什么是语言学里的事实(白硕)
“事实”概念的认知与逻辑重建

“事实”概念的认知与逻辑重建作者:王策来源:《南昌大学学报(人文社科版)》2016年第02期摘要:“事实”概念的演进反映了西方哲学认识论的历程,也造成传统哲学与现代分析哲学的分野。
在常识状态下,“事实”就是普通事物;在认识论哲学中,“事实”被看作知觉对象;在现代科学中,“事实”被看成自然规律,即“科学事实”。
从维特根斯坦开始,他把“事实”置于语言和逻辑的层次上,认为事实只能以命题的形态出现,或者说事实就是命题,这个转变开创了现代分析哲学的革命。
关键词:事实;知觉事实;科学事实;原子命题中图分类号:B08文献标识码:A文章编号:1006-0448(2016)02-0014-07对“事实”概念的哲学探究大体基于三种理论:第一,符合论。
亚里士多德早在《形而上学》中就提出事实是辨别真伪的标准,即“以是者为是,以非者为非,即为真”,后来这一句话演变为“真理符合论”。
符合论的一个变体就是事实与谬误、真理与意见的区分,后来的马克思、罗素继承了这一理论。
在哲学史上,虽然该理论第一次把“事实”概念独立出来,但它仅仅是辨别真伪的标准,并没有对“事实”本身是什么给予界定。
第二,实践论,体现为价值论或语用学。
休谟在《人性论》中首次区分了“事实”与“价值”,该观点后来被密尔、康德、摩尔、黑格尔等着力强调,认为事实问题的内涵和演变是以人的特定的价值活动为中心;其次是语用学,认为事实并无本质,它由人的言语活动确认,日常语言学派哲学家赖尔和斯特劳森就持这种观点。
价值论和语用学的失误在于把“事实”概念的客观性和主观性进行了混淆。
第三,现象学。
胡塞尔在《纯粹现象学通论》中认为,“事实”是人的经验行为在时间中的设定物,事实性规则是偶然规则,不具有客观有效性。
“事实”概念的现象学解读虽然消除了传统哲学的主客二元论,但却走向了一个极端,即认为事实的本质其实是一种纯粹意识的主观显象的产物。
上述三种立场都没有看到,“事实”概念实际体现为一种哲学史的历程,事实的内涵只能是特定哲学范式下的产物。
语言事实和语言学事实

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现代汉语中的言据性表现

现代汉语中的言据性表现随着语言学中人文主义的兴起,言据性(Evidentiality)的研究也日益成为语言学研究中的热点。
然后在汉语中言据性的表现目前还缺乏应有的关注,本文通过详细考察言据性的定义、分类,在已有研究的基础上对现代汉语中新闻语言进行了考察,大致勾勒了现代汉语中言据性的表现形式,并提出了今后研究的努力方向。
标签:言据性证素直接来源间接来源汉语新闻语言一、引言语言是人类最重要的交际工具,而人类交际的一个主要目的是为了传递信息或命题。
可是信息(命题)存在着真伪之分,因此当需要证明自己所传达的信息是真实的时候(不是事实上的信息的真实与否),人类通常总是需要调动各种手段来力图证明其真实性,使得听者信服。
那么言者是如何运用各种手段来证明的呢?又有哪些手段来证明呢?这就是语言学研究中所谓的“言据性①(Evidentiality)”,即语言是如何言之有据的。
“言据性”这一概念最早由美国著名语言学家Boas在他的《美洲印第安语言手册》(Handbook of American Indian Languages)中提出。
四十六年后,他在题为“克瓦克托语语法”(Kwakiutl Grammar)的论文中,第一次使用了“证素”(evidential)这个术语来指代语句中那些能说明信息来源的“证据”(evidence)。
关于其定义,各家大同小异,如克里斯托尔(2000)将其定义为“语义学术语,指一类认识情态、断言的命题可能遭到听者的质疑,因此需要加以证明。
传信构式表达说话人根據可供利用的证据(而不是根据可能性或必要性)对一个命题深信不疑。
传信情态给句子增添这样的意义,如‘我亲眼所见’‘我亲耳所闻’‘(虽然我不在场)我有相关证据’‘我从某人处获知如此’等,从而造成细微的意义差别。
土尤卡语(巴西)有一个包含五种传信情态的复杂系统,英语一种也没有,而是依靠各种判断(即各种伴有怀疑的命题,但与质疑和证据无关)。
” Aikhenvald和Dixon(2003)把言据性界定为“语法对信息来源的语法表现”(grammatical reference to information source),而Chafe和Nichols(1986)则把言据性看作是“一整套能表达……对知识不同态度的手段”(repertoire of devices for conveying ... various attitudes towards knowledge)。
简评索绪尔语言和言语相关理论

是多领域的,是异质的,是杂糅的。因此,我们觉得 这里的 langage 译为“言语体系”更为恰当。
许国璋也认为 langage 译为“言语活动”不太恰 当,他指出:“langage 是多形式的、杂糅的、不成系 统的一种初级事物,从中抽象出来‘语言’,而 langage 本身则是‘言语’。因此,‘言语活动’中‘言语’ 一词是完全可以接受的。但是加了‘活动’这一尾 巴,又如何增加它的区别性?因为‘言语’本身是有 活动的。是不是译为‘群体言语’,比较接近于索绪 尔所说的杂糅性?如果这一译法可以接受,是不是 干脆把 parole 译为‘个体言语’?”我认为,parole 中 是包含动作的,所以,从“活动”这个角度分析,langage 的确不应该译为“言语活动”,但他选择翻译为 “群体语言”也是不合适的,因为他在这里误解了言 语的个体性。所谓的“社会性”或“个体性”,实际上 只是从对语言的实际使用角度来说的,言语当然是 个人使用语言进行交际的过程或结果,但这里的个 人是处于社会中的个人,使用的语言是整个社会的 共同的交际工具,而不是说许多个个人言语的总和 就是群体言语。
“第二个事实是,人们说话作文,都为了表达某
- 172-
种思想,而思想内容是看不见摸不着的,它必须通 过一种形式才能显示于外。言语中表达思想内容的 形式,就是语言,从这个意义上说,语言是言语交际 的工具。
