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CEFR

CEFR

Know-how of the devision of the levels of Cambridge ELT materials教你看懂剑桥英语难度划分The Common European Framework(CEF) 欧洲现代语言教学大纲The Council of Europe's Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEF/CEFR) is a useful tool for anyone involved in English language learning, teaching and testing. It allows language achievement to be benchmarked against a shared understanding of each level.CEF levels are based on the ALTE (Association of Language Testers in Europe) key competencies which highlight what learners 'can do' with the language and which focus on real-world language tasks.A Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment，简称CEF，一般翻译做“欧洲语言教学共同纲领”，也有人翻译成“欧洲语言学习、教学、评估共同参考框架”。

该标准是由欧洲委员会制订并于2001年正式公布，2003年修订出版。

该框架就是欧盟各国外语教学和评估的标准，旨在为欧洲语言教学的课程设计、大纲制订、语言测试和教材编纂提供一个共同的基础和参考。

高英 (1)

高英 (1)

offspring
['ɒfsprɪŋ] 后代；子孙 n. the immediate descendants of a person; The offspring 后裔乐队
• half-witted adj. mentally deficient 愚笨
的 If you describe someone as half-witted, you think they are very stupid, silly, or irresponsible.
leaders of tomorrow, forge on the future
• dope [dəʊp] n. drugs 麻醉剂，毒品
I need you more than dope
• delinquent [dɪ‘lɪŋkwənt]
n. a young offender行为不良的人；少年犯
To Show Sequence:

next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon
To Compare:

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis-à-vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast

