语言学练习Exercise2
语言学练习题 Chapter 2 Linguistics
Chapter Two Linguistics1. Define the following terms.1)syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relation2)langue vs parole3)competence vs performance4)descriptive linguistics vs historical linguistics5)theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics6)deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguistics7)synchronic vs diachronic linguistics8)macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics9)Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguistics2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)( ) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguisticsbecause it can tell us how to speak correct language.2)( ) C ompetencce and performance refer respectively to a language user’sunderlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.3)( ) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky.4)( ) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia.5)( ) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of languagedevelopment through time.6)( ) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not withhow they can be improved.7)( ) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions” what is a language”and “How does a language work”.8)( ) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which showsthe arbitrary nature of languages.9)( ) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of soundand a system of meaning.10)( ) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned a new by each speaker.11)( ) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information andideas.12)( ) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehendingan infinite set of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.13)( ) Hall iday’s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of paroleand performance14)( ) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and development oflanguage.15)( ) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject topersonal and situational constraints.16)( ) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students isbasically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‘ communicative skills.17)( ) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school ofhistorical linguistics18)( ) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles andtheories to language teaching and learning.19)( ) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)( ) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical development of alanguage over a period of time.21)( ) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element inan utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belongingto the same sub-system of the language.22)( ) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rulesof a particular language.23)( ) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)( ) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)( ) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accountsfor the rules of language in general.26)( ) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directlyobservable.27)( ) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)( ) All the English words are not symbolic.29)( ) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)( ) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)( ) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how asentence is formed.32)( ) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)( ) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state of a languageat a particular point of time.3. Multiple Choice1) ______ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. Chomsky C Bloomfiled D. Sapir2) Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of somepractical problems, the study of such applications is knowns as ________.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics3) _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof speech community.A. ParoleB. langue C speech D. writing4) Which of the following is not the major brach of linguisticsA. phonologyB. pragmaticsC. syntax D speech5) ________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics6) Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences amonglanguagesA. Diachronic linguistics.B. Synchronic linguistics.C. Prescriptive linguistics.D. Comparative linguistics.7） ________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons8) The study of language as a whole is often called ---.A. general linguisticsB. sociolingyusticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics9) The study of language meaning is called--.A. syntaxB. semantics C morphology D. pragmatics10) The description of a language at some point in time is a – study.A synchronic B. diachronic C descriptive D. prescriptive4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:1) refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.2) is the actual realization of one’s linguistic knowledge inutterances.3) Modem linguistic is in the sense that the linguist tries to discover whatlanguage is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.4) The description of a language as it changes through time is a study.5) Saussure put forward two important concepts, refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.6) Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s .7) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2)(3) (4)8) Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.9) The branch of general linguistics which is named studies the internalstructure of sentences.10) In Saussure’s view, the relationship between signifier (sound image) andsignified (concept) is .11) is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interestsin language and society, including the social functions of language and thesocial characteristics of its users.12) The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure. The distinction between competence and performance is made bythe American linguist .13) The writing English is. known as the sound writing system while that ofJapanese as ___writing system.14) According to John Lyons, ___ linguistics_ deals with language in generaland _ linguistics is concerned with one particular language.15) In de Saussure’s term, _____ refers to the system of language and _____refers to the speaker’s speech.16) _____ is the science that deals with the sound system.17) Syntax studies two kinds of rules: _____ rules and rules18) Langue or competence is ______ and not directly observed, while parole orperformance is _____ and directly observable.19) A ________ relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.20) ___ ___ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and soundpatterns of his language.21) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how a word is formed.22) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about whether a sentenceis grammatical or not.23) ______ knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the meaning oflanguage, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.24) ______ is the study of speech sounds of all human languages.25) ______ examines word formation and the internal structure of words.5. Answer the following questions.1) What is the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics2) What is the difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics Is iteasy to draw a sharp line between them if we look at language closely3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studiesof language Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of language5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.6) What are the main differences between “competence” and “performance”7) What is the major difference between Saussure’s distinction of langue andparole and Chomsky’s distinction of competence and performance what should be studies in linguistics in your opinion and why8) Explain “speech and writing”, and cite two ormore examples.Key to Chapter Two1. Define the following terms.1）syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relationEssentially the relations between linguistic elements are of two dimensions, usually syntagmatic and paradigmatic. syntagmatic or sequential relations are those holding between elements forming serial structure, or “strings’ as they are sometimes called. In syntax, the horizontal relationship between elements shows how a form (X) combines with others (W + X + Y) in a serial combination.It refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.Paradigmatic relations are those holding between comparable elements at particular places in structures. The vertical or substitutional relationship shows how other different forms (Xa, Xb, Xc) can function in the same place in structure in a paradigmatic relation.2) langue vs paroleSaussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers” parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints. For Saussure, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, ., to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole andmake them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.3) competence vs performance(1)According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the arctual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2)Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, t hough similar to, F. de Saussure’s language parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.4) descriptive linguistics vs historical linguisticsLinguistic study can be divided into descriptive linguistics (synchronic linguistic study) and historical linguistics (diachronic linguistic study). The former refers to the description of a language at a particular point of time in history while the latter, a diachronic study of language, studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5) theoretical linguistics vs applied linguisticsA third dichotomy is that which holds between theoretical and applied linguistics. The former copes with language and languages with a view toestablishing a theory of their structure and functions and without regard to any practical applications that the investigation of language and languages might have, whereas the latter is chiefly concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks, including language teaching.6) deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguisticsA linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyzes the facts of language, and it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before 20th century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modem linguistics is mostly descriptive, however, which believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes inlvocabulary and structures, need to be explained distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.7) synchronic vs diachronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.The description of a languageat some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a languageas it changes through timeis a diachronic study (diachrony). An essay entitled” On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.8) macrolinguistics vs microlinguisticsMacrolinguistics falls on the verge of linguistics. It includes the following disciplines: philosophical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc. Lyons has the same distinction.Microlinguistics concentrates on the study of all the interior aspects ofa language system. Traditional linguistic study describes language system fromtwo aspects —lexicon and grammar. Dictionaries and grammar books are products of such researches and studies.9）Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguisticsComparative historical linguistics draws on the special historical comparison in linguistics to study the historical development of some related languages (languages originating from a uniform ancestry). It is in fact a special part of historical linguistics. Thanks to the development of historical comparative linguistics in 19th century, linguistics comes to be an independent discipline. Contrastive linguistics focuses on structural similarities and differences of two or more languages (relevant or unrelated) by means of comparison and contrastive study. This study belongs to descriptive linguistics. It can help people have a deep understanding of the properties and universal characteristics of different languages and thus exerts great influence on foreign language teaching.2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)(F) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptivelinguistics because it can tell us how to speak correct language.2)(T) Competencce and performance refer respectively to a languageuser’s underlying knowledge ab out the system of rules and the actualuse of language in concrete situations.3)(F) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky. (中国矿业大学，2004)4)(T) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia. (中国矿业大学，2004)5)(F) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of languagedevelopment through time. (中国矿业大学，2004)6)(T) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, notwith how they can be improved. (中国矿业大学，2004)7)(T) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions” what is alanguage” and “How does a language work”. （南京师范大学，2002）8)(F) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, whichshows the arbitrary nature of languages. （中国矿业大学，2002）9)(T) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of soundand a system of meaning. （中国矿业大学，2002）10)(T) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned a new by each speaker. （中国矿业大学，2002）11)(F) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information andideas. （中国矿业大学，2002）12)(F) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehendingan infinite set of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.（中国矿业大学，2002）13)(F) Halliday’s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of paroleand performance14)(T) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and developmentof language.15)(T) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subjectto personal and situational constraints.16)(T) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students isbasically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‘ communicative skills.17)(F) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school ofhistorical linguistics.18)(T) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles andtheories to language teaching and learning.19)(F) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)(T) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical developmentof a language over a period of time.21)(F) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic elementin an utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the same sub-system of the language.22)(F) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describesthe rules of a particular language.23)( T) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)(F) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)(F) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory whichaccounts for the rules of language in general.26)(T) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is notdirectly observable.27)(T) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)(T) All the English words are not symbolic.29)(F) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)(T) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)(F) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition abouthow a sentence is formed.32)(F) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)(F) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state ofa language at a particular point of time.3. Multiple choice1) – 5): BCBDC 6) – 10): DBABA4. Word completion1) Langue 2) Performance3) descriptive 4) diachronic5) langue 6) competence7) (1) consistency (2) economy (3) objectivity (4) exhaustiveness8) Morphology 9) syntax10) arbitrary 11) socialinguistics12) Chomsky 13) syllabic14) general, descriptive 15) langue, parole16) Phonology 17) phrase structure, transformational18) abstract; concrete 19) syntagmatic20) Phonological 21) Morphological22) Syntactic 23) Semantic24) Phonetics 25) Morphology5. Answer the following questions.1) What is thedifference between general linguistics and descriptive linguisticsThe former deals with language in general, . the whole human language whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language. The former aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general while the latter attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of one particular language, such as Chinese, English, French, etc. General Linguistics and descriptive linguistics are dependent on each other. In the first place, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which any particular language can be described, studied and analyzed. Very often, it may supply several different frameworks for descriptive linguists to choose from. Depending on their different views on language, they may follow one model exclusively or combine two or more models. In the second, the resulting descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguistics. In other words, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other despite their different objects of study and different goals.2) What is the difference between diachronic linguistics Is it easy to drawa sharp line between them if we look at language closely(1) Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but notnecessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory;therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.