“第三个事实是,言语既然是一种行为活动,就 会有一定的成果或产物,这就是人们说出来的‘话’ 或写出来的‘文章’,语言学论著中有的称之为‘言 语作品’,有点称之为‘言语产品’,有的称之为‘话 语’。我们认为用‘话语’比较好。”①
关键词:语言;言语;言语体系 中图分类号:H035 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1673-2596(2012)05-017地提出了 语言和言语的区分,并且认为区分语言和言语、语 言的语言学和言语的语言学是语言学研究的“第一 条分岔路”。语言和言语不仅是贯穿《普通语言学教 程》的一条主线,而且是现代语言学建立的起点。自 从《普通语言学教程》被引进中国后,关于语言和言语 的讨论一直没有中断,不同的学者对此有不同的解 释。大多数学者对“语言”的理解基本一致,但对“言 语”存在很大争议,归结起来主要有三种比较有代表 性的观点:(1)“言语”指言语动作;(2)“言语”指言语 的结果;(3)“言语”指言语的表达方式。本文试图以有 关语言和言语问题的学术刊物或专著中的论文为依 据,简要评述一下对语言和言语问题的观点。
什么是语言学里的事实(白硕)

什么是语言学里的“事实”?白硕(2011-04-06 20:27:14发表于新浪博客)从学术研究角度看,任何一门学科都要既有理论概括,也有事实罗列。
事实是科学的底线。
理论概括必须是基于事实的概括,而不是无中生有。
概括的抽象程度可以不同,但最终都要受到事实的检验。
而事实,特别是对于新的理论发现、理论概括有重要意义的事实的搜集,在任何一门科学中都是至关重要的。
理论概括和事实罗列,二者缺一不可,偏废是要不得的。
语言学也不例外。
但什么是语言学的事实,这是一个需要认真反省的问题,本文将就这点展开详细讨论。
一般来说,语言学界面对的语料有三种:(1)活语料,即说本族语言的人;(2)生语料,即不夹带任何标记的原始语料(录音、文本等);(3)熟语料,即在原始语料的基础上,参照一定的体系和原则,人工标注过的语料。
让我们逐一进行分析。
使用活语料的语言学研究,有两种做法。
一种是“内省式”做法,即研究者把自己当成是活语料的源泉。
需要语言事实的时候,就去拍脑袋想例句。
不可否认,一些语感极好的语言学家,用这种方式可以成功地举出在局外人看来颇有些“刁钻”的例句,利用这些例句来甄别一个语言学论断的是与非。
第二种是“问卷式”做法,即研究者把一个被试群体当做是活语料的源泉,通过设计一定的场景和问题,诱使被试说出自己认定的语言事实。
和内省式做法不同的是,问卷式做法应极力避免问卷中出现语言学特有的概念,以免对被试造成主观干扰。
比如,不能问被试某个词能不能做主语,但是可以通过问被试那个词可以装进哪些句式中相当于主语的位置,变相地把主语这个概念体现出来。
我们绝对不可以低估内省式活语料的价值——毕竟又有敏锐母语语感又有语言学学术素养的人是很少的,这些人能在片刻之间化解长时间困扰非母语研究者的难题,对于提高语言学研究的效率功不可没。
但是内省式活语料的使用也有其风险——如果不刻意“消毒”,这些人总有一种将本来是人为总结出来的理论、每天熟视无睹使用的概念视为理所当然的惯性,而这些理论、概念所渗透的东西,也许恰恰是需要质疑的!所以,要对准备充当内省式活语料的语言学家进行科学精神、科学方法论的教育,让他们知道去除一切可能带来偏见和盲点的障碍的重要性,在充当内省式活语料的时候,首先能自觉回归语言学的“理论原点”。
自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结

speech categories which reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational and ethnic background, as well as their sex and age.•语言的社会变异产生了社会方言。
社会方言又可以分为更小的语言类别。
导致语言社会变异的主要因素包括语言使用者的不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等。
e) Stylistic variation 文体变异•There are differences associated with the speech situation: who is speaking to whom about under what circumstances for what purpose.•有一些差异是说话者本人的言语在不同的言语情景中所具有的差异:言语情景即在什么情况下,为了什么目的,谁与谁讲什么。
•Stylistic variation in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation. Style can also refer to a particular person’s use of speech or writing at all times, or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time, e.g., Dickens’ style, Hemingway’s style.•根据交际情景的类型,一个人的口头语和书面语的文体会发生变化,变异区间是从随便文体或口语体到正式文体或文雅文体。
语言学概论名词解释