ITU-T P.833_02-2001

ITU-T P.833_02-2001

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNIONITU-T P.833(02/2001) TELECOMMUNICATIONSTANDARDIZATION SECTOROF ITUSERIES P: TELEPHONE TRANSMISSION QUALITY, TELEPHONE INSTALLATIONS, LOCAL LINE NETWORKSMethods for objective and subjective assessment of qualityMethodology for derivation of equipment impairment factors from subjectivelistening-only testsITU-T Recommendation P.833(Formerly CCITT Recommendation)ITU-T P-SERIES RECOMMENDATIONSTELEPHONE TRANSMISSION QUALITY, TELEPHONE INSTALLATIONS, LOCAL LINE NETWORKSSeries P.10 Vocabulary and effects of transmission parameters on customer opinion of transmissionqualitySubscribers' lines and sets Series P.30P.300 Transmission standards Series P.40Objective measuring apparatus Series P.50P.500 Objective electro-acoustical measurements Series P.60Measurements related to speech loudness Series P.70Methods for objective and subjective assessment of quality Series P.80P.800 Audiovisual quality in multimedia services Series P.900For further details, please refer to the list of ITU-T Recommendations.ITU-T Recommendation P.833Methodology for derivation of equipment impairment factorsfrom subjective listening-only testsSummaryThis Recommendation gives a methodology for deriving equipment impairment factors (Ie s) for digital signal processing devices, namely low bit-rate codecs with or without transmission errors. The Ie values are derived from the results of subjective listening-only tests. They are intended to be used as an input to the E-model (see ITU-T G.107).SourceITU-T Recommendation P.833 was prepared by ITU-T Study Group 12 (2001-2004) and approved under the WTSA Resolution 1 procedure on 23 February 2001.KeywordsE-model, equipment impairment factor, impairment factor method, low bit-rate codecs.(02/2001) iITU-TP.833FOREWORDThe International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations specialized agency in the field of telecommunications. The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is a permanent organ of ITU. ITU-T is responsible for studying technical, operating and tariff questions and issuing Recommendations on them with a view to standardizing telecommunications on a worldwide basis.The World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA), which meets every four years, establishes the topics for study by the ITU-T study groups which, in turn, produce Recommendations on these topics.The approval of ITU-T Recommendations is covered by the procedure laid down in WTSA Resolution 1.In some areas of information technology which fall within ITU-T's purview, the necessary standards are prepared on a collaborative basis with ISO and IEC.NOTEIn this Recommendation, the expression "Administration" is used for conciseness to indicate both a telecommunication administration and a recognized operating agency.INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTSITU draws attention to the possibility that the practice or implementation of this Recommendation may involve the use of a claimed Intellectual Property Right. ITU takes no position concerning the evidence, validity or applicability of claimed Intellectual Property Rights, whether asserted by ITU members or others outside of the Recommendation development process.As of the date of approval of this Recommendation, ITU had received notice of intellectual property, protected by patents, which may be required to implement this Recommendation. However, implementors are cautioned that this may not represent the latest information and are therefore strongly urged to consult the TSB patent database.ITU 2002All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and microfilm, without permission in writing from ITU.(02/2001)P.833ii ITU-TCONTENTSPage1 Scope (1)2 References (1)3 Introduction (2)4 Selection of experiment parameters (3)4.1 Preparation of test material (3)4.2 Selection of reference conditions (4)4.2.1 Reference conditions for low bit-rate codecs without transmission errors (5)4.2.2 Reference conditions for low bit-rate codecs with transmission errors (6)4.3 Testenvironment (7)panel (7)4.4 Listeningmethod (7)5 Test5.1 Experimentdesign (8)5.2 Choice of test stimuli (8)method (9)5.3 Presentationscales (9)5.4 Opinion5.5 Instructions to test subjects (9)results (9)5.6 Analysisof6 Derivation of equipment impairment factors (10)6.1 Necessary amount of data (10)6.2 Scale transformation (Step 1) (11)6.3 Linear interpolation of the test results (Step 2) (11)6.4 Additivity check (Step 3) (13)Ie values for transmission error conditions (Step 4) (13)of6.5 Derivation6.6 Additivity check (Step 5) (14)7 Interpretation of derived equipment impairment factor values (14)Appendix I – Rating scale related to impairment factors (14)Appendix II – Bibliography (16)(02/2001) iiiITU-TP.833ITU-T Recommendation P.833Methodology for derivation of equipment impairment factorsfrom subjective listening-only tests1 ScopeThis Recommendation describes the methodology for deriving equipment impairment factors (Ie s) from subjective listening-only tests. It is intended that it primarily be applied to determining Ie s for digital signal processing devices used in the network that have not otherwise been covered by the E-model. The equipment impairment factors derived by this methodology are intended to be used in the E-model (see ITU-T G.107). They will reflect the auditory impairments of the corresponding equipment in a listening-only mode.2 ReferencesThe following ITU-T Recommendations and other references contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of this Recommendation. At the time of publication, the editions indicated were valid. All Recommendations and other references are subject to revision; users of this Recommendation are therefore encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most recent edition of the Recommendations and other references listed below. A list of the currently valid ITU-T Recommendations is regularly published.The E-Model, a computational model for use in transmission planning.(2000),G.107− ITU-TGuidance for assessing conversational speech transmission quality (2000),− ITU-TG.108.1effects not covered by the E-model.Transmission impairments due to speech processing.(2001),− ITU-TG.113Pulse code modulation (PCM) of voice frequencies.(1988),G.711− ITU-T40, 32, 24, 16 kbit/s adaptive differential pulse code modulation (1990),G.726− ITU-T(ADPCM).5-, 4-, 3- and 2-bit/sample embedded adaptive differential pulse code (1990),− ITU-TG.727modulation (ADPCM).Coding of speech at 16 kbit/s using low-delay code excited linear (1992),− ITU-TG.728prediction.− ITU-T(1996),Coding of speech at 8 kbit/s using conjugate-structureG.729algebraic-code-excited linear-prediction (CS-ACELP).−ITU-T P.800 (1996), Methods for subjective determination of transmission quality.−ITU-T P.810 (1996), Modulated noise reference unit (MNRU).−ITU-T P.830 (1996), Subjective performance assessment of telephone-band and wideband digital codecs.−ITU-T P.831 (1998), Subjective performance evaluation of network echo cancellers.Handbook on Telephonometry,1992.Handbook,− ITU-T(02/2001) 1ITU-TP.8333 IntroductionThe equipment impairment factor method (ITU-T G.113) is now the only one recommended by ITU-T for describing the subjective effects of digital processes other than pure PCM on the integral quality for transmission planning purposes. It is based on the principle that individual transmission impairments can be transformed into "psychological factors", and that these psychological factors are additive on a "psychological scale". It is assumed that the transmission rating scale underlying the E-model (ITU-T G.107) has the properties of such a "psychological scale".In transmission planning of modern telecommunication networks, it is important to consider the combined effects of different types of impairments occurring simultaneously in a connection. This is performed by computational models like the E-model. Individual sources of degradations, such as a non-optimum overall loudness rating or sidetone path attenuation, talker echo attenuation and delay, quantizing distortion, absolute delay, etc., are transformed into so-called impairment factors. Degradations due to low bit-rate codecs are taken into account by means of an equipment impairment factor. Whereas interrelationships exist between the other impairment factors due to the underlying instrumentally measurable quantities of the connection (e.g. loudness ratings), the equipment impairment factor is by its very definition independent of all the other impairment factors. It is only dependent on the digital process whose perceptual characteristics it aims to model. The final transmission rating for the entire connection is calculated from all the individual impairment factors, by subtracting them from a basic signal-to-noise ratio.For asynchronous tandems of multiple codecs of the same type, or of multiple codecs of different types, it is assumed that individual equipment impairment factors are additive. The overall equipment impairment factor for the chain of codecs is then calculated as a simple sum of all the individual Ie s. Experimental test data collected provide evidence that this simple additivity is not satisfied for all the potential combinations of codecs [5]. In some cases order effects exist, i.e. the tandem of codec A followed by codec B results in a different degradation than codec B followed by codec A. These deviations from the pure additivity property will be examined in more detail. Equipment impairment factors have been introduced as a simplified measure of the perceptual effects of non-waveform codecs on the integral transmission quality from mouth to ear, for narrow-band (300-3400 Hz) handset telephony. They are in no way an exact description of the effects related to each individual codec or codec tandem, which may be very diverse in their perceptual nature. Instead, they represent the relative degradation in comparison to other impairments occurring in a connection. In order to provide guidance on the quantitative amount of impairment introduced by such codecs, a framework of equipment impairment factors for the most common non-waveform codecs has been derived by ITU-T, see Appendix I/G.113. Derivation is based on many subjective listening-only tests carried out in different test laboratories, so as to guarantee stable values for all the codecs under investigation so far, as well as their relations to each other. If new equipment impairment factor values for different codecs have to be derived, then the overall consistency with the established framework is of primary importance if results are to be obtained that are valid for network planning. The methodology described in this Recommendation was designed to fulfil this requirement.As long as no instrumental methods can be defined, equipment impairment factors have to be derived from subjective test data. Such tests are generally carried out in a listening-only mode, which allows several, different connections to be tested within one test session. As a result, equipment impairment factors derived in this way will only reflect the influence on the one-way speech transmission quality, and will disregard degradations in the conversational quality. It has not yet been proven that the quantitative degradation in the listening-only and in the conversational modes are similar, but for reasons of simplicity a strong interrelation is assumed. Users of transmission rating models, however, should be aware that differences may exist, and that most of the data derived only reflects the listening-only situation.(02/2001)P.8332 ITU-TSubjective tests, even if carefully designed and carried out under controlled conditions, cannot provide quality ratings which are 100% reproducible under the same conditions. The composition and experience of the test panel, choice of test conditions and stimulus material, test set-up and environment lead to an inherent variability. This variability can also be found in the mean ratings calculated over a large number of individual responses. As a consequence, equipment impairment factors derived from one test will vary to a certain extent if compared to other test data. The degree of variability, however, should be limited to what can be tolerated in the transmission planning of networks, the latter including a reasonable safety margin. The comparison and integration of test data obtained under different experimental conditions is one way to reduce variability. The strict application of the experimental design and test method described in the following clauses is an additional one.4 Selection of experiment parametersIn order to obtain valid and reliable results, some general requirements for the design of listening-only tests should be satisfied. Many of these requirements are described in detail in ITU-T P.800 and ITU-T P.830; therefore, wherever possible, reference to these Recommendations is made. Practical implications on how to carry out subjective tests can be found in the ITU-T Handbook on Telephonometry. As a general fact, listening-only tests do not achieve the same standard of realism regarding the actual service conditions experienced by telephone customers as conversation tests do. However, wherever possible, the most realistic approach should also be chosen in listening-only tests, in order to guarantee that results obtained in the relatively artificial laboratory situation have significance for the actual service.4.1 Preparation of test materialThe preparation of source recordings should satisfy – with the exception of the points explicitly raised hereafter – the description given in B.1/P.800, and in clause 7/P.830, for narrow-band systems. This rule applies to the recording environment, the sending as well as the recording system, and the recording procedure.ITU-T P.800 and ITU-T P.830 recommend the use of simple, meaningful, short sentences as language material. Although tests carried out with this material will provide reasonable results, test realism will be enhanced by the use of longer, more diverse and meaningful material, such as short, meaningful test passages. Using such material, the listener's attention will be focused more on the contents and not uniquely on the form of the speech sample, an effect which corresponds better to actual service conditions. Useful language material can be obtained e.g. from non-technical literature, newspapers, etc. The overall length of the test passages will be similar to the maximum obtained for the isolated sentences, i.e. around 12-15 seconds. If transmission error conditions are included in the test, a sufficient exposure to the degraded speech parts should be ensured due to the length of the test material. The same holds true for background noise conditions, where a sufficiently long exposure to the environmental noise is required in order to obtain valid ratings.The recommendations regarding the number of talkers given in 8.1.3.1/P.830 apply. If only the minimum number of two male and two female talkers is used, test results should be interpreted in this light, especially when differences to test data obtained elsewhere are detected.Because digital speech codecs may be sensitive to the level of the input speech, the new codec under investigation should be tested at different levels relative to the overload point of the digital system. The recommendations given in 8.1.1/P.830 apply. In order to reduce the size of the experiment, reference conditions may only be tested at the optimum input speech level. For all test conditions, the listening level should be held constant at the preferred value. This is important because degradations due to a non-optimal OLR are already taken into account by the Iolr impairment factor of the E-model. This effect in the test data for deriving equipment impairment factors would therefore lead to unnecessarily pessimistic overall estimations.