of markets for primary goods→accelerating trend productivity gainsProductivity gainsalary increase→ →rising prices of imports→ →lower prices falling prices of export→increased investment→profits for shareholdersSocio-economic arguments→employees protected from northSouth→employees unprotectedNorthProductivity gain distribution to the entire economy→ →rising wages increased demand in some sectors→rising prices of some goods if the supply is unchangedSouthProductivity gain little broadcast→(if specialization in primary goods)→lower output prices decline→ →exported goods prices rising prices of imported goods↓ ↓Declining terms of tradeImmiserizing growthSUMMARY: The terms of tradeThe terms of trade are interested in the prices of imported and exported.Terms of trade = export prices / import prices.This indicator is useful for measuring trends.Imagine that a year on year, the volume of exports and imports does not change and assume that there is a balance in the first year.We always return the same quantities.But if during that period the price of exported products decreased while those of imported goods rise, the trade balance will decrease (the value of exports will be lower than that of imports).In this case, there is a deterioration of terms of trade.This concept also shows that one can increase the trade surplus by selling the same quantities of goods abroad if their relative price increases.NOTE 4 alternative strategies→ISI: industrialization by import substitutiono replace imports by domestic productiono reduce external dependenceo diversify domestic productiono the trade balanceo generate revenues through tariffsISI problem comes up against the few outlets (local demand), therefore ISE.→ISE export substitution industrializationo replace exports of primary products by manufactured exports.o generally to neighboring countries which pursue the same strategy (research opportunities).o strategy behind the creation of common markets (Mercosur, ASEAN, etc ....).→The flying geese (Akamatsu)Controlled opening and lift chains.1st step: production in the domestic market and import of equipment.2 nd time: export and manufacture of equipment on site.3 rd time: export facilities.NOTE 5 HDIHDI: indicator of sustainable human development (growth and development are not the same thing).→The living standards in the oil economies do reflect in any way a real development of productive forces.→Index HDI rather than GDP per capita.The HDI takes into account:♦♒level of education→living standards→life expectancy3.first conclusionsImportant role of intra-industry trade (trade and little exchange NN NS).Most of the exchange NN = intra-industry trade = trade size comparable between products belonging to the same branch (cross exchange of similar products).Trend trade zone more dense (regionalization) rise in the number of regional agreements (EU, free trade) agreements are created and are very effective.Marginalization of all the countries excluded from regionalization.Erasing the distinction between growing domestic and foreign trade between firms rather than between states: multinationals and subsidiaries.