1. Design features of language:(1)Arbitrariness (任意性):there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.(声音和意思无直接联系)eg: why English should use the sounds /dog/ to refer to the animal dog, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.(2)Duality(双重性):the way meaningless elements of language at one level(sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units at another level. That is, sounds such as d, g, f, o, mean nothing separately. They normally take on meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog, fog, and god. 2.Descriptive grammars(描写性语法): attempt to tell what is in the language(语言第一,语法第二,语法是为语言服务)Prescriptive grammars(规定性语法):tell people what should be in the language.3.Phonetics(语音学): the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they ate produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.It can be divided into 3main branches:(1) articulatory phonetics(有音节的), which is the study of how speech sounds are produced(2)acoustic phonetics(有关声音的),which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air(3)auditory phonetics(听觉的),which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.4.Assimilation(同化): a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar to a neighboring sound ,eg: a vowel becomes whenfollowed by a consonant.5.Phonology(音系学): the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.6.Minimal pairs(最小对立体): a pair of words that differ by only a single sound in the same position, e.g. look/ took, spill/still and keep/coopMinimal set(最小对立体集): when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme(always in the same position)eg: a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English would include feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, foot, and one based on consonants could have big, pig, and wig.7.Syllable(音节): these units which are often longer than one should and smaller than a whole word. 1. phonetically, syllables are usually described as consisting of a center which has little or no airflow and which sounds comparatively loud.2.phonologically, syllables are defined by the way in which vowels and consonants combine to form various sequences.8.Stress (重音): the prominence given to certain sounds in speech. 9.Morphology (形态学):the study of the structure of words.10.Root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are strippes froma complex word. eg: system from un- +system + atic +ally11.Derivational morphemes(派生词缀)可能会改变词性: a morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. eg: -ment derives the noun from the verb establish; re- changes themeaning of the verb paint to "paint again".Inflectional morphemes(屈折词缀)不改变词性: which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.12.Allomorphs(语素变体): a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.plementary distribution(互补分布):allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution for they never occur in the same contest. Eg: the unaspirated /p/ always occurs after /s/ while the aspirated one always occurs in other places.14.types of word formation:(1)compounding(合成构词法):words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver are formed by putting two words together. Two free morphemes are combined to form a compound.