(02/2001) 3P.833ITU-TThe same considerations apply to ambient room noise at the send side (parameter Ps of the E-model). This effect is already taken into account by the E-model's basic signal-to-noise ratio Ro, and should consequently not be investigated in tests aiming at deriving equipment impairment factors.NOTE – If strong background noise effects on the codec performance are to be expected, these codecs should be tested both with and without the application of ambient room noise at the send side, and at various noise levels (e.g. Ps ranging from 35 dB(A) to 75 dB(A)) and potentially different types of background noise (e.g. Hoth noise, speech babble noise, car environment noise, etc.). The recommendations of 8.1.8/P.830 should then be respected, with the exception of Note 1 in that clause – it is strongly advisable to perform source recordings in the noisy environment, because the effects of ambient noise on the talking behaviour proved to be of some significance (see the update of the E-model for this aspect). The outcome of the experiment is that a comparison can be made between the two cases: which includes both effects (codec and room noise) in one single equipment impairment factor for the codec under room noise conditions (then applying the default value for Ps in the E-model); or which caters for both effects independently via an Ie for the codec under quiet send side noise conditions and an inclusion of the effects related to Ps via Ro in the E-model. Potential differences between the two methods should be highlighted and should either result in a worst-case calculation when applied to network planning, or in applying a table of equipment impairment factors for the codec and for each room noise level condition.If codecs are to be tested under conditions of transmission errors, the guidelines given in 8.1.4/P.830 should be respected. The outcome of such a test will be an integral equipment impairment factor for the specified codec and transmission error condition. This value should then be used in the E-model to cater for these joint effects. The derivation of computational formulae regarding impairment factors for transmission error rates for a whole codec class is at present being investigated by ITU-T Study Group 12.Subjective test conditions will include both single codecs as well as codec tandemings. Single codecs are likely to be configured according to the transcoding scheme given in Figure 4/P.830. The quantizing effects of both A-/µ-law encoders and decoders have already been taken into account by the E-model impairment factor for speech signal synchronous impairments (Is calculated from Iq), and should ideally be disregarded in tests intended to derive equipment impairment factors Ie. The slight quantizing degradation, however, is not expected to have a measurable influence on the subjective test results. Configurations, as given in Figure 4/P.830, can therefore be used for single codec conditions. The expected additivity of equipment impairment for multiple codecs refers to asynchronous tandem conditions. Thus, multiple codecs should be configured, as described in 8.1.6.1/P.830. This refers to both multiple tandems of the same codec and to mixtures of several different codec types.4.2 Selection of reference conditionsFor reasons given in clause 3, subjective tests aiming at deriving equipment impairment factors should include a number of reference conditions. These references are necessary for anchoring impairment factor values, and they will guarantee that new equipment impairment factor values fit into the existing system given in Appendix I/G.113.The choice of reference conditions is influenced by the test item, i.e. the specific codec under investigation. As a general rule, reference conditions should be similar in perceptual nature to the test items, so that the rating is based on the same underlying perceptual components. For example, a non-waveform codec, which provokes a metallic sound of the transmitted voice, should not uniquely be tested against a reference which introduces signal-correlated quantizing noise. As a consequence, the Modulated Noise Reference Unit, MNRU (ITU-T P.810) is in most cases not an adequate reference condition for low bit-rate non-waveform codecs. Until now there has been no recognized reference unit that produced a scalable distortion similar in perceptual nature to what has been found to exist for such codecs. It is therefore recommended that different types of waveform and non-waveform codecs be used as a reference for experiments deriving equipment impairment (02/2001)P.8334 ITU-Tfactors. The exact reference conditions to be used vary depending on whether transmission errors are to be considered, and whether an additivity check has to be performed.4.2.1 Reference conditions for low bit-rate codecs without transmission errorsWhen equipment impairment factors for non-waveform codecs disregarding transmission errors are determined, the set of 14 reference codec conditions given in Table 1 should be included in the subjective test conditions. This list has been chosen from well-investigated codecs to cover the whole range of Ie values and degradation types.Table 1/P.833 – Reference conditions for low bit-rate codecs without transmission errorsNo. Abbreviation Codectype ReferenceOperatingrate (kbit/s)Ie value1 G.711 log. PCM ITU-T G.711 64 02 GSM-EFR ACELP GSM 06.60, Enhanced Full Rate 12.2 53 G.726(32) ADPCM ITU-T G.721 (1988), ITU-T G.726,ITU-T G.72732 74 G.728 LD-CELP ITU-TG.728 16 75 G.729 CS-ACELP ITU-TG.729 8 106 G.726(32)x2 ADPCM ITU-T G.721 (1988), ITU-T G.726,ITU-T G.72732 14 7 G.728x2 LD-CELPITU-TG.728 16 148 GSM-FR alt.IS-54 RPE-LTPalt. VSELPGSM 06.10, Full Rate, alt. IS-54 13 alt. 8 209 G.729x2 CS-ACELPITU-TG.729 8 2010 GSM-HR alt.PDC VSELP GSM 06.20, Half Rate, alt.Japanese PDC5.6 alt.6.7 23 alt.2411 G.726(24) ADPCM ITU-T G.726, ITU-T G.727 24 2512 G.729x3 CS-ACELPITU-TG.729 8 3013 GSM-FR x2alt. IS-54 x2RPE-LTPalt. VSELPGSM 06.10, Full Rate, alt. IS-54 13 alt. 8 4014 G.726(16) ADPCM ITU-T G.726, ITU-T G.727 16 50 NOTE – x2, x3 designates double respective triple asynchronous tandeming of the same codec.alt. designates that either of the two codecs or codec tandems can be used for this test condition, resultingin either bit rate and/or impairment factor value.It is important to check the additivity of the newly derived equipment impairment factor in the framework of other equipment impairment factor values defined so far. If such an additivity check is not performed, the property of a simple summation of equipment impairment factors in order to cater for codec tandems should not be regarded as valid. Table 2 gives a minimum number of ten additional reference conditions (Nos. 15-24) which should, in any case, be included in the test set to allow for a rough additivity check. It is preferable, however, to test inter-codec tandem operations with a larger set of similar conditions, including triple tandems in different codec orders.Table 2/P.833 – Reference conditions for the additivity check in tandem operationof low-bit rate codecs without transmission errors No. Tandem operationReference codec type Operating rate (kbit/s) Ie value 15 G.726(32)*(new codec) ADPCM 327 + Ie (new codec) 16 G.728*(new codec) LD-CELP 167 + Ie (new codec) 17 G.729*(new codec) CS-ACELP 810 + Ie (new codec) 18GSM-FR*(new codec) alt. IS-54*(new codec) RPE-LTP alt.VSELP 13 alt. 8 20 + Ie (new codec) 19 GSM-HR*(new codec) alt.PDC*(new codec) VSELP 5.6 alt. 6.7 23 + Ie (new codec) alt. 24 + Ie (new codec)20 (new codec)*G.726(32) ADPCM32 Ie (new codec) + 7 21 (new codec)*G.728 LD-CELP16 Ie (new codec) + 7 22 (new codec)*G.729 CS-ACELP8 Ie (new codec) + 10 23(new codec)*GSM-FR alt. (new codec)*IS-54 RPE-LTP alt.VSELP 13 alt. 8 Ie (new codec) + 20 24 (new codec)*GSM-HR alt.(new codec)*PDC VSELP 5.6 alt. 6.7 Ie (new codec) + 23 alt. Ie (new codec) + 24NOTE – A*B designates asynchronous tandeming of codecs A and B, B followed by A.alt. designates that either of the two codec tandems can be used for this test condition, resulting in either bit rate and/or impairment factor value.4.2.2 Reference conditions for low bit-rate codecs with transmission errorsWhen equipment impairment factors for non-waveform codecs operating at low bit-rates under the effects of transmission errors are determined, the same reference conditions as given in Table 1 should be applied. This allows a relationship to be established between Ie values defined in the context of the E-model and those values actually measured in the specific experiment. In addition to these 14 conditions, a minimum number of n = 10 supplementary reference conditions including perceptively noticeable degradation due to transmission errors (random bit errors, random packet loss, bursty packet loss, or propagation errors in terms of error patterns as defined for the GSM codecs) should be applied.These n supplementary reference conditions should be chosen from the already defined values given in Appendix I/G.113 for equipment impairment factors under transmission error conditions. They should cover the whole degradation range expected for the codec under investigation, as well as the type of transmission error applied to this codec. Especially if the codec under investigation makes use of some kind of error recovery strategy (e.g. in repeating previous packets or interpolating between adjacent frames), the reference conditions with transmission errors should possibly include codecs that apply similar strategies.For codecs with transmission errors, reference conditions allowing for an additivity check should be included in the test set as well. Unfortunately, when different error rates are to be tested, this additivity check can lead to an experimental size that is barely manageable. For this reason, no mandatory list of reference conditions is given here. The considerations of clause 6, regarding the interpretation of Ie s that have been derived without performing an additivity check, apply.environment4.3 TestThe listening environment should meet the requirements given in B.4.1/P.800. The noise level at the receive side should be checked to ensure that it satisfies the default parameter settings of the E-model, i.e. an A-weighted level of Pr≤ 35 dB(A), but also respects the limits of NC25 or NR25 set in ITU-T P.800. Ambient noise at receive side has already been taken into consideration by the E-model Ro parameter, and should consequently not be introduced in tests for determining Ie s. Equipment impairment factors are to be used in conjunction with the E-model, which makes predictions for narrow-band (300-3400 Hz) handset telephony. The listening system should show the modified IRS receive characteristic described in Annex D/P.830. The calibration recommendations given in B.4.2/P.800 should be followed. As was argued in 4.1, the listening level should be kept constant at the optimum level, i.e. at 79 dB SPL at the ear reference plane.panel4.4 ListeningThe general requirements on the listening panel given in B.4.4/P.800 should be satisfied. A relatively large number of listening subjects are preferable in order to reduce inter-listener variance. However, provided there is a representative composition of the listening panel, a minimum number of 24 to 32 subjects will often suffice.method5 TestIn principle, listening-only tests for the purpose of deriving equipment impairment factors should be conducted to provide absolute ratings, i.e. according to the "Absolute Category Rating" (ACR, see ITU-T P.800) method in cases where category scales are used, or with a corresponding method when continuous scales are used. Test subjects rate each stimulus individually on the scale provided for this purpose.NOTE – Paired comparison test methods (e.g. "Comparison Category Rating", CCR) can be used to decide on the rank order of very similar equipment impairment factor values for different codecs. With the CCR method, a direct comparison of the codecs or codec tandems under investigation can be made (in contrast to the description in Annex E/P.800, both samples are then processed). However, such values first have to be derived from absolute ratings, and then in a second post-hoc test session the comparative rating can be obtained.Subjective listening-only tests carried out for the purpose of deriving equipment impairment factors consist of two or three parts, depending on whether transmission errors are to be taken into account or not. These three parts reflect the five steps to be taken in the derivation methodology for impairment factors (see clause 6), and not necessarily the division in test sessions. Part A (steps 1 and 2) is always necessary, and consists of deriving a first value of Ie based on one single encoding and decoding process. An interpolation line is established which is necessary for all future transformations of actual test data to the framework of Ie s that has been defined so far. Part B (steps 3 and/or 5) consists of a check of the additivity property, both for pure tandems of the codec under investigation and mixed tandems with other codecs for which equipment impairment factors have already been defined. Part C (step 4) contains the additional steps to be taken when the codec is investigated under conditions of transmission errors.Part B should always be carried out if additivity for the codec under investigation has not been proven. If the additivity does not seem to have been fulfilled, this fact should be highlighted when presenting the test results. Applying impairment factors for codecs that do not satisfy the additivity is questionable. As a minimum requirement, the application should be limited to telephone circuits where only one single coding and decoding process occurs. However, part B may be omitted if Ie values are to be determined for a codec with transmission errors for which an Ie value for the error-free case has already been defined.。