→The role of FM (DIT to International Division of Productive Processes)The MIPD is to say that a subsidiary exports a product to another subsidiarythat processes and sells the product in the first region.→Intra firm or intra groups.Intra large group.It depends in generaldecisions of the parent.Different strategies according to comparativeadvantage.Produced at home and then export or establish themselves in thetarget region.→The role of FDI (foreign direct investment) important for the South,immediate jobs, trade, production and as a skill.Keep some control.→ 3 D: Deregulation (invent its own financial products parole)Disintermediation, companies are free to seek savings to the consumer, market share (obligation)-before = intermediate bank.→provide capital tocompanies .Deregulation of financial institutions, can manage the actions of companies, household savings ... Liberalization of capital invested is where we want.Capital movements very important.New roles of the state?(And supranational organization)→forecaster and accompanist, find the comparative advantages and allow for future development.The state aid or not a particular sector.→Social dumping: the adverse effects of international trade.Social dumping: when you can enjoy better conditions elsewhere for labor cost→the company in a country farm to relocate, we must agree on VAT, duty and taxes.→Dumping: price discrimination, a country more expensive home sold its own product so as to generate a margin that will allow it to sell for less (below the cost of production) in another country, price discrimination, unfair competition.It should, however, that consumers are captive.DUMPING The practice of offering products in a foreign market at prices below those prevailing in his own country.[This term is often used in the sense of unfair competition.]SUMMARY Multinational corporations and foreign direct investmentDirect investment can jump-over protectionist barriers - tariffs or nontariff barriers - erected by the States to curb the entry into their territory of goods produced abroad rather than export to such countries, the multinational installs on site - or bought - a production system, thus opening a direct access to the local market.This strategy is directed, first, to the large markets of consumers with high purchasing power, such as Europe, which has particularly attracted U.S. investment since the creation of the Common Market in 1957, where Japanese companies settled turnsince the mid-1980s, or such States-States, whose domestic market is now the number one goal of both European and Japanese multinationals.Competition among multinationals is oligopolistic nature: for a given product, a very small number of firms are struggling to control market share globally.As each company competes should it follow that which quickly moved into the first country to prevent him from building impenetrable barriers to entry.Direct investment abroad is also part of games of deterrence between competing firms to protect their core markets.SUMMARYSpecialization according to absolute benefits (SMITH).→What about countries without absolute benefits?