(2)Derivation(派生构词法):derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. A derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and a bound morpheme. For example, by adding affixes un-, mis-, -ful, -less, -ism, we can get words like unhappy, misunderstand, careful, careless.(3)Blending(混成构词法): a process a single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. eg: the English word brunch is made from breakfast and lunch.(4)Acronym(首字母拼音词):some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words, as in NA TO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization)15.Syntax(句法学): used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.(1)Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法):also called IC Analysis, in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word or construction that enters into some larger construction.) eg. In the sentence “The old man ran away,” the first division into immediate constituents would be between “the old man” and “ran away.” The immediate constituents of “the old man” are “the” and “old man.” At the next level “old man” is divided into “old” and “man.” It was introduced by the United States linguist Leonard Bloomfield in 1933.(2)Recursion(递归性):the feature of recursion permits a grammar of a finite number of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences. For example: This is the house that jack built. /This is the cat that lived in the house that jack built.16.Semantics(语义学):the study of linguistic meaning.(1)Sense(意义)语言之间的关系:the inherent part of an expression’s meaning which, together with context, determines its referent. It is also called intension. Eg: knowing the sense of a noun phrase such as the president of the UnitedStates in 2004 allows one to determine that George W. Bush is the referent. (2)Reference(指称,参照):the relationship between words and the things, actions ,events, and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object "tree" in the real world.17、Pragmatics(语用学):a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(1)Anaphora(回指):the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(2)Cohesion(衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.Coherence(连贯): :the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse of the sentences in a text.18、Iconicity(象似性):the major types of iconicity in language which have frequently been proposed are those of order, distance, and complexity.