当代研究生英语读写教程答案(上全)

当代研究生英语读写教程答案(上全)

Unit 1Unit 2Unit 3Unit 4Unit 5Uint 6洛城邂逅混凝土、烟雾及晨色将好莱坞高速公路立交桥下的奥尔瓦多街笼罩在特有的灰色之中，车辆堵塞在路上，几乎一动不动。

杰克无精打采地坐在车里，对此并不真的在乎，因为他知道，如果试图往左转，开到高速路入口，情况可能会糟糕得多。

好在他不用每天这样，如果有人问他，他会肯定地说，以后也决不这样。

稳定的工作有其优点，他不否认考虑过这件事。

他需要一台调频收音机，安装在一辆比他现在开的这辆58款别克更好的车上。

好一点的车有天鹅绒内饰，有为洛城的夏天而设计的电控装置，为冬天开往海滩而设计的精美电热器和除霜器，还有为长途旅行设计的导航控制器，当然车的前后都有声音优美的喇叭，窗户一摁就能关好，将外面高速公路上恼人的噪音隔绝。

实际上，他可能不得不改变整个生活方式。

富有异国情调的古龙香水、长毛绒服装、光线暗淡的夜总会、代基里酒、身穿丝绸长礼服、佩戴项链的女子，她们如同特奎拉酒广告里的女子一样，朦朦胧胧而又富有魅力。

只要让他的想像驰骋，杰克会想像出许多可能的东西。

杰克正想入非非时，瞥见绿灯亮了，他只顾开动汽车，盯了一眼那些有固定工作的人，以示再见。

当他扭过头来，面对前方时，已经晚了一秒钟。

他猛地一下踩住刹车，调转方向，以避免撞上前面那辆车上小小的刹车红灯，但还是砰然一声撞上了。

如果他动作再快一秒钟，也许只会离这辆车很近，不会撞上。

而如果再晚一秒钟，他的车就会爬上这辆丰田车的行李箱。

实际上，他好像没有把前面的车撞坏，而后面的车撞上了他车后部的保险杠，那一撞却严重多了。

杰克想开过这辆丰田车，但又怕前面的车挡路。

当他在几辆车前的路边停下来时，又突然觉得这些车反而有助于他逃走。

他使劲关了两次车门，一方面是为了将车门关紧，同时也再给自己一秒钟时间盘算。

然后，他走到别克车的前面，又走到车后面，看看保险杠及其周围是否碰坏。

然而，镀鉻层上连明显的划痕都没有。

于是他精神振作起来了。

一次认清163组最容易混淆的英语词汇

一次认清163组最容易混淆的英语词汇

一次认清163组最容易混淆的英语词汇Recognizing and distinguishing between similar words can be a challenge for many English language learners. The English language is full of words that look or sound similar but have different meanings and uses. In this guide, we will explore 163 pairs of commonly confused words that are easy to mix up. By understanding the subtle differences between each pair, you can improve your English language skills and avoid making mistakes in your writing and speaking.1. Accept vs. Except- Accept: to receive something willingly- Except: to exclude or leave out2. Affect vs. Effect- Affect: to influence or change- Effect: a result or outcome3. Allude vs. Elude- Allude: to make a reference to something- Elude: to escape or avoid4. Appraise vs. Apprise- Appraise: to assess or evaluate- Apprise: to inform or notify5. Ascent vs. Assent- Ascent: the act of rising or climbing - Assent: to agree or approve6. Cite vs. Site- Cite: to quote or refer to as evidence - Site: a location or place7. Complement vs. Compliment- Complement: to complete or enhance - Compliment: to praise or admire8. Censor vs. Censure- Censor: to remove or restrict content - Censure: to criticize or condemn9. Confident vs. Confidant- Confident: self-assured or certain- Confidant: a trusted friend or advisor10. Device vs. Devise- Device: a tool or machine- Devise: to create or invent11. Elicit vs. Illicit- Elicit: to draw out or provoke- Illicit: illegal or unauthorized12. Farther vs. Further- Farther: a physical distance- Further: additional or more13. Insure vs. Ensure- Insure: to protect against loss or damage - Ensure: to make sure or guarantee14. Lie vs. Lay- Lie: to recline or rest- Lay: to place or set down15. Principal vs. Principle- Principal: a person in a leading position- Principle: a fundamental belief or rule 16. Than vs. Then- Than: used for comparisons- Then: a time or sequence17. Stationary vs. Stationery- Stationary: not moving or still- Stationery: writing materials18. Weather vs. Whether- Weather: the state of the atmosphere- Whether: expressing a choice or uncertainty 19. You're vs. Your- You're: contraction for "you are"- Your: possessive form of "you"20. Adopt vs. Adapt- Adopt: to legally take as one's own- Adapt: to adjust or modify21. Alter vs. Altar- Alter: to change or modify- Altar: a sacred table in a church22. Canvas vs. Canvass- Canvas: a type of fabric- Canvass: to solicit opinions or support 23. Cavalry vs. Calvary- Cavalry: troops on horseback- Calvary: a hill where Jesus was crucified 24. Continuous vs. Continual- Continuous: uninterrupted or constant - Continual: repeated regularly25. Desert vs. Dessert- Desert: a dry, arid region- Dessert: a sweet course after a meal 26. Discreet vs. Discrete- Discreet: careful or cautious- Discrete: separate or distinct27. Flaunt vs. Flout- Flaunt: to show off or display- Flout: to disregard or defy28. Historic vs. Historical- Historic: significant or important in history - Historical: related to the past29. Lend vs. Loan- Lend: to give temporarily- Loan: an amount of money borrowed 30. Loose vs. Lose- Loose: not tight or secure- Lose: to be deprived of31. Pray vs. Prey- Pray: to make a devout request- Prey: a hunted animal32. Rational vs. Rationale- Rational: logical or reasonable- Rationale: a reason for a decision or action 33. To vs. Too vs. Two- To: used for direction or purpose- Too: also or very- Two: the number 234. Adapt vs. Adept- Adapt: to adjust or modify- Adept: skilled or proficient35. Canvas vs. Canvass- Canvas: a type of fabric- Canvass: to solicit opinions or support36. Chronic vs. Acute- Chronic: ongoing or long-lasting- Acute: severe or intense37. Cure vs. Heal- Cure: to restore health or eliminate a disease - Heal: to become healthy or whole38. Device vs. Gadget- Device: a tool or machine- Gadget: a small mechanical device39. Distance vs. Space- Distance: the amount of space between two points- Space: an area without obstructions40. Elicit vs. Solicit-Elicit: to draw out or evoke-Solicit: to seek or request41. Empathy vs. Sympathy- Empathy: understanding and sharing someone's emotions- Sympathy: feelings of pity or sorrow for someone's misfortune42. Essential vs. Necessary- Essential: absolutely required- Necessary: needed or essential for a particular purpose43. Imply vs. Infer- Imply: to suggest indirectly- Infer: to deduce or conclude44. Infer vs. Imply- Infer: to deduce or conclude- Imply: to suggest indirectly45. Lend vs. Borrow- Lend: to give something temporarily- Borrow: to take something temporarily46. Moral vs. Morale- Moral: relating to principles of right and wrong- Morale: the confidence or spirit of a group47. Principle vs. Principal- Principle: a fundamental belief or rule- Principal: a person in a leading position48. Volunteer vs. Philanthropist- Volunteer: a person who offers services without pay- Philanthropist: a person who donates money or resources for a cause49. Waiting vs. Awaiting- Waiting: the act of staying in one place- Awaiting: expecting or anticipating50. Who's vs. Whose- Who's: contraction for "who is" or "who has"- Whose: possessive form of "who"51. Accept vs. Except - Accept means to receive willingly. Except means excluding something or someone.52. Aloud vs. Allowed - Aloud means to speak out loud. Allowed means to have permission.53. Allusion vs. Illusion - An allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is a false belief.54. Axle vs. Aisle - An axle is a rod on a machine. An aisle is a walkway in a building.55. Bridal vs. Bridle - Bridal relates to a wedding. Bridle is part of a horse's harness.56. Canvas vs. Canvass - Canvas is a type of material. Canvass means to seek votes.57. Capital vs. Capitol - Capital refers to a city or wealth. Capitol is a building where legislators meet.58. Complimentary vs. Complementary - Complimentary means free. Complementary means completing.59. Coarse vs. Course - Coarse means rude or rough. Course means a path or class.60. Defuse vs. Diffuse - Defuse means to make less dangerous. Diffuse means to spread or scatter.61. Dual vs. Duel - Dual means two. Duel is a fight.62. Elicit vs. Illicit - Elicit means to draw out. Illicit means illegal.63. Formally vs. Formerly - Formally means properly. Formerly means previously.64. Hear vs. Here - Hear means to listen. Here refers to a location.65. Hanged vs. Hung - Hanged is the past tense of hang for a person. Hung is used for objects.66. Pour vs. Pore - Pour means to flow. Pore means to study closely.67. Stationary vs. Stationery - Stationary means not moving. Stationery refers to paper goods.68. Sued vs. Seud - Sued means to take legal action. Seud isa Jewish holiday.69. Vain vs. Vein vs. Vane - Vain means self-absorbed. Vein refers to blood vessels or a line. Vane is a weather instrument.70. Whether vs. Weather - Whether is a choice. Weather is the atmosphere.71. A while vs. Awhile - A while refers to a period of time. Awhile is an adverb for a period of time.72. Adverse vs. Averse - Adverse means harmful. Averse means to dislike.73. Advice vs. Advise - Advice is a noun. Advise is a verb.74. Affect vs. Effect - Affect is a verb. Effect is a noun.75. All ready vs. Already - All ready means fully prepared. Already means prior to a specific time.76. Altar vs. Alter - An altar is a platform in a church. Alter means to change.77. Bare vs. Bear - Bare means naked. Bear means to withstand or carry.78. Barred vs. Bard - Barred means blocked. Bard is a poet.79. Barter vs. Barter - Barter means to trade or bargain. Barter is a document.80. Bridal vs. Bridle - Bridal refers to marriage. A bridle is part of a horse's harness.81. Brother vs. Brother - Brother refers to male siblings. Brother is a member of a religious organization.82. Capitol vs. Capital - Capitol is a government building. Capital refers to a city or wealth.83. Censor vs. Censure - Censor means to edit. Censure means to criticize.84. Chute vs. Shoot - A chute guides things down. Shoot means to fire a weapon.85. Complement vs. Complement - Compliment means to praise. Complement means to complete.86. Conscience vs. Conscious - Conscience refers to morals. Conscious means awake.87. Council vs. Counsel - A council is a group. Counsel means advice.88. Days vs. Daze - Days is the plural of day. Daze means stunned.89. Events vs. Evens - Events are things that happen. Evens are numbers divisible by two.90. Faint vs. Feint - Faint means weak. Feint is a deceptive move.91. Forth vs. Fourth - Forth means forward. Fourth is the number four in order.92. Grisly vs. Grizzly - Grisly means dreadful. Grizzly is a bear.93. Hangar vs. Hanger - A hangar is where aircraft are stored.A hanger holds clothes.94. Heir vs. Air - Heir is a successor. Air is what we breathe.95. HTML vs. HTTP - HTML is a markup language. HTTP is a protocol.96. Illness vs. Wellness - Illness is being sick. Wellness is being healthy.97. Indolent vs. Indelent - Indolent means lazy. Indelent refers to a school.98. In lieu vs. Allude - In lieu is instead. Allude means to refer to indirectly.99. Injection vs. Infection - An injection is a shot. An infection is a disease.100. Latter vs. Ladder - Latter means the second of two. A ladder is for climbing.101. Loath vs. Loathe - Loath means unwilling. Loathe means to hate.102. Make due vs. Make do - Make due is a typo. Make do means to make something work.103. Mall vs. Maul - A mall is a shopping center. A maul is a large hammer.104. Maxim vs. Maximum - A maxim is a principle. A maximum is the most possible.105. Mays vs. Maze - Mays is a type of corn. A maze is a puzzle.106. Miner vs. Minor - A miner works in a mine. A minor is under 18.107. Mix vs. Mixed - Mix to combine. Mixed is past tense.108. Naked vs. Nadir - Naked means undressed. Nadir is the lowest point.109. Palette vs. Pallet - A palette of colors. A pallet is a platform.110. Past. Vs. Passed - Past is history. Passed is past tense for pass.111. Peas vs. Peace - Peas are a vegetable. Peace is absence of conflict.112. Picket vs. Pick - A picket is a type of fence. Pick means to select.113. Pour vs. Pore - Pour to spill liquid. Pore is a small hole.114. Pray vs. Prey - Pray to speak to God. Prey is a hunted animal.115. Rain vs. Reign - Rain is water falling from the sky. Reign is to rule.116. Rap vs. Wrap - Rap is a type of music. Wrap means to cover.117. Raze vs. Raise - Raze means to destroy. Raise to lift.118. Sew vs. Sow - Sew to make or mend clothing. Sow to plant seeds.119. Shear vs. Sheer - Shear to cut. Sheer pure.120. Slack vs. Sack - Slack is loose. Sack is a bag.121. Sole vs. Soul - Sole is the bottom of foot or a type of fish. Soul is spirit or essence.122. Stanch vs. Staunch - Stanch to stop bleeding. Staunch loyal.123. Stationary vs. Stationery - Stationary is not moving. Stationery writing paper.124. Sunder vs. Sunder - Sunder to break apart. Thunder a loud noise during a storm.125. Thin vs. Tin - Thin opposite of thick. Tin a type of metal.126. Threw vs. Through - Threw past tense of throw. Through from one side to the other.127. To vs. Too - To used to mark the infinitive. Too also.128. Tread vs. Tread - Tread to crush with foot. Thread one strand of a cord.129. Vein vs. Vain - Vein blood vessels. Vain having undue pride.130. Waist vs. Waste - Waist the middle part of the body. Waste to squander.131. Wan vs. Wand - Wan pale. Wand a stick.132. Ware vs. Wear - Ware goods or merchandise. Wear to have on the body.133. Way vs. Weigh - Way manner or method of doing something. Weigh to find out how heavy.134. Wean vs. Ween - Wean to accustom a baby to food other than milk. Ween to imagine or conceive.135. Weather vs. Whether - Weather the atmosphere. Whether indicating a possible choice.136. Whist vs. Wrist - Whist card game. Wrist the joint connecting the hand with the forearm.137. Yawn vs. Yon - Yawn to open the mouth wide and take a deep breath. Yon distant in time or place.138. Yin vs. Yang - Yin the feminine passive negative principle in nature. Yang the active male principle.139. Yoke vs. Yolk - Yoke a bar joining two draft animals. Yolk the yellow part of an egg.140. Your vs. You're - Your belonging to you. You're you are.141. Affect vs. Effect - Affect as a verb means to influence. As a noun is a psychological term. Effect is a result something brings.142. Its vs. It's - Its belonging to it. It's contraction of it is.143. Stationary vs. Stationery - Stationary not changing. Stationery writing paper.144. Whose vs. Who's - A relative pronoun. A contraction.145. There vs. Their vs. They're - Location. Belonging to them.A contraction for they are.146. Cite vs. Site - To quote. Location.147. Vain vs. Vein - Without result. Blood vessels.148. Practice vs. Practise - To carry out. To carry out.149. Adapter vs. Adaptor - A device used for connecting. Same as adapter.150. Maneuver vs. Manoeuvre - Alternate spelling. Alternate spelling.151. Debut vs. Debut - Debut. Debut.152. Orient vs. Orientate - To the east. Alternate term.153. Aisle vs. Isle - Passage. Small island.154. Stationery vs. Stationary - Paper goods. Not moving.155. Breath vs. Breathe - Air you take in. To take air into the lungs.156. Capital vs. Capitol - City that is the seat of government. Government building.157. Canadian vs. Cannadian - From Canada. Typo.158. Curb vs. Kerb - Enclosure for sidewalk. Slash or line.159. Pleading vs. Plaiding - Begging. Pleated cloth.160. Cue vs. Queue - Signal. Line.161. Breach vs. Breech - To break. The rear part of a gun.162. Mail vs. Male - Correspondence. Opposite of female.163. Compliment vs. Complement - To praise. To complete.By familiarizing yourself with these commonly confused words, you can increase your knowledge of the English language and improve your communication skills. Remember to pay attention to the context in which these words are used and practice using them correctly in your writing and conversations. With time and practice, you will become more confident in recognizing and using these words accurately. Happy learning!。

张汉熙《高级英语（1）》（第3版）学习指南【词汇短语+课文精解+全文翻译+练习答案】（Lesson

张汉熙《高级英语（1）》（第3版）学习指南【词汇短语+课文精解+全文翻译+练习答案】（Lesson

张汉熙《⾼级英语（1）》（第3版）学习指南【词汇短语+课⽂精解+全⽂翻译+练习答案】（LessonLesson 5 The Libido for the Ugly⼀、词汇短语1. libido n. the psychic and emotional energy associated withinstinctual biological drives欲望2. desolation n. the state of being abandoned orforsaken; loneliness荒芜，荒废，荒凉：He found the old house in completedesolation.他发现那间旧房⼦⼗分荒凉。

3. lucrative adj. producing wealth; profitable获利的，赚钱的：a lucrative marketing strategy⼀套赢利的市场策略4. hideous adj. repulsive, especially to the sight; revoltingly ugly令⼈讨厌的，难看的，丑陋的：They're not like dogs; they're hideous brutes.它们不像狗，它们是丑陋的畜牲。

5. forlorn adj. wretched or pitiful in appearance or condition可怜的，悲惨的；凄凉的：forlorn roadside shacks凄凉的路边栅屋6. macabre adj. suggesting the horror of death and decay;gruesome恐怖的，令⼈⽑⾻悚然的：macabre tales of war and plague战争和瘟疫的恐怖景象7. computation n. the act or process of computing计算8. abominable adj. unequivocally detestable; loathsome讨厌的，令⼈憎恶的：Murder is the most abominable crime.凶杀是最可恶的犯罪。