→Specialization according to comparative advantage (RICARDO).→Where are the benefits?→Specialization according to factor endowments (HOS).→What about the exchange of similarities?CHAPTER 2 THE NEW THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEa) New Approach factorialRedefinition of factorsIntegration of qualifying work→skilled labor / unskilled→physical capital / human capitalGeneral resultA relatively abundant country will export capital intensive goods skilled labor and a relatively scarce capital will export goods intensive in unskilled labor.b) New Technological ApproachImportance of technologyThesis of the technology gap (Posner 1961):→The technological edge gives a comparative advantage.→The country exports ahead of new technology-intensive goods (and other commoditized products).This theory is the basis of the theory of "life cycle" of the product (Vernon 1966).Company =→product portfolios at different stages of their life cycle.♦♒cycle stage explains the nature of trade.Two conclusions:The competition involves not only the exploitation of natural advantages, or by the use of abundant factors: it also comes from new product launches.→importance of research and development♦♒highest salary = North technological monopoly rentThe life cycle theory (Vernon 1966)The product known four phases:-The emergence / birth-Growth-Maturity-The decline→Not the same length or the same form for all products.We need to create a preference for the brand in the growth phase to continue (eg Coca Cola).Three country groups: innovators, followers (the first to imitate) and developing countries.Phase 1: the birth of the product generally manufactured and consumed in the country of origin, because only the country of origin is a population whose income is high enough to buy.The appearance of a product meets expectations expressed by the consumer's country of origin.2nd phase: growthExport from country to innovative partners; product starts to become commonplace, the price drops slightly, emergence of competition in the domestic market, the producer is expanding its market to extend its temporary monopoly.The trade balance is in surplus countries innovators and those of imitators is in deficit countries. Oligopolistic structure more stable type of competition, product differentiation and price competitiveness.Level of production: technology stabilizes, are produced in long series with asemi-skilled labor, lower unit cost and price.3rd phase: maturityExchanges are reversed between PVD and innovative country, becoming the first importers, exporters seconds.In fact one product where it is cheaper, can be relocated.Market structure: price competition and search for economies of scale.Life cycle of a product cycle is international trade.The early-cycle products will be exported by the countries technological edge, the end-of-cycle by countries abundant in unskilled labor.Round Competition∙Pioneer∙Penetration of competition∙Stabilization of market share∙Commoditization of the product∙Withdrawal of some companiesInternational Life Cycle: 4 Steps∙Export∙Production abroad∙Foreign competition∙Competition