(1)Iconicity of order(顺序象似性):refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic of construction. (e.g. Caesar’s historic words “veni, vidi, vici”-I came, I saw, I conquered.) iconicity of order reflects the consistency of language with human cognition and the objective world.(2)Iconicity of distance(距离象似性):accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. That is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.(3)Iconicity of complexity(复杂象似性):accounts for our tendency toassociate more form with more meaning and, conversely ,less form with less meaning.19.The prototype theory(原形理论):what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. eg: For some English speakers "cabbage" might be the prototypical vegetable.20.Lexical gap(词汇空缺) : the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull as horse covers stallion and mare.21.Associative meaning(联想意义):connotative(内涵), social, affective(情感), reflective(反射), and collocative(搭配)meanings are called associative meaning.Reflective meaning(反射意义):is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.22.Allophone(音位变体):a phonetic form in which a phoneme is realized.23.Diacritics(变音符号):is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.(英文版)Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthenparty laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Y ears, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulationsrepeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the FifthPlenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs DepartmentThe first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee PoliticalBureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revisionof the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Y an to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline andto implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists ona positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," atotal of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule >real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen yearsimplement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses.Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Y an Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline,exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility should。
语言事实名词解释

语言事实名词解释
语言事实是指在实际的语言使用过程中所观察到的语言现象和语言规律。
语言事实是通过对大量真实的语言材料进行观察和分析而得出的。
这些材料可以包括口语、书面语、方言、语料库等。
通过对这些材料的研究,语言学家可以发现语言的语音、词汇、语法、语用等方面的规律和特点。
语言事实是语言研究的基础,它为语言学家提供了实证依据,帮助他们更好地理解语言的本质和功能。
同时,语言事实也为语言教学提供了重要的参考,教师可以根据语言事实来设计教学内容和教学方法,帮助学生更好地掌握语言知识和语言技能。