常用逻辑关系词

1．因果关系过渡词语：（因果）…and so…; another important factor/reason…; as a consequence; as a result; as; because; because of; being that; consequently; due to; for the reason that; for the same reason; for;hence; adv.因此，所以；今后，从此for this reason; in consequence; in that…; in view of; owing to; since; so;…so that…; the reason seems obvious; there are about…; therefore; thus; obviously; evidently2．并列关系过渡词语：（并列）and; also; as well as; both…and…; either…or…; neither…nor…; not only…but also…; in the same way; too3．序列关系过渡词语：first…, second…, third…, and so forth; A…, B…, C…, and so forth; next; then; following this; at the same time; now; at this point; after; afterwards; subsequently; finally; previously; before this; simultaneously; concurrently; thus; therefore; hence; next; and then; soon4．递进关系过渡词语：（递进）accordingly; as a popular saying goes…; as far as…is concerned; at the same time; besides; even; further; furthermore; in addition; in order to…; in other words; in the first place…, in the second place…; in this wa y; meanwhile; moreover; not only…, but also…; not…but…; lastly; for one thing…, for another…5．时间关系过渡词语：afterwards; as soon as; at last; before; eventually; every; first; first of all; first and foremost; for a start; meanwhile; in the meantime; while; no w; next; not…until; later; formerly; previously; prior to; since then; since; subsequently; till; to begin with; to start with; when; then6．转折关系过渡词语：（对立）yet; but; unless; despite that; in spite of; though; although; although this may be true; even so; even though; however; sometimes; once in a while; independent of; reckless of; regardless of7．条件关系过渡词语：as long as; even if; even though; if it necessary; if not all; if possible; if so; if; lest; once; provided that; unless8．重复关系过渡词语：in brief; as I have said; as I have noted; as has been noted; as is mentioned above9．比较关系过渡词语：apart from; by the same token; compared with; in comparison with; in the same vein; like; likewise; rather than; similarly; similarly important; equally; when compared with; when i n fact…10．举例关系过渡词语：a good example would be; for example; for instance; in this case; in another case; on this occasion; in this situation; take the case of; to demonstrate; to illustrate; according to; as an illustration; as for; as regards; as to; in particular; including; namely; notably; such as; like; take…as an example; you may say…11．对比关系过渡词语：after all; as opposed to; balanced against; up against; vis a vis; where; conversely; on the one hand…on the other hand…; contrary to; conversely; unlike; different from this; however; in contrast; nevertheless; on the contrary; oppose to; whereas; while12．强调关系过渡词语：definitely; extremely; obviously; absolutely; positively; naturally; surprisingly; always; forever; perennially; eternally; emphatically; never; unquestionably; without a doubt; certainly; surely; undeniably; without reservation; believe it or not; especially; particularly; in particular; specifically; in fact; as a matter of fact; actually; in deed; moreover; not to mention…; what is more importan t; notably; that is13．总结关系过渡词语：accordingly; altogether; as a result; consequently; hence; in one word; in brief; in short; in other words; in summary; on the whole; in conclusion; overall; the conclusion can be safely drawn that…; therefore; to conclude; to sum up; summing up; as I have shown; as I have said; all in all考研写作常见单词替代公务书信尾段内容１）表示感谢：A My thanks to you for your generous assistance are beyond words.B Words fail me when I desire to express my sincere gratitude to you for your kind consideration my requirement/application/complaint.C I take the opportunity to show my heartfelt appreciation for your generous assistance you rendered me2) 期待回信：A i am looking forward to your reply.B I look forward to a favorable reply at your earliest convenience.C your prompt attention to my ……. Would be highly appreciated.私人书信写法第一段客套话+写作目的It is great to hear from you again.Nothing could have given me greater pleasure than to get news of you.You have no idea how happy I was to receive your letter.As to/with reference to /with regard to/as regards … ,引出写作目的第三段问候语+期待回信I look forward to hearing from you at your earlist concenience.Please bring my best wished to your family.I wish you good health and lots of happiness.I wish every success for your career/study in the future.私人书信写法第一段客套话+写作目的It is great to hear from you again.Nothing could have given me greater pleasure than to get news of you. You have no idea how happy I was to receive your letter.As to/with reference to /with regard to/as regards … ,引出写作目的第三段问候语+期待回信I look forward to hearing from you at your earlist concenience.Please bring my best wished to your family.I wish you good health and lots of happiness.I wish every success for your career/study in the future.1. important=crucial,critical significant essential vital2. common=universal, ubiquitous(if something is ubiquitous, it seems to beeverywhere)4. difficult=formidable5. understand=discern6. all the time--continually, continuously, constantly, perpetually7. as a result—consequently、8. before--prior to9. begin—commence10. better—superior11. big--major, significant, substantial12. have--be equipped with, possess13. if--in the event of, in case(of)14. in the end--eventually, finally, ultimately15. know--be aware of, be conversant with, familiar with16. less and less--decreasing(ly)17. more and more –increasingly18. money--funding, funds, resources19. more and more—increasingly20. need--demand, require21. now--at present, at this juncture, at this moment, currently22. often--frequent(ly)23. quick(ly)--rapid(ly),prompt(ly)24. right--appropriate, correct, proper reasonable25. sharp--abrupt, drastic dramatic26. show--demonstrate, manifest reveal27. small--minor/insignificant (problems, differences etc),marginal(不重要的，微小的)28. too many--an excessive number of, a disproportionate number of29. too much--excessive(ly)30. about : regarding concerning involving relating to, with respect to, with reference to31. Famous: well-known famed, noted, renowned, enjoy a nation-wide/worldwide reputation/fame be widely acknowledged/known32. poor = needy = impoverished = poverty-stricken,characters, folks替换(people ,persons)2: positive, favorable, rosy (美好的)，promising(有希望的)，perfect, pleasurable , excellent, outstanding, superior替换good3:dreadful, unfavorable, poor, adverse, ill (有害的)替换bad如果bad做表语，可以有be less impressive替换army of college students indulge themselves in playing games, enjoying romance with girls/boys or killing time passively in their dorms. When it approaches to graduation ,as a result, they find their academic records are less impressive.4.(an army of, an ocean of, a sea of, a multitude of ,a host of, many, if not most)替换many.注：用many, if not most一定要小心，many后一定要有词。

Windows操作系统翻译词汇

baud rate /波特率
BDC, backup domain controller /备份域控制器
Berkeley Internet Name Domain, BIND / Berkeley Internet 名称域
BGP, Border Gateway Protocol /边界网关协议
backbone router /主干路由器
background program / 后台程序
backup domain controller, BDC / 备份域控制器
backup media pool / 备份媒体池
backup operator /备份操作员
backup set /备份集
active / 活动
active content / 活动内容
Active Directory
Active Directory data model / Active Directory数据模型
Active Directory Service Interfaces / Active Directory 服务接口
Windows操作系统翻译词汇(一)
A (address) resource record / A（地址）资源记录
AAL, ATM adaptation layer / ATM 适配层
ABR, area border router / 区域边界路由器
ABR, available bit rate /可用的传输率
C
CA, certification authority /证书颁发机构
cache /高速缓存
cache file / 缓存文件

汉英词语比较与翻译


汉译英中的词义选择
• 1. 根据语境选择合适词义
• “Each word is a new word in a new context.” (Firth, British linguist) • • • • • • • 例1：“好” ①. 好的开始是成功的一半。 Well begun, half done. ②. 邻居对我都很好。 My neighbors are all very kind to me. ③. 这个问题好解决。 The problem can be easily solved.
• • • •
④. 计划定好了。 The plan has been drawn up. ⑤. 你留个电话，有事好联系你。 Give me your telephone number so that I can contact you when necessary. • ⑥. 今天下午好几个人过来找你。 • Quite a few people came in looking for you this afternoon. • • • • • • • 例2：“轻巧” ①. 这摩托车很轻巧。 The motorcycle is light and handy. ②. 她动作很轻巧。 She is nimble in movement. ③. 你说得倒轻巧，你也给捧个奖杯回来。 You talk as if it were just a walkover. Why not try yourself and see if you can bring back a trophy, too?
• (3) 他们的拉车姿势，讲价时的那随机应变，走路时的抄 近绕远，都足以使他们想起过去的光荣，而且用鼻翅扇 着那些后起之辈。” • (老舍《骆驼祥子》) • Their pulling posture, their adroit bargaining, their shrewd use of short-cuts or circuitous routes are enough to make them relive past glories and turn up their noses at the younger generation. • “用鼻翅扇着”：这个动作（指称意义）表示对某人的轻视 （蕴涵意义） • “turn one's nose up at sth.”意为“treat sth. with contempt”形 象与意义与原文完全相符。