in the local marketLimits to the theory of the life cycle:∙Cycle time is long enough (otherwise no transfers of production)∙Possibility of "2nd life" not taken into account∙The need to adapt products to customer preferences often involves a national location near demand∙Assume Delay Dde <Late ProductionThe intra-industryDefinition: There is talk of intra-industry trade when there is a cross trade products in the same industry and in comparable quantities.Indicator of intra-industry: the ratio of Grubel and Lloyd.Explanations of intra branchesa) Intra branches and demand characteristicsRepresentative concept of demand (Linder 1961).Comparative advantage of the existence of a significant domestic demand that allows for production on a large scale and reduce costs.Comparative advantage (Strong domestic demand (high production (cost reduction.If domestic demand is too high is imported.To import a product must demand of the country is identical to the offer of the country that must export.Lassudrie-Duchêne (1971): Request for difference (taste)b) intra-industry and characteristic of the offerImperfect competition and intra-industry trade.Importance of market structure:(Oligopolistic and monopolistic competition(Differentiated ProductsSUMMARY: intra-industry trade is growing steadily: it is trade in similar products belonging to the same branch, same industry, such as auto trade between European countries, while the traditional trade rested rather on international trade branches, with each country or exporter or importer of a product.If these products are similar because they belong to the same branch of the economy, they are never exactly the same as the producers charge different from their products to meet consumer preferences (color, power for a car, for example).Exchanges and economies of scaleNOTE: there are economies of scale external and internalInternal economies of scale: three internal reasons:∙Better division of labor∙Allocation of fixed production costs, administration and management∙More efficient production techniques∙+ Market power of demand-sideNOTE: do not last forever either (optimal size (decreasing returns to scaleThe exchange will increase the available supply of varieties of goods + lower price. NOTE: Before: four companies in six nation and in foreign countriesAfter: 10 with the integrated market→What distribution of this 10?4/6, 2/8?→The structure of intra-industry trade (intra-industry) is not predictable. Krugman→"Trade patterns are determined following the story or accidents"→The relative importance of tradeThe external economies of scaleDepends on the size of the industryMarshal ("industrial districts)a) The specialized suppliers→Example: Silicon Valley engineers are leaving their companies to create specific upstream companies (outsourcing)1) Pool of labor2) Benefits in terms of knowledgeThe larger the area is most important production is important→costs go down.Profit = Total Revenue - Total CostP = CMIndustrial construction takes you time, although a comparative advantage, Thailand can not compete with Switzerland.The presence of external EE can maintain any