(2) Synchronic/diachronic perspective toward language is one of Saussure’smost central ideas expressed in the form of pairs of Concepts. The former sees languageas a living whole; existing as a “‘state” at a particular moment in time; the latter sees it as a continually changing medium. In this view, it is always necessary to carry out some degree of synchronic work before making a diachronic study: before we can say how a language has changed from state X to state Y, we need to about X and Y. Correspondingly, a synchronic analysis can be made without referring to history. This can be illustrated as Sanssure did using an analogy with a game of chess. A state of the set of chessmen is like a state of language. “The respective value of the pieces depends on their position on the chessboard just as each linguistic term derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms.” On the o ther hand, the value of each piece also;depends on the convention--the set of rules that exists before the game begins. This is like the set of rules that exists in language. A state of the game of chess is momentary just like a state of language change. When one piece is moved, the game passes from one state of equilibrium to the next. This corresponds closely to the situation of language between states. To study this static state is called synchronic linguistics. The moving of one piece is like one type of change in language. The consequence of one move can be very big or small; the same is true with language changes. The player of a chess game is solely concerned with the momentary positions of the pieces; he does not need to remember the previous moves so as to decide the next move. A player who knows the history of the game does not necessarily have more to say about the next move than a man who has just come to the game, ignorant of what has happened before. Similarly, a speaker of a language can learn the languagewell without knowing its historical statesl We can describe a state of a game without bothering the techniques both players have used to bring about the state. Likewise, we can describe the state of a language without knowing its history,3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studiesof language Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.(1) The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are. The essence of prescriptivism is the notion that one variety of languages has an inherently higher value than others, and that this ought to be imposed on the whole of the speech community. Although prescriptivismis still with :us, descriptivism wins more and more understanding. It proposes that the task of the grammarian is to describe, not prescribe——to record the facts of. linguistic diversity, and not to attempt the impossible tasks of being language police and trying to. stop language from changing, or imposing on members of a language community the so-called norms of correctness.(2) Weakness of prescriptive grammar (Merits of descriptive grammar). ①The reason why present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normativein character, . “you should never use a double-negative”;“you should not split the infinitive” etc. People realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority, stipulated “standards!’. We can appeal neither to logic nor to Latin granunar when it comes to deciding whether something is oris not correct in English. ② Prescriptivism is an individual attitude. The related social attitude that goes to the extreme of prescriptivism is purism, which is something we should guard against. Pure prescriptive grammar will leadto artificial claims that are hard to maintain in light of the facts. While prescriptivists would prefer the use of the past subjunctive after if (If I were you, etc.), it is very difficult to claim that everyone who uses “was” is wrong, especially are the majority in spoken language. While there are still traditionalist grammarians claiming that they are right and half the populationis wrong, most have modified their approach and talk of this form as preferable, or describe it as formal register. ③ The prescriptive attitude seems to ignore the fact that English has evolved over the centuries into what it is today whereas the descriptive attitude seems to be more sensitive to anything that goes on to a certain extent. A language is a living creature. There is no fixed form for any language. No one speaks Shakespearean medieval English today. However, no one says the British today speaks the incorrect English. It will and should change over time.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of languageThe four principles to make a scientific study of language are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy, and objectivity.(1) Exhaustiveness: the linguist should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation. Language is extremely complex; he cannot attempt to describe all aspects of language at once, but to examine one aspect at a time.(2) Consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.(3) Economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible, which can account most fully for all facts.(4) Objectivity: a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis’of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalizations. He should not omit any linguistic facts because he himself considers there to be “inelegant” or “substandard”. Nor should he conceal facts that do not conform to his generalizations. His aim should be to present his analysis in such a way that every part of it can be tested and verified; not only by himself, but by anyone else who makes a description of different。
语言学教程各章节练习及答案
Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct andstandard”behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they shouldday and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language： Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facialexpression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways: Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [ ]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resemblinga smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to thetask of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive ina particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English. Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝ ]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation. 3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated bythe bold type:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wantedto do this to day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationshipbetween expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical conceptor a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more wordsin a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of somecategoriesSyntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element presentand the others absent.Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relationsbetween its different constituentsSurface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of aconstruction people actually produce and receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmaticand paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for.The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first.In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the treediagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units,words and sentences in particular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entitya word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym) semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g. [+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really thesame, one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words aresynonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they maynot be considered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed. The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalkis a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed toa constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of asentence with determinate sense and reference.Illocutuonary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guidingprinciple the Cooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows:"make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of thetalk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’sknowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one ofthe four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin”is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?”he answered “Yes”but does not actuallydo it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door”is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.” What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。
语言学练习Exercise2
Chapter 2 5
Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks. 11. _____ is the smallest linguistic unit. Phoneme 12. According to _____, when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. the maximal onset principle
Chapter 2 7
Exercises
II. Choose the best answer. 15. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are _____ of the p phoneme. A. analogues B. tagmemes C. morphemes D. allophones D 16. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as _____. A. glottis B. vocal cavity C. pharynx D. uvula A
Chapter 2 14
Exercises
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F]. __ 29. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation. T __ 30. [p] is voiced bilabial stop. F
语言学练习（一,二）
语言学练习（一,二）Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 2Multiple choices (3*15=45?)1. Which of the following feature cannot be used to describe English consonants?A. voicelessB. oralC. alveolarD. lateral2. Which of the following statements about allophone is NOT correct?A. Allophones are different forms of the same phonemeB. Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.C. Allophones distinguish meaning.D. Allophones are language-specific.3. The word _____ contains a high vowel.A. matB. mudC. dotD. boot4. Phoneticians adopt the following standards in describing English consonants. Which of the following is NOT correct about [s] sound?A. fricativeB. voicelessC. alveolarD. affricate5. The syllabic structure of “blade” can be described as______.A. CCVCB. CCVCVC. CVCD. CVCV6. _______ refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.A. Addition of soundB. Loss of soundC. AssimilationD. Metathesis7. Assimilation includes the following phenomena except________.A. nasalizationB. palatalizationC. dentalizationD. transmutation8. Which of the following statements is correct? ( )A. Diacritics added to letter-symbols bring out finer distinctions than the letters alone can do.B. The lips are the most flexible part in articulation, only secondary to tongue.C. The [e] sound in English is a front, semi-close, unrounded, tense vowel.D. Minimal pairs are created in order to show the distinctive value of one phone.9. Which is not a suprasegmental feature? ( )A. stressB. toneC. intonationD. conjuncture10. About phone, phoneme and allophone, which statement is wrong? ( )A. Phones are speech sounds we actually hear and produce during linguistic communication.B. Phones do not necessarily have distinctive values but phonemes do.C. Allophones in some cases also have distinctive values.D. Phones in complementary distribution are not necessarily allophones.11. Which one is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [?]C. [e]D. [I]12. _____ doesn?t form a minimal pair.A. meter-metreB. ill-isC. pad-patD. ton-tongue13. Conventionally, a ____ is put in slashes (/ /). A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme14. In the word______, [l] is velarized.A. leadB. stealC. lethalD. glide15. There are ____ syllables and _____ phonemes in the wordgentlemanly.A. 4, 9B. 3, 10C. 4, 10D. 3, 9Blank-filling (2*10=20?)16. If a sound can be a substitute for the other in a word in the same environment without changing the meaning, the two sounds are in__________ _________ (two words).17. The maximal numbers of consonants in coda position and onset position are respectively _____ and_____ (e.g. ________ and _______).18. The [g] sound is silent in design and paradigm but present in their corresponding forms signature and paradigmatic. This is due to a _______ rule which could be stated as: when occurring before a final consonant, a[g] sound is not pronounced.19. In terms of places of articulation, [θ] and [e ] can be classified into the category _______.20. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit which has distinctive value.21. When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be _______. True or false (T for true and F for false 1*10=10?)22. Linguists are concerned with all the sounds produced by the human speech organs. ( )23. English has four basic types of intonation. ( )24. Suprasegmental features cannot distinguish meaning. ( )25. Phonology is language specific but phonetics is not. ( )26. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception ofspeech sounds. ( )27. The stress can be laid on different syllables of a word, resulting in different meanings. ( )28. Because of assimilation, the negative forms of legal and possible are illegal and impossible. ( )29. All vowels are voiceless. ( )30. [m] sound is both a labiodental and a nasal. ( )31. The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels. ( )Brief definitions (3*5=15?)32. phonology33. articulatory phonetics34. complementary distributionSound Description (2*5=10?)Describe the following speech sounds according to the criteria that we have learnt.35. [Λ]____________________________________________36. [ j ]____________________________________________37. [d?]____________________________________________38. [ h ]____________________________________________39. [ I ]____________________________________________Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 1Multiple choices (4*10=40?)1.Which of the following does not fall into the core of linguistics?A. phoneticsB. syntaxC. sociolinguisticsD. semantics2.Of the following statements, which is incorrect?A.Applied linguistics in a narrow sense refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching.B.The study of language variation in terms of gender and psychology belongs to the category ofpsycholinguistics.C.Modern linguistics takes a descriptive attitude rather than a prescriptive one in language study.D.The ultimate goal of language is not just to generate grammatically well-formed sentences but to createmeaningful sentences.3.Which of the following statements are problematic?A.Modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective, which seeks to describe the language people actually use.B.According to F. de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of acommunity, while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.C. A diachronic approach in modern linguistics is given priority over a synchronic one.D.N. Chomsky thinks what a linguist should study is an ideal speaker’s performance instead of his competence.4.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in some different ways except ____.A.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is laying down rules of “correctness”.B.Spoken language is given prominence, not the written language in modern linguistics. The situation wasreverse in traditional grammar.C.Traditional grammar only examined one aspect of language while modern linguistics studies language in a comprehensive way.D.Modern linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for all others while traditional grammarians proposed a universal framework.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”--The famous quotation from Shakespeare's playRomeo and Juliet demonstrates that language and objects in physical world are associated by _____.A. conventionB. rulesC. arbitrarinessD. symbols6.Choose correct statements about arbitrariness of language.______/doc/fd6908020.html,nguage is not entirely arbitrary.B.Onomatopoeic words in language are motivated.C.Some compounds in language are not formed entirely arbitrarily.D.Different sounds may refer to the same object in different languages.7. A professor is employing the _____ function when he says, “Next, I will explain what …Paleozoic? means.”A. referentialB. conativeC. metalinguisticD. poetic8.Human language can be used to refer to situations removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This design feature is called _____.A. productivityB. displacementC. discretenessD. duality 9.According to Halliday, when we use language to organize our experience of the real or imaginary world, we are performing the _____ function of language.A. textualB. interpersonalC. ideationalD. evaluative10.We can understand abstract words like happiness and motivation. This shows language has the propertyof _______.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacementTrue or false (T for true and F for false) (4*6=24?)11. Recursiveness, as seen in some sentences, well illustrates the creativity of language. ( )12. Some animal communication systems do show the feature of duality. ( )13. The sentence “I like the idea that Joseph proposed at the conference” shows referential function of language.( )14. Human child must learn a specific language after s/hewas born though genetically endowed with the ability to learn. ( )15. The distinction between syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation was made by N. Chomsky. ( )16. A linguistic study is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language. ( )Brief Definitions17. What is language? (6’)18. What is called general linguistics? (10’)Thought-provoking Question (20’)19. Is it necessary to make a distinction between speech and writing in linguistic study? Why?。