六级核心词汇

一.名词hospitality n.友好好客pastime n. 消遣，娱乐revenue n. 税收，岁入routine 常规，惯例，例行公事 scorn n. 轻蔑，鄙视shortage n. 短缺，不足smash n. 打碎，粉碎stability n.稳定(性)，稳固stack n. 堆，一堆standard n. 标准surface n. 表面temperament n. 气质，性格threshold n. 开端，入口tolerance n. 容忍，忍耐力transaction 处理，办理，交易 trend n. 倾向，趋势transition n. 过渡，转变variation n. 变化，变动warehouse n. 货仓way n. 方式access n. 入口，通路，接触accommodation n. 住宿，膳宿 acknowledgement承认感谢致谢 pattern n. 模式penalty n. 制裁，惩罚pension n. 养老金personality n. 人格，人性pledge n. 保证，誓言position n. 位置，职位，职务 predecessor 前任，原有的事物 premise n. 前提，假设prescription n. 处方preservation n. 保护，防护prestige n. 威信，威望priority n. 优先(权)prestige n. 威信，威望prospect n. 前景，可能性rate n. 速度ration n. 比率 reflection n. 反映，表现recession n. (经济)衰退不景气；撤退，退出 reputation n. 名声，声望reservation n. 贮存，贮藏,预订illusion n. 错觉，假象ingredient n. 成分insight n. 理解，洞察力inspection n. 检查，视察instinct n. 本能，直觉integrity n. 正直，诚实intuition n. 直觉lease n. 租约，契约legislation n. 立法，法律limitation n. 局限性缺点loyalty n. 忠诚，忠心luxury n. 奢侈，豪华manifestation n. 表现(形式)mechanism n. 机械装置minority n. 少数misfortune n. 不幸，灾难morality n. 道德，美德notion n. 概念，观念，理解obligation (法律上或道义上)责任occasion n. 场合opponent n. 敌人，对手ornament n. 装饰，装饰品admiration n. 欣赏advocate n. 提倡者，拥护者allowance n. 津贴ambition n. 野心，雄心analogy n. 相似，模拟，类比anticipation n. 预期，期望appreciation n. 感谢，感激array n. 陈列，一系列assurance n. 保证blame n. 责任blunder n. 错误，大错budget n. 预算capability n. 能力，才能cash n. 现金circulation n. (书报等的)发行量commitment n. 承诺，许诺compensation n. 补偿，赔偿consideration n. 考虑distinction n. 区分辨别emergency n. 紧急情况encouragement n. 鼓励essence n. 本质estimate n. 估计expenditure n. 开支extinction n .灭绝fashion n. 方式，样子flaw n. 裂纹，瑕疵fortune n. 财产，大笔的钱fraction n. 小部分，一点fuse n. 保险丝guarantee n. 保修单guilt n. 犯罪harmony 与…协调一致，和谐二．形容词abnormal α.不正常的absurd α.荒缪的abundant α.丰富的acute α.敏锐的锋利的aggressive α.侵略的好斗的ambiguous α.模棱两可模糊的ambitious α.有雄心有抱负的appropriate α.合适的恰当的authentic α.可靠的可信的average α.一般的普通的barren α.贫瘠的不毛的bound α.一定的chronic α.慢性的commentary α实况报道compact a. 紧凑的小巧的competitive a.竞争性的，具有竞争力的compulsory a.强迫的，强制的，义务的confidential a. 机紧的秘密的conservative a. 保守的，传统的consistent a. 和……一致conspicuous a. 显而易见的引人注目的crucial a. 关键的current a. 当前的decent a. 体面像样的还不错的delicate a. 精细的，微妙的精心处理的destructive a. 毁灭的economic a. 经济的elegant a. 优雅的优美的精致的embarrassing a. 令人尴尬的energetic a. 精力充沛的equivalent a. 相等的eternal a. 永恒的，无休止的exclusive a. 独有的，排他的extinct a. 灭绝的fake a. 假的，冒充的fatal a. 致命的，毁灭性的feasible a. 可行的feeble a. 脆弱的，虚弱的gloomy a. 暗淡的greasy a. 油腻的identical a. 相同的，一样的imaginative a. 富有想象力的爱想象的inaccessible a.达不到的，难以接近inadequate 不充分的不适当的incredible a. 难以置信的indifference a. 不关心的冷漠的indignant a. 生气的，愤怒的infectious a. 传染的，传染性的inferior a. 较次的，较劣的inferior a. 地位较低的，较差的inherent a. 固有的，生来的inspirational a. 灵感的intent a. 专心的，专注的intricate a. 复杂精细的Intrinsic a. 固有本质的内在的irreplaceable a. 不能替换的不能代替的literal a.文字的字面的逐字逐句massive a. 大规模的，大量的merciful a. 仁慈的，宽大的mobile a. 活动的，流动的naive a.言行自然而天真质朴的negligible a.可忽略微不足道的notorious a.臭名昭著声名狼藉obedient a.服从的顺从的obscure a. 模糊不清的optimistic a. 乐观的original a. 原先的，最早的pathetic a. 悲哀的，悲惨的persistent a. 坚持不懈的potential a. 可能的，潜在的prevalent a. 普遍的，流行的primitive a. 原始的，早期的proficient a. 熟练的，精通的profound a. 深刻的，深远的prominent a. 突出的，杰出的prompt a. 即刻的，迅速的raw a. 自然状态的，未加工的relevant a. 与……有关的respectable a. 可尊敬的rewarding a. 值得的rough a. 粗略的，不精确的rude a. 粗鲁的，不礼貌的sensitive a. 敏感的sheer a. 完全的，十足的shrewd a. 精明的stationary a. 固定的subordinate a. 次要的，从属的subtle a. 微妙的精巧的，细微的superficial a. 肤浅的suspicious a. 对……怀疑tedious a. 冗长的，乏味的trivial a. 琐碎的，不重要的turbulent a. 动荡的，混乱的underlying a. 潜在的versatile a. 多才多艺的vivid a. 生动的，栩栩如生的void a. 无效的vulnerable a. 易受伤的worth a. 值得三．动词abandon v. 抛弃，放弃acknowledge 对…表示谢忱，报偿acquaint v. 熟悉，认识acquire(靠己能力努力行为)获得afford v. 付得起allege v. 断言，宣称alternate v. 交替，轮流anticipate v. 预期applaud v. 赞扬，称赞ascend v. 上升，攀登ascribe v. 归因于，归功于assemble v. 集合，聚集assign 分派，指派(职务，任务)attribute v. 归因于base v. 建立在……的基础上bewilder v. 迷惑，弄糊涂breed v. 培育，养育cling v. 坚守，抱紧coincide v. 相同，相一致collaborate v. 合著，合作collide v. 互撞，碰撞commence v. 开始compensate v. 补偿，赔偿complement 与……结合，补充comply v. 遵守conceive v. 想出，设想concern v. 涉及condense v. 压缩，浓缩conflict v. 冲突，战争conform v. 符合，遵守，适应confront v. 面对，面临conserve v. 保护，保存consolidate v. 巩固convey v. 表达，传达crash v. (飞机)坠毁cruise v. 航行，漫游dazzle v. 使眩目，耀眼deceive v. 欺骗，哄骗decline v. 下降，减少dedicate v. 奉献，献身，致力于defend v. 为……辩护defy v. 违抗，藐视deny v. 否认deprive v. 剥夺derive v. 得来，得到descend v. 下落descend v. 下来，下去deserve v. 值得deviate v. (使)背离，(使)偏离disguise v. 假扮，伪装dominate v. 统治，占据drain v. 渐渐耗尽duplicate v. 复制，重复eliminate v. 消除endure v. 忍受，忍耐enhance v. 提高，增加enroll 使成为……的成员，注册evoke v. 引起，唤起immerse v. 使浸没impose v. 征税，把…强加于induce v. 劝诱，诱导indulge v. 纵容，放任intend v. 意欲interpret v. 解释，说明jeopardize v. 危及，损坏linger逗留徘徊留恋迟缓，拖延locate v. 位于magnify v. 放大mean v. 打算，意欲mingle v. 混合起来，相混合minimize v. 对…做最低估计monitor v. 检测，监测neglect v. 忽视occupy v. 占领，使忙碌oppress v. 压迫originate v. 首创，起源overlap v. 部分重叠overwhelm 压倒，浸没，使不安parade v. *permeate v. 渗入，渗透prescribe指示规定，处方开药preside v. 主持prolong v. 延长，拖延promise v. 许诺propel v. 推进，推动protest v. 抗议，反对provoke v. 引起，激起radiate v. 辐射状发出，从中心向各方伸展出reconcile v. 使和好，调解refresh v. 提神，使清新(使)精神振作, (使)精力恢复,refute 证明…不对(错误的)驳诉remain v. 停留，依旧是repel v. 抗御，抵拒rescue v. 营救，救援resign v. 辞职resort v. 求助，凭借，诉诸resume v. 重新开始，继续revenge v. 报仇，报复scan v. 细察，审视scrape v. 剥下，刮下scratch v. 抓，搔shrink v. 收缩，减少standardize v. 使标准化steer v. 驾驶，引导strengthen v. 加强，使更强壮stretch v. 伸展subscribe v. 预订，订阅suck v. (用嘴)吸，吞噬，卷入suppress v. 镇压sustain v. 承受tackle v. 解决，处理tempt v. 引诱，劝诱terminate v. 终止，结束transmit v. 传播，传递verify v. 证实，证明view v. 视为，看做wreck v. (船只)失事四．副词deliberately ad. 故意，有意地deliberately ad.深思熟虑审慎地exclusively ad. 仅仅地explicitly ad. 明确地forcibly ad. 强行地，有力地formerly ad. 原先地以前，从前increasingly 日益越来越多地inevitably 必然地不可避免地intentionally 有意地，故意地optimistically ad. 乐观地outwardly表面上，外表上地presumably大概可能，据推测simultaneously 同时发生地somewhat 颇为，稍稍，有几分spontaneously自发地自然产生startlingly ad. 惊人地triumphantly(欣喜)胜利成功地unexpectedly ad. 意外地virtually ad. 事实上，实际地五。