specializations that are not based on real comparative advantages.External EE: protectionism temporary protection of infant industry (List)State must identify the problem areas that have a potential comparative advantage (eg GMOs)The state must stop protection at some point.It must not become permanent protection.Must protect the gains after offsetting the costs incurred prior to protection.The presence of external EE plays an important role in the story to explain specializations, and also play an important role in the state.The CI in the presence of external EA can generate a worse situation for a country (prices, demand supplied and demanded) that existed in autarky.SUMMARY economies of scaleAn economy of scale is a lower unit cost of a product when increasing the quantities produced.In the example (see table), the company achieves economies of scale up to 4 units produced.In addition, the average cost or unit cost increases.Produce on a larger scale can therefore lower the unit cost, which can lead to an increase in earnings per unit (if the sale price does not change) or a higher volume induced a decrease in the price sales.The existence of economies of scale in companies represents an important factor in their development.Diseconomies of scale occur when unit costs increase with production quantities.(Horizontal concentration: concentration of companies making the same products, vertical integration: companies producing complementary products)Some conclusions1.Intra-industry trade does not reflect the comparative advantagesRicardo (differences in productivity)HOS (differences in costs of factors of production)MIPD multinational2.intra industry does not reflect the comparative advantages important role of the internal EE.Ricardo and HOSImperfect competitionInnovation northern countries (stage of product life)Representative high demand.3.the structure of intra-industry trade is not predictable4.the relative importance of intra and inter depends on the similarity between countriesLifestyle = application RepresentativeOther conclusionKojima's theory and the Japanese modelKojima (1977) and Ozawa (1979)Mixed model:∙For Ricardian differences in technology∙HO for the relative abundance of factorsCHAPTER 3 FREE TRADE, TRADE POLICY AND PROTECTIONISMIntroduction: an old debateMercantilist: gold = wealth so you have to facilitate the entry and exit disadvantage of gold.Classics: ability to sell goods and services and wealth.Free trade: theory and policy advocating free trade, so the disappearance of tariff barriers and other, of that freedom.Protectionism: doctrine and policy to protect the production of a country against foreign competition.Concerns over the large countries.Protect services and agriculture.Heckscher-OhlinFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation , searchThe Heckscher-Ohlin tries to explain how they work flows of international trade . It was formulated by the Swedish economist Bertil Ohlin in 1933, modifying an original theorem of his teacher Eli Heckscher , formulated in 1919.The model of the theories of David Ricardo of comparative advantage , and states