语言学练习第二章
语言学练习第二章(总4页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Chapter twoSummarize the characteristics of English consonants :[ ] voiceless bilabial stop [ ] voiced bilabial stop[ ] voiceless alveolar stop [ ] voiced alveolar stop[ ] voiceless velar stop [ ] voiced velar stop[ ] bilabial nasal [ ] alveolar nasal[ ] velar nasal [ ] voiceless postalveolar affricate[ ] voiced postalveolar affricate [ ] alveolar lateral[ ] voiceless labioldental fricative[ ] voiced labioldental fricative[ ] voiceless dental fricative[ ] voiced dental fricative[ ] voiceless alveolar fricative[ ] voiced alveolar fricative[ ] voiced alveolar trill[ ] voiceless post-alveolar fricative[ ] voiced post-alveolar fricative [ ] glottal fricative[ ] bilabial approximant [ ] palatal approximantII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.2．A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.3. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , they are allb_______ sounds.4． Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.5．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.6．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>7．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.8．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.9．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.10．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.11．P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.12．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.13． T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>14．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.15．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative16. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features17. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme18．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones19． Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords20．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal21．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/22．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similarChoose the best answer:1. Pitch variation is known as ____when its patterns are imposed on sentences.C. pronunciation2. Conventionally a ____is put in slashes.C. phoneme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are ___ of the p phoneme.C. morpheme4. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called _____.A. minimal pairsB. alloorphsC. phones5. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds.A. acoustic phonetics phoneticsC. auditory phonetics of them6. which one is different from the others according to manners of articulationA. [z]B. [w]C. [θ]D.[v]7. which one is different from the others according to places of articulationA. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D.[p]8. which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowelsA. [i]B. [u]C. [e]D.[i:]9. what kind of sounds are made when the vocal cords are vibratingA. voicelessB. voicedC. glottal stop10. which consonant represents the following description: voiceless labiodental fricativeA. [f]B. [v]C. [z]D.[s]True or false:1. of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.2. sound [p] in the word “ spit” is an unaspirated stop.3. Supersegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.4. the airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.5. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a differed word, but merely a different pronunciation..6. [p] is voiced bilabial stop.phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and code.9. When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glide take place.10. according to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. shout.11. received pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.IV. Define the terms below:1. phonology2. phoneme 4. acoustic phonetics5.. international phonetic alphabet6. intonation7.. phonetics phonetics 10 tone 11. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:1. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing2. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels3. What are the major differences between phonology and phone 音韵学和语音学4. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.5. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not。
linguistics exercise 2
Chapter oneI.选择题1.The famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet “A rose by anyother name would smell as sweet”” well illustrates_____.A.the arbitrary nature of languageB.the creative nature of languageC.the universality of languageD.the big difference between human language and animal communication2.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is goodproof that human language is_____.A.ArbitraryB.Non-arbitraryC.LogicalD.Non-productive3.Linguistics is the scientific study of _____.A.A particular languageB.The English languageC.Human languages in generalD.The system of a particular language4.Chomsky uses the term ____ to refer to the actual realization of a language user’sknowledge of the rules of his language in linguistics communication.ngueB.ParolepetenceD.Performance5.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ____ study.parativeB.DiachronicC.Up-to-dateD.DescriptiveII.填空题1.In the course of time, the study of language has come to establish close links withother branches of s__ studies, such as sociology and psychology.nguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a languageat some point of time is called a s___ study of language.3.As the first step of their scientific investigation of language, linguists have toobserve and collect linguistic f___ before they can do anything else.4.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it issaid to be d___.III.判断题1.In the history of any language, the writing system always came into being beforethe spoken form.2.Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with theability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted.3.An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists intheir study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language use.4.The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech;thus there are still many languages in today’s world that can only be spoken, but not written.5.Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic.。
语言学第2章习题
语言学第2章习题Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.220. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds. 24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription. 30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stressand s_________ stress.3III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.4A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesSuggested answers to supplementary exercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics5656. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is7usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.”for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.8。
语言学练习题Chapter2Linguistics
Chapter Two Linguistics1. Define the following terms.1) syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relation2) langue vs parole3) competence vs performance4) descriptive linguistics vs historical linguistics5) theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics6) deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguistics7) synchronic vs diachronic linguistics8) macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics9) Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguistics2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1) ( ) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics because it can tell ushow to speak correct language.2) ( ) C ompetencce and performance refer respectively to a language user 'sunderlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concretesituations.3) ( ) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky.4) ( ) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia.5) ( ) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of language development throughtime.6) ( ) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not with how they can beimproved.7) ( ) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions ” what is a language ” and “Howdoes a language work ”.8) ( ) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which shows thearbitrary nature of languages.9) ( ) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of sound and a system ofmeaning.10) ( ) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must belearned a new by each speaker.11) ( ) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information and ideas.12) ( ) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an infinite set ofsentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.13) ( ) Hall iday ' s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole and performance14) ( ) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and development of language.15) ( ) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal andsituational constraints.16) ( ) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students is basicallydescriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‘ communicative skills.17) ( ) Saussure ' s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school ofhistorical linguistics18) ( ) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to languageteaching and learning.19) ( ) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20) ( ) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical development of a language over aperiod of time.21) ( ) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element inan utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the same sub-system of the language.22) ( ) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of a particularlanguage.23) ( ) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24) ( ) Competence is more concrete than performance.25) ( ) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts for the rules oflanguage in general.26) ( ) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.27) ( ) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28) ( ) All the English words are not symbolic.29) ( ) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30) ( ) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31) ( ) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker ' s intuition about how asentence is formed.32) ( ) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33) ( ) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state of a language at a particularpoint of time.3. Multiple Choice1) ___ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. Chomsky C Bloomfiled D. Sapir2) Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is knowns as ______________ .A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics3) _____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof speech com mun ity.A. ParoleB. la ngue C speech D. writ ing4) Which of the follow ing is not the major brach of lin guisticsA. phono logyB. pragmaticsC. syn tax D speech5) _______ deals with Ian guage applicati on to other fields, particularlyeducati on.A. Lin guistic geographyB. Socioli nguisticsC. Applied lin guisticsD. Comparative lin guistics6) Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences amongIan guagesA. Diachro nic lin guistics.B. Synchronic lin guistics.C. Prescriptive lin guistics.D. Comparative lin guistics.7) ________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. Joh n Lyons8) The study of Ian guage as a whole is ofte n called ---.A. gen eral lin guisticsB. socioli ngyusticsC. psycholi nguisticsD. applied lin guistics9) The study of Ian guage meaning is called--.A. syn taxB. sema ntics C morphology D. pragmatics10) The descripti on of a Ian guage at some point in time is a —study.A syn chro nic B. diachro nic C descriptive D. prescriptive4. Fill in the bla nks with appropriate words:1) refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech com muni ty.2) is the actual realizati on ofone'slin guistic kno wledge inuttera nces.3) Modem linguistic is jn, the sense that the linguist tries to discover whatIanguage is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.4) The descriptio n of a Ian guage as it cha nges through time is a study. __5) Saussure put forward two importa nt con cepts, refers to the abstractlin guistic system shared by all members of a speech com mun ity.6) Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure' s Iangue and Chomsky s .7) The four prin ciples in the lin guistic study are (1) (2) ____________⑶ _(4) _________8) Morphology is the branch of lin guistics which studies the form of words.9) The branch of general linguistics which is named studies the internalstructure of senten ces.10) In Saussure ' s view, the relati on ship betwee n sig ni fier (so und image) andsig ni fied (con cept) is . _______11) ___ is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interestsin Ianguage and society, including the social functions of Ianguage and thesocial characteristics of its users.12) The distinction between Iangue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure. The disti nctio n betwee n compete nee and performa nee is made by the America n lin guist . ____13) The writing English is. known as the sound writing system while that ofJapa nese as _ _writ ing system.14) Accord ing to Joh n Lyons, _ lin guistics_ deals with Ian guage in gen eraland _ linguistics is concer ned with one particular Ian guage.15) In de Saussure ' s term, _____ r efers to the system of Ianguage and ______refers to the speaker ' s speech.16) __ is the scie nee that deals with the sound system.17) Syn tax studies two kinds of rules: ___ rules and_ rules _18) Lan gue or compete nee is ____ a nd not directly observed, while parole orperforma nee is ___ and directly observable.19) A _______ relati on refers to the seque ntial characteristic of speech.20) ______ knowledge is a native speaker' s intuition about the sounds and soundpatter ns of his Ian guage.21) _____ knowledge is a native speaker' s intuition about how a word is formed.22) _____ knowledge is a native speaker' s intuition about whether a sentenceis grammatical or not.23) _____ knowledge is a native speaker ' s intuition about the meaning ofIan guage, in clud ing meaning of words and meaning of senten ces.24) _____ is the study of speech sounds of all huma n Ian guages.25) _____ exam ines word formatio n and the in ternal structure of words.5. An swer the follow ing questi ons.1) What is the differenee between general linguistics and descriptive lin guistics2) What is the differenee between synchronic and diachronic linguistics Is iteasy to draw a sharp line betwee n them if we look at Ian guage closely3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of Ianguage from descriptive studiesof Ianguage Commenton the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar andprescriptive grammar.4) What are the four prin ciples for the scie ntific an alysis of Ian guage5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.6) What are the main differe nces betwee n “ compete nee” and “ performa nee ”7) What is the major differenee between Saussure' s distinction of Iangue andparole and Chomsky s disti ncti on of compete nee and performa nee what should bestudies in lin guistics in your opinion and why8) Explain “speech and writing ” , and cite two ormore examples.Key to Chapter Two1. Define the following terms.1) syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relationEssentially the relations between linguistic elements are of two dimensions, usually syntagmatic and paradigmatic. syntagmatic or sequential relations are those holding between elements forming serial structure, or “strings ' as they are sometimes called. In syntax, the horizontal relationship between elements shows how a form (X) combines with others (W + X + Y) in a serial combination. It refers to the linear ordering of the words andthe phrases within a sentence. Paradigmatic relations are those holding between comparable elements at particular places in structures. The vertical or substitutional relationship shows how other different forms (Xa, Xb, Xc) can function in the same place in structure in a paradigmatic relation.2) langue vs paroleSaussure refers “langue ” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ” parole ” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints. For Saussure, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, ., to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole andmake them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.3) competence vs performance(1) According to N. Chomsky, “ competence” is the ideal language user ' s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “ performance ” is the arctual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker ' s competence is stable whilehis performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker 's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence .(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky' s competence -performance distinction is not exactly the same as, t hough similar to, F. de Saussure ' s language parole distinction. Langueis a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemedas a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.4) descriptive linguistics vs historical linguisticsLinguistic study can be divided into descriptive linguistics (synchronic linguistic study) and historical linguistics (diachronic linguistic study). The former refers to the description of a language at a particular point of time in history while the latter, a diachronic study of language, studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5) theoretical linguistics vs applied linguisticsA third dichotomy is that which holds between theoretical and applied linguistics. The former copes with language and languages with a view toestablishing a theory of their structure and functions and without regard to any practical applications that the investigation of language and languages might have, whereas the latter is chiefly concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks, including language teaching.6) deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguisticsA linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyzes the facts of language, and it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for “correct ” language behavior. Linguistic studies before 20th century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on“high ” (literary or religious) written records. Modem linguistics is mostly descriptive, however, which believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy.These, with changes inlvocabulary and structures, need to be explained distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.7) synchronic vs diachronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.The description of a languageat some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a languageas it changes through timeis a diachronic study (diachrony). An essay entitled ” On the Use of THE ” , for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.8) macrolinguistics vs microlinguisticsMacrolinguistics falls on the verge of linguistics. It includes the following disciplines: philosophical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc. Lyons has the same distinction.Microlinguistics concentrates on the study of all the interior aspects ofa language system. Traditional linguistic study describes language system from two aspects —lexicon and grammar. Dictionaries and grammar books are products of such researches and studies.9) Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguisticsComparative historical linguistics draws on the special historical comparison in linguistics to study the historical development of some related languages (languages originating from a uniform ancestry). It is in fact a special part of historical linguistics. Thanks to the development of historical comparative linguistics in 19 th century, linguistics comes to be an independentdiscipline. Contrastive linguistics focuses on structural similarities and differences of two or more languages (relevant or unrelated) by meansof comparison and contrastive study. This study belongs to descriptive linguistics. It can help people have a deep understanding of the properties and universal characteristics of different languages and thus exerts great influence on foreign language teaching.2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1) (F) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics because it cantell us how to speak correct language.2) (T) Competencce and performance refer respectively to a language user 's underlyingknowledge ab out the system of rules and the actualuse of language in concrete situations.3) (F) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky. ( 中国矿业大学，2004)4) (T) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia. ( 中国矿业大学，2004)5) (F) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of languagedevelopment through time. ( 中国矿业大学，2004)6) (T) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, notwith how they can be improved. ( 中国矿业大学，2004)7) (T) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions ” what is a language ” and“How does a language work ”. (南京师范大学，2002)8) (F) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which shows thearbitrary nature of languages. (中国矿业大学，2002)9) (T) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of sound and asystem of meaning. (中国矿业大学，2002)10) (T) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned a new by each speaker. (中国矿业大学，2002)11) (F) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information and ideas. (中国矿业大学，2002)12) (F) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an infiniteset of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality. (中国矿业大学，2002)13) (F) Halliday 's linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole and performance14) (T) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and developmentof language.15) (T) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal andsituational constraints.16) (T) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students isbasically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners‘ communicative skills.17) (F) Saussure' s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historicallinguistics.18) (T) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to languageteaching and learning.19) (F) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20) (T) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical developmentof a language over a period of time.21) (F) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in an utteranceand linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the same sub-system of the language.22) (F) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of aparticular language.23) ( T) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24) (F) Competence is more concrete than performance.25) (F) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts for the rules oflanguage in general.26) (T) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.27) (T) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28) (T) All the English words are not symbolic.29) (F) All sounds produced by humanspeech organs are linguistic30) (T) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31) (F) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker 's intuitionhow a sentence is formed.32) (F) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33) (F) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state ofa language at a particular point of time.3. Multiple choice4. Word completion symbols.about1) - 5): BCBDC 6) - 10): DBABA1) Langue3) descriptive5) langue7) (1) consistency (2) economy exhaustiveness8) Morphology10) arbitrary12) Chomsky14) general, descriptive2) Performance4) diachronic6) competence(3) objectivity (4)9) syntax11) socialinguistics13) syllabic15) langue, parole16) Phonology 17) phrase structure, transformational 18) abstract; concrete 19) syntagmatic20) Phonological 21) Morphological22) Syntactic 23) Semantic24) Phonetics 25) Morphology5. Answer the following questions.1) What is thedifference between general linguistics and descriptive linguisticsThe former deals with language in general, . the whole human language whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language. The former aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general while the latter attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of one particular language, such as Chinese, English, French, etc. General Linguistics and descriptive linguistics are dependent on each other. In the first place, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which any particular language can be described, studied and analyzed. Very often, it may supply several different frameworks for descriptive linguists to choose from. Depending on their different views on language, they may follow one model exclusively or combine two or more models. In the second, the resulting descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguistics. In other words, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other despite their different objects of study and different goals.2) What is the difference between diachronic linguistics Is it easy to drawa sharp line between them if we look at language closely(1) Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present)as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.