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Edited by: Arthur Tatnall, Victoria University, AustraliaFormerly Idea Group ReferenceThe Premier Reference Source for Information Science and Technology ResearchENCYCLOPEDIA OFPORTAL TECHNOLOGIES ANDAPPLICATIONSdvances in information technology and communications have assisted organizations inutilizing portal technologies in support of effective and timely information for all purposes.The Encyclopedia of Portal Technologies and Applications offers all-inclusive, in-depth coverage of the nature, characteristics, advantages, limitations, design, and evolu-tion of Web portals. Other topics in this two-volume encyclopedia include semantic por-tals, philosophical portal issues, and personal portals. This authoritative reference publica-tion provides coverage of all aspects of portal technologies and applications for organiza-tions worldwide.The Encyclopedia of Portal Technologies and Applications contains more than 200articles from 323 of the worlds leading experts and covers technical and organizationalcharacteristics of portal applications in a wide range of settings from business, education-al, scientific, and government entities. It also includes more than 1,440 key terms anddefinitions related to portal technologies and a list of more than 3,500 comprehensive ref-erences. Valuable to researchers in a variety of disciplines, this encyclopedia will addimmense value to any reference collection.K E Y F E AT U R E Sn Authoritative contributions by 323 of the world’s leading expertsn A single source for comprehensive information on an ever expanding fieldn In-depth definitions for more than 1,440 key termsn Organized by topic and indexed, making it a convenient method of reference for allIT/IS scholars and professionalsn More than 3,500 comprehensive references to existing literature and research onportal technologiesn Cross-referencing of key terms, figures, and information pertinent to portal technologiesn Free online access for libraries for life of the edition with the purchase of a print copyENCYCLOPEDIA OFPORTAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONSEDITED BY:Arthur TatnallVictoria University, AustraliaAISBN: 978-1-59140-989-2; US $565.00 h/cPre-pub price**: US $480.00Online Access Only*: US $452.001,308 pp; © 2007; Available Now**Pre-publication price is good through August 1, 2007.*Online Access is for institutions and is good for life of the edition.Information Science Reference (formerly Idea GroupReference) publishes leading, authoritative referencepublications on all aspects of emerging topics ininformation science, technology, and management.These Encyclopedias, Handbooks of Research, andPremier Reference Source titles are unmatched in thedepth and breadth of coverage they provide of highlyspecialized topics related to what people do withtechnology and how technology affects people across avariety of organizational and social settings. To learn moreabout this and other ISR titles, visit .EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD:Stephen Burgess, Victoria University, AustraliaBill Davey, RMIT University, AustraliaMohini Singh, RMIT University, AustraliaABOUT THE EDITORArthur Tatnall (BSc, BEd, DipCompSc, MA, PhD, FACS) is an associ-ate professor in the Graduate School of Business at Victoria Universityin Melbourne, Australia. He holds bachelor’s degrees in science andeducation, a graduate diploma in computer science, and a researchMaster of Arts in which he explored the origins of business computingeducation in Australian universities. His PhD involved a study in cur-riculum innovation in which he investigated the manner in whichVisual Basic entered the curriculum of an Australian university. He is amember of three IFIP working groups (WG3.4, WG3.7, and WK9.7)and is also a fellow of the Australian Computer Society. His researchinterests include technological innovation, information technology ineducational management, information systems curriculum, projectmanagement, electronic commerce, and Web portals. He has writtenseveral books relating to information systems and has publishednumerous book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers.TOPICS COVERED:n Analyzing competition for aWeb portaln Benefits and limitationsof portalsn Challenges and pitfalls inportal informationmanagementn Comparing portals andWeb pagesn Management issues inportlet developmentn Enterprise portals and Webservices integrationn Large-scale integratedacademic portalsn Portals for knowledgemanagementn Mobile portal technologiesand business modelsn Evaluation of Web portalsn Factors affecting portal designn Privacy preserving dataportalsn Portal quality issuesn Web portal as a collaborativetooln Role of ontologies inportal designn Portal economics andbusiness modelsn SMEs and portals2-VOLUME SET Formerly Idea Group ReferenceThe Premier Reference Sourcefor Information Science andTechnology ResearchFree access to the online version for life of the editionwhen your library pur chases a print cop y.*n IP authenticatedn Unlimited usersn Full-text access to the articles as they appear in theprint editionn Thousands of references to additional research worksn Lists of key concepts, terms, and definitionsn Searchable textn Each article includes an abstract and completecitation information*Online Access is for libraries and is good for the life of the edition.Academic Management Portal Academic Student Centered Portal Accessible Personalized Portals Accessing Administrative Environmental InformationAccommodating End-Users’ Online Activities with a Campus PortalAdoption of Portals Using Activity Theory African Web PortalsAnalyzing Competition for a Web Portal Assessing Weblogs as Education Portals Australian General Practitioners’ Use of Health InformationBeijing Olympics (2008) Advertainment Portal Benefits and Limitations of Portals Bioinformatics Web PortalsBiotechnology Portals in MedicineBIZEWEST Portal Bluegem PortalBusiness Challenges of Online Banking Portals Business Module DifferentiationCase Study of an Integrated University Portal Challenges and Pitfalls in Portal Information ManagementChanging the Interface to High School Education Coaching Portal for IT Project Management Collaborative Enterprise PortalsCollaborative Real-Time Information Services via PortalsCommercial and Open-Source Web Portal SolutionsCommercialization of Web Portals Community Geographic Domain Names Comparing Portals and Web PagesComprehensive Methodology for Campus Portal DevelopmentConstructing and Deploying Campus Portals in Higher EducationContent of Horizontal PortalsContent-Incentive-Usability Framework for Corporate Portal DesignCountermeasures for Protecting Legally Sensitive Web-Powered Databases and Web Portals Cross-Cultural Dimensions of National Web Portals Declarative Approach for Designing Web Portals Design of a Proposed Nursing Knowledge Portal Designing a Portal and Community with the Community GeneratorDesigning Portals for Knowledge Work Developing a Knowledge Management Portal Developing Online Learning Portals in Low Bandwidth Communities Developing Semantic PortalsDevelopment Strategy of Sina and SohuDigital Interactive Channel Systems and Portals Digital Rights Protection Management of Web Portals ContentDynamic Taxonomies and Intelligent User-Centric Access to Complex Portal Information E-Business Standards Setting E-Commerce PortalsEconomical Aspects when Deploying Enterprise PortalsEducation Portal StrategyEffects of Enterprise Portals on Knowledge Management ProjectsEffort Estimation for the Development of Web PortalsE-Government Portals PersonalizationE-Management Portal and Organisational Behaviour Empirical Study of a Corporate E-Learning PortalEmployee Self-Service Portals Empowerment and Health Portals Enabling Technology and Functionalities of Shopping PortalsEncouraging Global IS Collaborative Networks with a Knowledge PortalEnhancing Electronic Governance in Singapore with Government Portals Enhancing Portal DesignEnterprise Portals and Web Services Integration E-Portals in Dubai and the United Arab Emirates European Quality Observatory Evaluation of Web PortalsE-Value Creation in a Government Web Portal in South Africa Evolution of PortalsEvolution of the Milwaukee Public Schools Portal Factors Affecting Portal DesignFrom the Intranet to the Enterprise Knowledge Portal Future of Portals in E-ScienceGeneric Model of an Enterprise Portal Guided Product Selection and Comparison of E-Commerce PortalsHealth PortalsHelping Chinese Enterprises be Successful in Global MarketsHosting Portals on an E-Marketplace How Corporate Portals Support Innovation How to Promote Community PortalsIdentifying Knowledge Assets in an Organisation IFIP PortalImpacts and Revenues Models from Brazilian Portals Implementing Portals in Higher Education Industry Portals for Small Businesses Information VisualizationIntelligent-Agent-Supported Enterprise Information PortalInteroperability Integrating E-Government Portals Investing in Portals for Benefits and Gains Java Portals and Java Portlet Specification and API KM Cyberary is a Gateway to Knowledge Resources Knowledge ServersLarge-Scale ASP Replication of Database-Driven PortalsLarge-Scale Integrated Academic Portals Learning Geography with the G-Portal Digital LibraryLibrary Portals and an Evolving Information Legacy Local Community Web Portal and Small BusinessesManagement Issues in Portlet Development Metadata for a Web PortalMobile Portal for AcademeMobile Portal Technologies and Business Models Mobile PortalsMobile Portals as InnovationsMobile Portals for Knowledge Management Modelling Public Administration Portals Models and Technologies for Adaptive Web Portals Modifying the News Industry with the Internet Mouse Tracking to Assess Enterprise Portal Efficiency MP3 Player as a Mobile Digital Music Collection PortalNavigability Design and MeasurementNetwork-Centric Healthcare and the Entry Point into the NetworkOntologies in Portal DesignOntology, Web Services, and Semantic Web PortalsOpen Access to Scholarly Publications andWeb PortalsOpen Streaming Content Distribution NetworkOpen-Source Online Knowledge Portalsfor EducationParadox of Social PortalsPersonal PortalsPersonalizing Web PortalsPortal as Information Broker Portal Development ToolsPortal Economics and Business Models Portal Features of Major Digital Libraries Portal for Artificial Intelligence in EducationPortal Models and Applications in Commodity-Based EnvironmentsPortal Quality IssuesPortal Strategy for Managing OrganizationalKnowledgePortal Technologies and Executive Information Systems ImplementationPortals and Interoperability in Local Government Portals for Business IntelligencePortals for Development and Use of Guidelines and StandardsPortals for Integrated Competence Management Portals for Knowledge Management Portals for Workflow and Business Process ManagementPortals in Application IntegrationPortals in Consumer Search Behaviour and ProductCustomisation Portals in the Public SectorPortals of the MindPortals Supporting a Mobile Learning EnvironmentPower and Politics in University PortalImplementationPresentation Oriented Web ServicesPrivacy Preserving Data PortalsProject Management Web Portals and AccreditationProviding Rating Services and Subscriptions withWeb Portal InfrastructuresProvision of Product Support through Enterprise Portals Security Threats in Web-Powered Databases and Web PortalsSemantic Community PortalsSemantic Integration and Interoperability among PortalsSemantic Portals Semantic Web Implications for Web PortalsSemantic Web PortalsSemantic Web, RDF, and PortalsE N T R I ESFormerly Idea Group ReferenceE N T R I E SService Quality in E-Government PortalsSetting Up and Developing an Educational Portal Sharing and Managing Knowledge through Portals SHRM Portals in the 21st Century Organisation SMEs and PortalsSoftware Agent Augmented PortalsSpatio-Temporal Portals for Continuously Changing Network NodesSQL Injection Attack as a Threat of Web Portals Standardisation for Electronic MarketsState Portals as a Framework to StandardizeE-Government ServicesStrategic Planning PortalsStudy of a Wine Industry Internet Portal Success Factors for the Implementation of Enterprise PortalsSupplier Portal in the Automotive Industry Supply Chain Management and Portal Technology Supporting Pedagogical Strategies for Distance Learning Courses Teaching Collaborative Web Portals Technologyat a UniversityTopic-Oriented PortalsTwo-Tier Approach to Elicit Enterprise PortalUser RequirementsUbiquitous Access to Information through Portable,Mobile, and Handheld DevicesUbiquitous PortalUniversity Portals as Gateway or Wall, Narrative,or DatabaseUsability Engineering and Research onShopping PortalsUsability, Sociability, and Accessibility ofWeb PortalsUser Acceptance Affecting the Adoption ofEnterprise PortalsUser Modeling in Information PortalsUsing Intelligent Learning Objects in AdaptiveEducational PortalsVertical Web Portals in Primary EducationVisit Duration and Consumer Preference towardWeb Portal ContentVisual Metaphors for Designing Portals andSite MapsWatermarking Integration into PortalsWeb Directories for Information Organization onWeb PortalsWeb Museums and the French PopulationWeb Museums as the Last EndeavorWeb Portal Application Development TechnologiesWeb Portal as a Collaborative ToolWeb Portal for Genomic and EpidemiologicMedical DataWeb Portal for the Remote Monitoring of NuclearPower PlantsWeb Portals as an Exemplar for Tourist DestinationsWeb Portals Designed for Educational PurposesWeb Services for Learning in Educational SettingsWeb Site Portals in Local AuthoritiesWeb Usability for Not-for-Profit OrganisationsWeb Casts as Informal E-Learning for ScientificCentersWhat is