that countries specialize in exporting goods that require large amounts of production factors which are comparatively abundant, and that tends to import those goods used in production factors that are most scarce.While the theory of comparative advantage the cause of international trade were the differences in labor productivity across countries, the Heckscher-Ohlin international trade is the fact that different countries have different endowments of factors: that there are countries with relative abundance of capital and other work with relative abundance. Normally the capital-rich countries will export capital intensive goods (used relatively more capital than labor to produce them) and labor-rich countries will export labor-intensive goods (used relatively more labor than capital to produce them).Thus, if a country has a large supply of a resource "A" in relation to its range of other resources, is considered to be abundant in that resource "A". Then a country will tend to produce relatively more of the goods that use intensively its abundant resources. In conclusion, countries tend to export goods that are intesivos on factors that are richly endowed.。
第二讲 相对优势理论
第二讲相对优势理论一、历史背景在亚当·斯密之后的另一位著名的古典经济学家是大卫·李嘉图（David Ricardo,1772—1823）。
其贸易学说是他整个经济理论中的一个重要组成部分。
大卫·李嘉图所创立的著名的“比较优势贸易理论”（Comparative Advantage Doctrine）奠定了国际贸易理论演进的重大基础，以后一个多世纪的有关研究很大程度上都是对其理论的补充、发展和修正。
李嘉图在其代表作《政治经济学及赋税原理》（1817）一书论证了以“比较优势贸易理论”为中心的国际贸易理论。
二、基本假设必须指出，李嘉图的“比较利益说”是个简化了的理论模式，有着许多重要的假定作为前提条件。
大致说来，主要有如下八条：1、世界上只有两个国家，它们只生产两种产品。
此即所谓的两个国家、两种产品模型或2×2模型；2、两种产品的生产都只有一种要素投入：劳动；3、两国在不同产品上的生产技术不同，存在着劳动生产率上的差异；4、给定生产要素的供给量，要素可以在国内不同部门流动但不能在国家之间流动；5、规模报酬不变；6、完全竞争市场；7、无运输成本；8、两国之间的贸易是平衡的。
以上八个假设条件对正确理解“比较优势说”十分重要。
三、主要内容作为英国古典经济学的完成者，李嘉图考察国际贸易产生的原因同亚当·斯密一样，也是从论述个人的分工和专业化开始，而且也明确指出，国际分工和国际交换活动应该根据各国的自然优势和后天获得的优势来进行。
所不同的是，斯密讲的优势是指绝对的优势即生产成本绝对低于别国，而李嘉图心目中的优势则是一种相对的优势，也就是比较优势。
李嘉图反对把国际贸易产生的原因和基础建立在各国绝对优势的差别上，认为这种理论无法解释所有产品都不具有绝对优势的国家同样要参与国际交换的现实。
那么，什么是比较优势呢？某种商品所具有的比较优势可以用相对劳动生产率、相对生产成本或者机会成本三种方法来确定。
2国际贸易学第二讲“比较优势理论”
2.2.1 理论内容
比较优势论（Theory of Comparative Advantage）：两国间劳动生产率的差距并不是在任何商品上都是相等的。处于绝对优势的国家应集中力量生产利益较大的商品，处于绝对劣势的国家应集中生产利益较小的商品，然后通过国际贸易，互相交换，彼此都节省了劳动，都得到了好处。
02比较优势理论
Chapter 2 比较优势理论
四、绝对优势理论评价（Adam Smith’s Trade Theory）
解释和论证了国际贸易的基础和好处 ——正和博弈（positive-sum game）
主张自由贸易，促进了国际贸易和生产力的发展
理论不能回答，如果一个国家不具备绝对优势，能否 参加国际贸易？如果参加能否获益？
第二章
比较优势理论
绝对优势理论
比较优势理论 相互需求理论
Chapter 2 比较优势理论
第一节
重商主义
一、重商主义(Mercantilism)
观点：金银贵金属就是财富；财富的直接源泉在流通领 域；贸易顺差可以带来金银的流入；国家积极干预经济。 演变：早期重商主义——重金主义——货币差额论 晚期重商主义——重工主义——贸易差额论 政策： 少买多卖，可以出口原材料，禁止货币输出（早期） 扶植出口企业，鼓励进口原料，在顺差前提下允许 货币输出（晚期） 贸易性质：零和博弈（zero-sum game）
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Chapter 2 比较优势理论
Байду номын сангаас
三、相互需求理论的评价
是比较成本理论的补充，补充了贸易双方带了利益的 范围问题及其双方在利益分配中各占多少的问题。越接近 对方国内交换比例，则本国就会获利更多。
以物物交换为基础的。实际上出口和进口是相互分离 的，是商品对货币的两个不同的过程。
Chapter 2 比较优势理论
完全自由贸易
进出口贸易值相等
Chapter 2 比较优势理论
二、理论的主要内容
国际贸易产生于各国劳动生产率的绝对差别。当一国相 对于另一国在某种产品的生产上有绝对优势，但在另一种产 品生产上有绝对劣势，那么两国就可以通过专门生产自己有 绝对优势的产品，并用其中一部分来交换其有绝对劣势的产 品。这样，生产效率大大提高，资源得到有效利用，两种产 品的产出都会增加，增加的产出可用来测度两国分工及贸易 所带来的利益，适当地分配这种利益，就可以使两国都受益。
硬核经济学：绝对优势与相对优势
硬核经济学：绝对优势与相对优势1776年，现代经济学之父亚当斯密提出了绝对优势理论，认为：国际贸易的原因是国与国之间的绝对成本的差异。