(2) Synchronic/diachronic perspective toward language is one of Saussure' sthe form of pairs of Concepts. The former sees most central ideas expressed inlanguageas a living whole; existing as a “‘ state ” at a particular momentin time; the latter sees it as a continually changing medium. In this view, it is always necessary to carry out some degree of synchronic work before making a diachronic study: before we can say how a language has changed from state X to state Y, we need to about X and Y.Correspondingly, a synchronic analysis can be made without referring to history. This can be illustrated as Sanssure did using an analogy with a game of chess. A state of the set ofchessmen is like a state of language. “ The respective value of the pieces depends on their position on the chessboard just as each linguistic term derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms. ” On the o ther hand, the value of each piece also;depends on theconvention--the set of rules that exists before the game begins. This is like the set of rules that exists in language. A state of the game of chess is momentary just like a state of languagechange. When one piece is moved, the game passes from one state of equilibrium to the next.This corresponds closely to the situation of language between states. To study this static state is called synchronic linguistics. The moving of one piece is like one type of change in language.The consequence of one move can be very big or small; the same is true with languagechanges. The player of a chess game is solely concerned with the momentary positions of the pieces; he does not need to remember the previous moves so as to decide the next move. A player who knows the history of the game does not necessarily have more to say about the next move than a man who has just come to the game, ignorant of what has happened before.Similarly, a speaker of a language can learn the languagewell without knowing its historical statesl We can describe a state of a game without bothering the techniques both players have used to bring about the state.Likewise, we can describe the state of a language without knowing its history,3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of languageCommenton the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.(1) The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how thingsactually are. The essence of prescriptivism is the notion that one variety of languages has an inherently higher value than others, and that this ought to be imposed on the whole of thespeech community. Although prescriptivism is still with :us, descriptivism wins more and more understanding. It proposes that the task of the grammarian is to describe, not prescribe ——to record the facts of. linguistic diversity, and not to attempt the impossible tasks of being language police and trying to. stop language from changing, or imposing on members of a languagecommunity the so-called norms of correctness.(2) Weakness of prescriptive grammar (Merits of descriptive grammar). ① The reasonwhy present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character, . “you should never use a double - negative ”; “you should notsplit the infinitive ” etc. People realize nowadays the facts of usage countmore than the authority, stipulated “standards! '. We can appeal neither to logic nor to Latin granunar when it comes to deciding whether something is or is not correct in English. ② Prescriptivism is an individual attitude. Therelated social attitude that goes to the extreme of prescriptivism is purism, which is something we should guard against. Pure prescriptive grammar will lead to artificial claims that are hard to maintain in light of the facts. Whileis wrong, most have modified their approach and talk of this form as preferable, or describe it asformal register. ③ The prescriptive attitude seems to ignore the fact that English has evolved prescriptivistswould prefer the use of the past subjunctive after if (If I were you, etc.), itis very difficult to claim that everyone who uses “was ” is wrong, especially are the majority in spoken language. While there are stillover the centuries into what it is today whereas the descriptive attitude seems to be more sensitive to anything that goes on to a certain extent. A language is a living creature. There is no fixed form for any language. No one speaks Shakespearean medieval English today. However, no one says the British today speaks the incorrect English. It will and should change over time.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of languageThe four principles to make a scientific study of language are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy, and objectivity.(1) Exhaustiveness: the linguist should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation. Language is extremely complex; he cannot attempt to describe all aspects of language at once, but to examine one aspect at a time.(2) Consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.(3) Economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible, which can account most fully for all facts.(4) Objectivity: a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis' of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalizations. He should not omit any linguistic facts because he himself considers there to be“inelegant ” or “ substandard ”. Nor should he concealfacts that do not conform to his generalizations. His aim should be to present his analysis in such a way that every part of it can be tested and verified;not only by himself, but by anyone else who makes a description of differentdata based on the same set of principles. It is the insistence on these principles, particularly objectivity that gives linguistics the status of a science.5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.(1) Most linguistic analysis today is focused on speech rather than writing. Everything considered, speech is believed to be more representative of human language than writing. In。
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Chapter 2 11
Exercises
II. Choose the best answer. 23. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating? A. Voiceless B. Voiced C. Glottal stop D. Consonant B 24. Which consonant represents the following description: voiceless labiodental fricative? A. [f] B. [q] C. [z] D. [s] A
Chapter 2 8
Exercises
II. Choose the best answer.
Exercises
17. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as _____ diphthongs. A. wide B. closing C. narrow D. centering D 18. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called _____. A. minimal pairs B. allomorphs C. phones D. allophones D
Chapter 2 1
Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks. 3. Consonant sounds can be either _____ or _____, while all vowel sounds are _____. voiced; voiceless; voiced 4. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing _____. friction
Chapter 2 12
Exercises
Exercises
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F]. __ 25. Of the three phonetic branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics. F __ 26. Sound [p] in the word "spit" is an unaspirated stop. T
Chapter 2 5
Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks. 11. _____ is the smallest linguistic unit. Phoneme 12. According to _____, when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. the maximal onset principle
Chapter 2 4
Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks. 9. In English there are a number of _____, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. diphthongs 10._____ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually showing the influence of their neighbors. Coarticulation
Chapter 2
6
II. Choose the best answer. 13. Pitch variation is known as _____ when its patterns are imposed on sentences. A. intonation B. tone C. pronunciation D. voice A 14. Conventionally a _____ is put in slashes. A. allophone B. phone C. phoneme D. morpheme C
Chapter 2 15
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
Exercises
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F]. __ 31. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. F __ 32. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. T
Chapter 2 3
Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks. 7. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without _____. obstruction 8. In phonological analysis the words fail veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating _____. minimal pairs
Chapter 2 16
Exercises
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F]. __33. When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place. T __ 34. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short. T
Chapter 2 14
Exercises
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F]. __ 29. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation. T __ 30. [p] is voiced bilabial stop. F
C. Auditory phonetics. D. Neither of them. B 20. Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation? A. [z] B. [w] C. [q] D. [v] B
Chapter 2 7
Exercises
II. Choose the best answer. 15. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are _____ of the p phoneme. A. analogues B. tagmemes C. morphemes D. allophones D 16. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as _____. A. glottis B. vocal cavity C. pharynx D. uvula A
Chapter 2
9
II. Choose the best answer. 19. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?
Exercises
A. Acoustic phonetics.
B. Articulatory phonetics.
Chapter 2 2
Exercises
I. Fill in the blanks. 5. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _____ and the lips. tongue 6. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the _____ to which that part of the tongue is raised. height