a Portal?Widgets as Personalised Mini-PortalsWireless Local Communities in Mobile CommerceWSRP Relationship to UDDIWSRP Specification and AlignmentFormerly Idea Group ReferenceC O N T R I B U TO R SBrooke AbrahamsVictoria University, AustraliaEsharenana E. AdomiDelta State University, NigeriaKhalil AhmedNetworked Planet Limited, UKEsma AïmeurUniversity of Montreal, CanadaAntti AinamoStanford University, Collaboratory for Research on Global Projects, USA and Helsinki School of Economics, FinlandAndrei AkhrimenkovInstitute of Programme Systems, RussiaGhazi AlkhatibApplied Science University, JordanBent B. AndresenDanish University of Education, DenmarkM. AntonaInstitute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology –Hellas (FORTH), GreeceMarta Araújo Tavares Ferreira Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), BrazilUdo AverwegeThekwini Municipality, South Africa and University of Kwazulu-Natal, South AfricaAchraf AyadiInstitut National desTélécommunications, FranceRicardo Azambuja Silveira Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, BrazilVeronika Bachmann Ministerium für Landwirtschaft und Umwelt des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany Kallol BagchiUniversity of Texas at El Paso, USAAkhilesh BajajThe University of Tulsa, USAJason D. BakerRegent University, USAK. BalafaInstitute of Computer Science,Foundation for Research andTechnology – Hellas (FORTH),GreeceFernando José Barbin LaurindoUniversity of São Paulo, BrazilRodrigo Baroni de CarvalhoFUMEC University, Brazil andBank of Development of MinasGerais (BDMG), BrazilCarol Ann Barraclough (Pty) Ltd, South AfricaAndrew BasdenUniversity of Salford, UKChoton BasuUniversity of Wisconsin,Whitewater, USAGiovanna BattistiniUniversità Politecnica delleMarche, ItalyAlexander BauNetGiro Systems A.B., USASamantha BaxMurdoch University, AustraliaAlessandra BecciUniversità Politecnica delleMarche, ItalyAndreas BecksFraunhofer FIT, GermanyDavid BeerUniversity of York, UKMartin BeerSheffield Hallam University, UKPaolo BellavistaUniversità di Bologna, ItalyStefan BergerDetecon International GmbH,GermanyGiuseppe BerioUniversità di Torino, ItalyRoxane BernierUniversité de Montréal, CanadaZhu BingBeijing Jiaotong University, ChinaScott BingleyVictoria University, AustraliaG. BhojarajuICICI OneSource, IndiaEttore BolisaniUniversity of Padova, ItalyAndrea BosinUniversità degli Studi di Cagliari,ItalyFatma BouazizFaculté des Sciences Economiques etde Gestion de Sfax, TunisieJohn G. BreslinDigital Enterprise Research Institute,National University of Ireland,Galway, IrelandSarah BuckYBP Library Services, USAStephen BurgessVictoria University, AustraliaYoosuf CaderZayed University, UAECoral CaleroUniversity of Castilla – La Mancha,SpainMario CannataroUniversità “Magna Græcia” diCatanzaro, ItalyWei DaiVictoria University, AustraliaPeter DalmarisFutureshock Research, AustraliaBill DaveyRMIT University, AustraliaRay DawsonLoughborough University, UKAntonio de AmescuaCarlos III Technical University ofMadrid, SpainAlberto de Medeiros Jr.University of São Paulo, Brazil andFaculdade Taboão da Serra, BrazilLoredana De GiovanniUniversità Politecnica delleMarche, ItalyNicoletta DessìUniversità degli Studi di Cagliari,ItalySergio di MartinoUniversità di Salerno, ItalyTharam S. DillonUniversity of Technology, Sydney,AustraliaLucy Di PaolaMt. St. Mary College, USABrian DobingUniversity of Lethbridge, CanadaJulián Dorado de la CalleUniversity of Coruña, SpainC. DoulgerakiInstitute of Computer Science,Foundation for Research andTechnology – Hellas (FORTH),GreeceRenate EbelLandesanstalt für Umwelt,Messungen und NaturschutzBaden-Württemberg, GermanySanxing CaoCommunication University ofChina, ChinaDaniel CarboneVictoria University, AustraliaAngélica CaroUniversidad del Bio Bio, ChilePietro CeroneVictoria University, AustraliaPaul ChalekianUniversity of Nevada, USATom S. ChanSouthern NH University, USAElizabeth ChangCurtin University of Technology,AustraliaKalyani ChatterjeaNanyang Technological University,SingaporeFernando ChavesFraunhofer IITB, GermanyYu ChenBeijing Jiaotong University, ChinaChee Chern LimUniversity of Newcastle, AustraliaRod CiderMadonna University, USABrian CorbittRMIT University, AustraliaGennaro CostagliolaUniversità di Salerno, ItalyConstantina CostopoulouInformatics Laboratory, AgriculturalUniversity of Athens, GreeceRon CraigWilfrid Laurier University, CanadaPaul CrowtherSheffield Hallam University, UKPurchase the print copy of the Encyclopedia Portal Technologies and Applications and receive the online access version for free!* When your library purchases the print copy of any information science reference imprint title, you will receive free online access for the life of the edition.n IP authenticatedn Unlimited usersn Full-text access to the articles as they appear in the print editionn Thousands of references to additional research worksn Lists of key concepts, terms, and definitionsn Searchable textn Each article includes an abstract and complete citation information *Online Access is for libraries and is good for life of the edition.Norbert Fröschle Fraunhofer-Institute, GermanyXin FuThe University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USATharitpong Fuangvut Dhurakij Pundit University, ThailandVittorio FuccellaUniversità di Salerno, ItalyHeather FulfordAberdeen Business School, UKConnie L. Fulmer University of Colorado, USA Benjamin C. M. FungSimon Fraser University, CanadaBoris GalitskyUniversity of London, UKLorenzo GallucciExeura S.r.L, ItalyRuben GamboaUniversity of Wyoming, USAYuan GaoRamapo College of New Jersey, USAJavier García GuzmánCarlos III Technical University of Madrid, SpainWilliam GardnerUniversity of Technology, Sydney, AustraliaLuca GarlaschelliUniversità di Bologna, ItalyGreg GebhartLowanna College, AustraliaWerner Geiger Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Institut für Angewandte Informatik, Germany Martina GerstThe University of Edinburgh,ScotlandSteven GordonBabson College, USAJuanQiong GouBeijing Jiaotong University, ChinaGirish GowdaNanyang Technological University,SingaporeD. GrammenosInstitute of Computer Science,Foundation for Research andTechnology – Hellas (FORTH),GreeceCarmine GravinoUniversità di Salerno, ItalyMaria Grazia FuginiPolitecnico di Milano, ItalyThomas HädrichMartin-Luther-University of Halle-Wittenberg, GermanyMeliha HandzicSarajevo School of Science andTechnology, Sarajevo, Bosnia, andHerzegovinaHenrik HankeUniversity of Duisburg-Essen,GermanyMounira HarzallahLaboratoire d’informatique deNantes, FranceHelen HasanUniversity of Wollongong, AustraliaKim HassallMelbourne University, AustraliaJouni HautalaTurku Polytechnic, FinlandMan Hing YuUniversity of Newcastle, AustraliaJoon Ho HurIBM Business Consulting Services,AustraliaDion Hoe-Lian GohNanyang Technological University,SingaporeIlona E. HollandHarvard University, USAKaryn HolmesLouisiana State Unjversity, USAChew Hung ChangNanyang Technological University,SingaporeM. Gordon HunterUniversity of Lethbridge, CanadaWalter HürsterT-Systems, GermanyKai JakobsAachen University, GermanyThomas W. JacksonLoughborough University, UKSajjad M. JasimuddinUniversity of Wales – Aberystwyth,UKJesse S. JinUniversity of Newcastle, UKLuiz Antonio JoiaGetulio Vargas Foundation and Riode Janeiro State University, BrazilKiku JonesThe University of Tulsa, USAPankaj KamthanConcordia University, CanadaMauri KantolaTurku Polytechnic, FinlandMichel EboueyaUniversity of La Rochelle, FranceMats EdeniusStockholm School of Economics, SwedenUlf-Daniel Ehlers University of Duisburg-Essen/European Foundation for Quality in E-Learning, GermanyGeoff ErwinCape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT), South AfricaTheodoros Evdoridis University of the Aegean, GreeceP. FafaliNational Technical University of Athens, GreeceCarla FalsettiUniversità Politecnica delle Marche, ItalyXiuzhen FengBeijing University of Technology, ChinaFilomena FerrucciUniversità di Salerno, ItalyAndrew FineganCharles Darwin University, AustraliaPetra FisserUniversity of Twente, The Netherlands Pierfrancesco Foglia Università di Pisa, ItalyGiancarlo FortinoDEIS – Università della Calabria, ItalyPetra FrisserUniversity of Twente, The Netherlands Juha KettunenTurku Polytechnic, FinlandA. KonstantasInformatics Laboratory, Agricultural University of Athens, GreeceAh Lian KorLeeds Metropolitan University, UK Brit KötherMinisterium für Landwirtschaft und Umwelt des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt, GermanyKonstantinos KotisUniversity of the Aegean, Greece M. KoukouliInformatics Laboratory, Agricultural University of Athens, GreeceN. KourbelisNational Technical University of Athens, GreeceHelmut KrcmarTechnische Universität München, GermanyJohn LampDeakin University, Australia Fredric LandqvistViktoria Institute, Sweden Giorgos LaskaridisUniversity of Athens, Greece Adela LauThe Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong KongRobert LauriniINSA de Lyon, FranceHans LehmannVictoria University of Wellington, New ZealandLori N. K. LeonardThe University of Tulsa, USAFormerly Idea Group Reference C O N T R I B U TO R S Mark Levene University of London, UKHui Liang ChanNanyang Technological University,SingaporeDiego LiberatiIEIIT CNR c/o Politecnico diMilano, ItalyEe-Peng LimNanyang Technological University,SingaporeChad LinCurtin University of Technology,AustraliaKoong H.-C. LinTainan National University of theArts, TaiwanMary LindNorth Carolina Agriculture andTechnology State University, USABeverley Lloyd-WalkerVictoria University, AustraliaHua LuoFairleigh Dickinson University, USATingTing MaBeijing Jiaotong University, ChinaZakaria MaamarZayed University, UAEGeorge D. MagoulasUniversity of London, UKRonald MaierMartin-Luther-University of Halle-Wittenberg, GermanyNikos ManouselisInformatics Laboratory, AgriculturalUniversity of Athens, GreeceTayyab MaqsoodRMIT University, AustraliaG. MargetisInstitute of Computer Science,Foundation for Research andTechnology – Hellas (FORTH),GreeceKonstantinos MarkellosUniversity of Patras, GreecePenelope MarkellouUniversity of Patras, GreeceFernando Martín SánchezUniversity of Coruña, SpainJoberto S. B. MartinsUniversity Salvador (UNIFACS),BrazilChristian MarxtStanford University, Center forDesign Research, USABlessing M. MaumbeCape Peninsula University ofTechnology (CPUT), South AfricaChristopher B. MayerAir Force Institute of Technology,USARoland Mayer-FöllUmweltministerium Baden-Württemberg, GermanyCavan McCarthyLouisiana State University, USAPauline McLeodQueensberry InformationTechnologies Pty Ltd, AustraliaFuensanta Medina-DomínguezCarlos III Technical University ofMadrid, SpainYuan MiaoVictoria University, AustraliaIan MichaelZayed University, UAEMónica Miguélez RicoUniversity of Coruña, SpainRichard C. MillhamDe Montfort University, UKN. MinogiannisNational Technical University ofAthens, GreeceSteffen MoellerUniversity of Erlangen-Nuremberg,GermanyRick MolonyVRM Knowledge Pty Ltd, AustraliaWellington MoraesFaculdade Taboão da Serra, BrazilM. Angeles MoragaUniversity of Castilla-La Mancha,SpainA. MourouzisInstitute of Computer Science,Foundation for Research andTechnology – Hellas (FORTH),GreeceMarja NaaranojaVaasa Polytechnic, FinlandAlf NeumannUniversity of Cologne, GermanyCon NikakisVictoria University, AustraliaKaren Simpson NikakisDeakin University, AustraliaAlison NorrisUniversity of Wollongong, AustraliaS. NtoaInstitute of Computer Science,Foundation for Research andTechnology – Hellas (FORTH),GreeceAngela Frances O’Byrne SpencereThekwini Municipality, SouthAfricaIna O’MurchuDigital Enterprise ResearchInstitute, National University ofIreland, Galway, IrelandRoland ObrechtMinistry of Environment Baden –Wurttemberg, GermanyShota OkujavaUniversity of Erlangen-Nuremberg,GermanyPhillip OllaMadonna University, USAGraham OrangeLeeds Metropolitan University, UKJavier OsorioLas Palmes de Gran CanariaUniversity, SpainRobert S. OwenTexas A&M University – Texarkana,USATeemu PaavolaLifeIT Plc, Seinäjoki CentralHospital, FinlandHsueh-Ieng PaiConcordia University, CanadaCarlos E. PalauDCOM – Universidad Politecnicade Valencia, SpainPrashant PalviaUniversity of North Carolina,Greensboro, USAAngeliki PanayiotakiUniversity of Patras, GreeceNatalie PangMonash University, AustraliaScott PaquetteUniversity of Toronto, CanadaBeverly Park WoolfUniversity of Massachusetts –Amherst, USADavid ParsonsMassey University, New ZealandThomas W. ParsonsLoughborough University, UKN. PartarakisInstitute of Computer Science,Foundation for Research andTechnology – Hellas (FORTH),GreeceCh. Z. PatrikakisNational Technical University ofAthens, GreeceAlejandro Pazos SierraUniversity of Coruña, SpainWayne PeaseUniversity of Queensland, AustraliaNieves Pedreira SoutoUniversity of Coruña, SpainBarbara PesUniversità degli Studi di Cagliari,ItalyKonrad J. PeszynskiRMIT University, AustraliaMario PiattiniUniversity of Castilla – La Mancha,SpainAlex PliaskinVictoria University, AustraliaJana PolgareBlueprint Pty. Ltd and MonashUniversity, AustraliaTony PolgarSensis Pty. Ltd, AustraliaPurchase the print copy and the online access version of theEncyclopedia of Portal Technologies and Applications for one price!When your library purchases the print copy of any informationscience reference imprint title, you will receive free online accessfor the life of the edition.n IP Authenticatedn Unlimited Usersn Full-Text access to the articles as they appear in the print editionn Thousands of references to additional research worksn Lists of key concepts, terms, and definitionsn Searchable Textn Each article includes an abstract and complete citation information*Online Access is for libraries and is good for life of the edition.。

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