如果一国在某一商品的生产上所耗费的成本绝对低于他国，该国就具备该产品的绝对优势，从而可以出口；反之则进口。
如果一个国家相对另一个国家在所有产业方面都没有成本优势，就不会产生国际贸易了吗？相对优势理论大卫·李嘉图将这个理论更进一步，发展出相对优势理论（也叫比较优势），认为：一个国家即使生产不出成本绝对低的产品，只要能生产出成本相对低的产品，也可以同另一国进行贸易，并使双方都获益。
案例：葡萄牙生产一吨酒需要花费劳动时间80天，生产一吨毛呢需要90天；而英国则分别需要120天和100天。
葡萄牙在这两个产品生产成本都低英国，具有绝对优势。
根据亚当斯密绝对优势理论，这两国是不会发生国际贸易的。
葡萄牙的毛呢成本为英国的90%，酒的成本为英国的67%。
英国在生产毛呢方面差距更小，即机会成本更小，具有相对优势。
如果葡萄牙把生产这两种商品全部170天的劳动时间全部用于生产酒，可以生产出2.125吨；英国则把220天的劳动时间全部用于生产毛呢，可以生产出2.2吨。
而之前，两国这两个产品的总产量都是2吨。
仅仅进行了国际分工，并没有增加劳动时间，就比以前多生产出0.125吨酒和0.2吨毛呢。
这一理论从实证经济学角度给出了证明：无论是生产力水平高或者低的国家，只要按照比较优势的原则参加分工和贸易，都可以从中获益。
经常会有一些对经济学一知半解的人，对前人的理论提出了各种除了“理性人假设”，相对优势理论是被质疑的另一个重灾区。
大卫·李嘉图为这理论设置了了九个前提条件，例如没有运输成本、劳动价值论等。
可以看出，他自己也明白，相对优势是个比较理想化的简单模型。
这是一种静态分析方法，当然会有很多不足之处。
该理论是200多年前的产物，国际贸易理论在此基础上早已更新换代了，再纠缠其中的弊端已经没有意义了！赫克歇尔-俄林理论H-O理论，又称要素禀赋论，由瑞典著名经济学家赫克歇尔首先提出基本论点，他的学生俄林系统创立。
十章国际经济的基本知识ppt课件
二、欧洲联盟
1952年成立了欧洲煤钢共同体。
1957年3月25日，法国、联邦德国、荷兰、意大利、比 利时、卢森堡在罗马签订了建立欧洲经济共同体条约和 欧洲原子能共同体条约，统称《罗马条约》。
1958年1月1日，欧洲经济共同体和欧洲原子能共同体 正式组建。
1965年4月8日，六国签订的《布鲁塞尔条约》决定将三 个共同体的机构合并，统称欧洲共同体。但三个组织仍 各自存在，具有独立的法人资格。《布鲁塞尔条约》于 1967年7月1日生效，欧洲共同体正式成立。
在进入70年代以后，美元一再贬值，各国货币纷纷浮 动。欧共体联合浮动，日元单独浮动，众多的发展中 国家或盯住美元，或盯住英镑、法郎，或盯住特加紧 提款权而浮动。布雷顿森林体系瓦解。
•特里芬难题
•为了满足世界各国对美元储备的需要，美国只能通 过对外负债形式提供美元，也就是国际收支持续逆 差。然而国际收支长期逆差，普遍的“美元灾”引 发美元危机，美元就必须贬值而不能按官价兑换黄 金。如果为了保持美元的稳定，美国就应保持国际 收支顺差，那么各国将因缺乏必要的国际清偿手段 而降低生产和贸易发展速度。
十章国际经济的基本知识ppt课件
一、绝对优势论
绝 对 优 势 论 （ Theory of Absolute Advantage）：每个国家都有其适宜于生产 某些特定产品的绝对有利的生产条件。如果 每个国家都按照其绝对有利的生产条件去进 行专业化生产，然后彼此进行交换，则对所 有国家都是有利的。
二、相对优势理论
三、欧洲货币体系的演进
1979年3月，欧洲经济共同体的八个成员国 （联邦德国、法国、意大利、荷兰、比利时、 卢森堡、丹麦和爱尔兰）建立了欧洲货币体系， 这些国家同意固定任意两国之间的汇率，并对 美元联合浮动。随后，西班牙于1989年，英国 于1990年，葡萄牙于1992年也先后加入了欧洲 货币体系。
绝对优势和相对优势
浅析比较优势与绝对优势作为国际贸易理论总体系建立的标志，相对比较优势理论明确提出国与国之间进行贸易的根本原动力是比较优势，而非绝对优势。
本文以李嘉图的单一要素模型为落脚点，来分析比较优势的来源、作用及影响。
一、比较优势所谓比较优势，是指如果一个国家生产某种产品的机会成本较低，则在这种产品上具有比较优势。
如果每个国家专门生产并出口自己具有比较优势的产品，这样的国际贸易可以使世界产出增长，并使各个国家都受益。
由李嘉图模型可知，我们假设经济中只有两个国家（本国和外国）两种产品（奶酪C和葡萄酒W）。
在此经济中，还假定：（1）劳动力是唯一的生产要素。
（2）劳动力供应在两国是固定的。
（3）生产每种商品的劳动生产率是固定的。
（4）市场结构是完全竞争的。
（5）要素在国际之间不能流动。
（用aLW表示生产酒的单位劳动投入，用aLC表示生产奶酪的单位劳动投入，PC表示奶酪的价格，PW表示葡萄酒的价格，经济中的总资源用Ｌ表示，即总劳动供给。
表示国外时，用与本国相同但带有星号的符号）。
假设aLC*/aLW*＞aLC/aLW。
在没有贸易的情况下，本国会生产两种商品。
因此，PC/PW=aLC/aLW。
经济开放后，各国实现专业化生产，则aLC*/aLW*＞PC/PW >aLC/aLW为题中之意，利用间接生产法可知，本国能从贸易中获利的充要条件是（1/aLC （PC/PW）>1/aLW。
这正与国际贸易后的世界相对价格体系PC/PW>aLC/aLW不谋而合。
国外的分析亦然，由此可以看出，建立在比较优势之上的国际贸易使贸易国获利是必然之势。
二、绝对优势所谓绝对优势，是指如果一个国家相比另一个国家在产品生产上有较低的单位劳动投入，则认为该国在这一产品上具有绝对优势。
在《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》（简称《国富论》）这部巨著中，亚当•斯密阐释了各国在劳动生产率和生产成本上的绝对差异是国际分工和贸易基础的重要思想。
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第二讲相对优势理论
一、历史背景
在亚当·斯密之后的另一位著名的古典经济学家是大卫·李嘉图（David Ricardo,1772—1823）。
其贸易学说是他整个经济理论中的一个重要组成部分。
大卫·李嘉图所创立的著名的“比较优势贸易理论”（Comparative Advantage Doctrine）奠定了国际贸易理论演进的重大基础，以后一个多世纪的有关研究很大程度上都是对其理论的补充、发展和修正。
李嘉图在其代表作《政治经济学及赋税原理》（1817）一书论证了以“比较优势贸易理论”为中心的国际贸易理论。
二、基本假设
必须指出，李嘉图的“比较利益说”是个简化了的理论模式，有着许多重要的假定作为前提条件。
大致说来，主要有如下八条：
1、世界上只有两个国家，它们只生产两种产品。
此即所谓的两个国家、两种产品模型或2×2模型；
2、两种产品的生产都只有一种要素投入：劳动；
3、两国在不同产品上的生产技术不同，存在着劳动生产率上的差异；
4、给定生产要素的供给量，要素可以在国内不同部门流动但不能在国家之间流动；
5、规模报酬不变；
6、完全竞争市场；
7、无运输成本；
8、两国之间的贸易是平衡的。
以上八个假设条件对正确理解“比较优势说”十分重要。
三、主要内容
作为英国古典经济学的完成者，李嘉图考察国际贸易产生的原因同亚当·斯密一样，也是从论述个人的分工和专业化开始，而且也明确指出，国际分工和国际交换活动应该根据各国的自然优势和后天获得的优势来进行。
所不同的是，斯密讲的优势是指绝对的优势即生产成本绝对低于别国，而李嘉图心目中的优势则是一种相对的优势，也就是比较优势。
李嘉图反对把国际贸易产生的原因和基础建立在各国绝对优势的差别上，认为这种理论无法解释所有产品都不具有绝对优
势的国家同样要参与国际交换的现实。
那么，什么是比较优势呢？某种商品所具有的比较优势可以用相对劳动生产率、相对生产成本或者机会成本三种方法来确定。
（1）用产品的相对劳动生产率来衡量。
相对劳动生产率是不同产品劳动生产率的比率，或两种不同产品的人均产量之比。
用公式表示则可写成：
产品A 的相对劳动生产率（相对于产品B ）＝/L)Q (B /L)
Q (A B A 人均产量：的劳动生产率产品人均产量：的劳动生产率产品
如果一个国家某种产品的相对劳动生产率高于其他国家同样产品的相对劳动生产率，该国在这一产品上就拥有比较优势。
反之，则只有比较劣势。
（2）用相对成本来衡量。
所谓“相对成本”，指的是一个产品的单位要素投入与另一产品单位要素投入的比率。
用公式表示：
产品A 的相对成本（相对于产品B ）＝)(a B )
(a A LB LA 的要素投放量单位产品的要素投放量单位产品
如果一国生产某种产品的相对成本低于别国生产同样产品的相对成本，该国就具有生产该产品的比较优势。
（3）一种产品是否具有生产上的比较优势还可用该产品的机会成本来衡量。
产品A 的机会成本＝)Q (A )
Q (B A B ∆∆产量增加的产量减少的
李嘉图指出，从个人之间的分工来看，每个人都可以拥有生产某种产品的比较优势。
例如，在制鞋和帽两方面甲都比乙强，不过制帽只强1/5，而制鞋要强1/3，甲的更大优势在制鞋，乙的更小劣势是制帽。
所以，甲专门制鞋而乙只制帽，然后双方通过交换都能得到更多的鞋和帽。
这就是说，尽管乙在两方面都具有绝对劣势，但那种绝对劣势较小的商品生产（制帽）实际上就是他能得到“比较利益”的相对优势。
因此，贸易活动中的相对优势既是指更大的绝对优势，或较小的绝对劣势。
这种优势是由生产商品所耗费的劳动的相对差异带来的，反映了它在生产成本上的相对差异，所以又称为“比较成本说”（Comparative Cost Doctrine ）。
李嘉图进一步强调，这种优势标准其实更加适用于国际贸易。
这是因为，劳动、资本、资源等生产要素不可能轻易地在国与国之间随意流动，经济
处于绝对劣势的国家既不会也不可能把它们的居民全部移送到富国，它们唯有正视本国实情，通过国际分工与贸易来增加本国财富。
所以发挥相对优势是至关重要的。
对此，他举了一个有名的例子。
假设英国和葡萄牙都生产毛呢和葡萄酒，但两国生产两种产品的劳动生产率不同，每单位产品所耗费的劳动量如表6。
表6 国际分工前
一单位毛呢一单位酒
葡萄牙90人/年80人/年
英国100人/年120人/年
如果按照斯密的绝对优势贸易理论，两国似乎没有进行国际贸易的可能性。
现在，让我们按照上述的方法来确定两国各自所具有的比较优势的商品。
（1）用相对劳动生产率来衡量的话，葡萄牙毛呢的相对劳动生产率是0.89，酒的相对劳动生产率是1.125；英国毛呢的相对劳动生产率是1.2，酒的相对劳动生产率是0.83。
由此可见，英国毛呢的相对劳动生产率较高，所以英国在毛呢的生产上具有比较优势；葡萄牙酒的相对劳动生产率较高，所以葡萄牙在酒的生产上具有比较优势，如表7所示。
表7 两国生产商品的相对劳动生产率
毛呢酒
葡萄牙0.89 1.125
英国 1.2 0.83
（2）用相对成本来衡量的话，葡萄牙毛呢的相对成本是 1.125，酒的相对成本是0.89；英国毛呢的相对成本是0.83，酒的相对成本是1.2。
由此可见，葡萄牙酒的相对成本较低，所以葡萄牙在酒的生产上具有比较优势；英国毛呢的相对成本较低，所以英国在毛呢的生产上具有比较优势，如表8所示。
表8 两国生产商品的相对成本
毛呢酒
葡萄牙 1.125 0.89
英国0.83 1.2
（3）用机会成本来衡量的话，葡萄牙生产毛呢的机会成本是 1.125，生产
酒的机会成本是0.89；英国生产毛呢的机会成本是0.83，生产酒的机会成本是1.2。
由此可见，葡萄牙生产酒的机会成本低于英国，所以葡萄牙在酒的生产上具有比较优势；英国生产毛呢的机会成本低于葡萄牙，所以英国在毛呢的生产上具有比较优势，如表9所示。
表9 两国生产商品的机会成本
毛呢酒
葡萄牙 1.125 0.89
英国0.83 1.2
由此可见，三种方法的结论是相同的，都能确定两国各自具有的比较优势的产品。
然后，两国开展国际分工，专门生产其具有比较优势的产品，即葡萄牙专门生产酒，英国专门生产毛呢，其结果如表10。
表10 国际分工后
毛呢酒
葡萄牙/ （90+80）÷80=2.125
英国（100+120）÷100=2.2 /
葡萄牙专门酿酒而英国专门生产毛呢的情况下，两国的一年劳动总量，即葡萄牙的（90+80）人/年和英国的（100+120）人/年，就能生产比分工前更多的产量。
具体地说，正如表2.10所示，葡萄牙生产出2.125单位酒，比原先总共的2单位多出（2.125－2）0.125单位酒，英国生产出2.2单位毛呢，比原先的2单位增加（2.2－2）=0.2单位毛呢。
显然，按照比较优势进行国际分工，一定的劳动总量就能创造出更多的财富或使用价值。
现在假定国际市场上按照1单位毛呢换1单位酒的交换比例进行交换，则交换后两国各自消费的两种商品的数量如表11。
表11 分工后贸易利益
毛呢酒
葡萄
1.1单位 1.025单位
牙
英 1.1单位 1.1单位
国
至于两国从贸易中获得利益的多寡，则取决于这两种商品的国际市场交换比率。
李嘉图假定这里的交换比率为1单位毛呢与1单位酒相交换。
按照这一贸易条件，如果葡萄牙用1.1单位酒与英国1.1单位毛呢相交换，两国所得的贸易利益可用表2.11说明，即：葡萄牙增加（1.1－1=）0.1单位毛呢和（1.025－1=）0.025单位酒，英国增加（1.1－1=）0.1单位毛呢和（1.1－1=）0.1单位酒。
可以看到，李嘉图的“比较优势贸易理论”不仅论述了国际贸易能够互惠互利，而且阐明这种国际贸易利益具有适用于所有国家的普遍意义。
更重要的是，他指明了取得国际贸易利益的关键所在，那就是在自由贸易条件下扬长避短、发挥自己的相对优势。
这是其国际贸易理论的核心思想，它准确地概括出国际贸易的基本原则，极具启迪意义。
四、评述
李嘉图实际上还提出了国际价值论问题。
他是一个比较彻底的劳动价值论者，但又认为价值规律的国际作用与国内交换不同，依他所见，国内商品的价值是由社会必要劳动时间所决定的，但国际贸易中两种商品的交换比率决定于两种产品的比较优势即比较成本。
因此，国际商品交换虽则对交换双方都有利益，却可能是不等量劳动的交换，它反映出两国生产力发展水平的差异。
他的这些论述给后人如何正确决定国际交换标准和建立科学的国际价值论，留下了经久不衰的讨论话题。
李嘉图的“比较优势贸易理论”不仅在历史上起着重要的进步作用，而且对西方贸易理论产生了广泛深远的影响。
进行国际贸易要扬长避短、将劣势转为优势的思想，也显然具有很重大的现实意义。
不过，单纯强调取得比较利益主要是一种静态的微观的分析，而出于整体利益和长远发展的考虑，有些外贸活动（如进口生活必需品、对外援助等）并不能把经济利益放在首位，因此，不加分析地对待比较成本说，也是不恰当的。