需要注意的是,语言事实并不是绝对的,它受到时间、地域、社会文化等因素的影响。
因此,在进行语言研究和语言教学时,需要综合考虑各种因素,以确保研究和教学的准确性和有效性。
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什么是语言学里的“事实”?
白硕
(2011-04-06 20:27:14发表于新浪博客)
从学术研究角度看,任何一门学科都要既有理论概括,也有事实罗列。
事实是科学的底线。
理论概括必须是基于事实的概括,而不是无中生有。
概括的抽象程度可以不同,但最终都要受到事实的检验。
而事实,特别是对于新的理论发现、理论概括有重要意义的事实的搜集,在任何一门科学中都是至关重要的。
理论概括和事实罗列,二者缺一不可,偏废是要不得的。
语言学也不例外。
但什么是语言学的事实,这是一个需要认真反省的问题,本文将就这点展开详细讨论。
一般来说,语言学界面对的语料有三种:(1)活语料,即说本族语言的人;(2)生语料,即不夹带任何标记的原始语料(录音、文本等);(3)熟语料,即在原始语料的基础上,参照一定的体系和原则,人工标注过的语料。
让我们逐一进行分析。
使用活语料的语言学研究,有两种做法。
一种是“内省式”做法,即研究者把自己当成是活语料的源泉。
需要语言事实的时候,就去拍脑袋想例句。
不可否认,一些语感极好的语言学家,用这种方式可以成功地举出在局外人看来颇有些“刁钻”的例句,利用这些例句来甄别一个语言学论断的是与非。
第二种是“问卷式”做法,即研究者把一个被试群体当做是活语料的源泉,通过设计一定的场景和问题,诱使被试说出自己认定的语言事实。
和内省式做法不同的是,问卷式做法应极力避免问卷中出现语言学特有的概念,以免对被试造成主观干扰。
比如,不能问被试某个词能不能做主语,但是可以通过问被试那个词可以装进哪些句式中相当于主语的位置,变相地把主语这个概念体现出来。
我们绝对不可以低估内省式活语料的价值——毕竟又有敏锐母语语感又有
语言学学术素养的人是很少的,这些人能在片刻之间化解长时间困扰非母语研究者的难题,对于提高语言学研究的效率功不可没。
但是内省式活语料的使用也有其风险——如果不刻意“消毒”,这些人总有一种将本来是人为总结出来的理论、每天熟视无睹使用的概念视为理所当然的惯性,而这些理论、概念所渗透的东西,也许恰恰是需要质疑的!所以,要对准备充当内省式活语料的语言学家进行科学精神、科学方法论的教育,让他们知道去除一切可能带来偏见和盲点的障碍的重要性,在充当内省式活语料的时候,首先能自觉回归语言学的“理论原点”。
对于作为问卷调查被试的活语料,我们同样要警惕几个问题。
第一,被试受教育程度越高,对语法特别是西式语法、中学及大学期间学过的那些并非金科玉律的语言学知识就越在意和迎合,就越难以发挥独立的、不受既有语言学理论左右的被试的作用。
第二,被试无法分清“合语法性”、“可接受性”、“可理解性”、“现实性”和“可流通性”之间的微妙区别,如果仅仅问“能不能说”,
恐怕给出的答案会令许多人大跌眼镜,这样的数据用作总结语言规律的素材,也将很成问题。
第三,被试很难截然区分语言的时代和区域界限。
他们对于自己所处时代之前的时代的母语、对于自己母语在其他方言区内的情况、对于因人口流动和语言融合造成的方言变体的把握、对于普通话甚至港台方言的推广带来的语言浑浊的不自觉跟随,都会影响和干扰被试的“纯正母语语感”的判断。
所以,问卷式做法引入的活语料,也有程度不等的不可信性。
如果不在问卷设计、被试选择和被试辅导等环节把工作作细,怕是很难得出有说服力的调查结果。
下面谈谈生语料,即未作任何人工标注的、处于发布时原始状态的文本。
生语料在互联网时代可以说俯拾皆是,而且抓过来就是计算机直接可处理的,这是之前所不敢想象的优越条件。
但是,即使在这样优越的条件下,语言学研究单靠生语料也难取得多少实质性进展,这也许超出了很多人的想象。
过去没有这样的条件时,学者们为能够取得几百万字的生语料而不惜付出很大的代价,现在上百亿的生语料摆在互联网上,学者们仍然不满足。
这说明,生语料的价值没有想象的那么大。
究其原因,第一,生语料直接转化成数据特别是N元统计模型所使用的数据,一定是极其稀疏的超高维矩阵,因为其本质是词例对词例,而不是标记对标记。
这样无结构、无标记的语料,统计意义已经打了很大的折扣。
第二,生语料中的例句往往都是单复句混杂的,特别是汉语中那些一逗到底的流水句,如果没有合适的手段还原成单句,是不适合直接作为研究单句规律的素材的。
第三,也是最重要的,生语料不反映否定式的事实。
生语料体量再大也不具有逻辑上的穷尽性,生语料不包含的或者极低频的表达方式,未必就一定是不合法的表达方式。
一个缺乏否定式事实的证据集,对于语言规律的揭示作用是天生有盲点的。
对于以区分语言事实中的“二元对立”作为理论体现价值的当然尺度的语言学来说,生语料显得力有不逮。
最后我们看熟语料,也就是经过标注的语料。
这里的标注,有两种含义:第一种,标注是语言事实的一部分,比如对例句可接受性的是非判断、对字间间隔是否构成词间间隔的是非判断、对双语例句是否构成保语义对译关系的判断、对一个已知答案的问题的回答是否正确,等等。
这些标注本身相当于活语料的延伸,相当于语言事实的形式化表述,是一种客观性的标注。
因此,假定做标注的人是以目标语言为母语的而且对待标注是诚实的,那么由原始语料加上这样的客观性标注得出的熟语料,是可信的。
但是标注也有可能出现第二种含义,即标注不是语言事实的一部分,而是标注者根据某种理念附加到生语料上去的。
这里说的“理念”,既可能体现为标注体系本身的设计理念,也可能体现为标注过程中的操作理念。
因此,在第二种含义下标注出来的熟语料,渗透了标注体系设计者和标注者的对目标语言的某种理念性的东西,已经不是纯粹客观意义上的事实了。
从实际情况来看,活语料多见于传统的语言学研究。
纯粹的生语料在实用中价值不大。
真正在实用领域发挥有限但有效作用的,是那些通过熟语料特别是第二种熟语料总结提炼出来的语言模型。
在这里我们看到了两个因素的决定作用:一方面,语言模型的一般框架(比如,HMM)的规定性,决定了模型本身表达能力的上限;另一方面,标注体系和标注过程所体现的理念(比如,北大标注体系)的合理性,决定了熟语料可靠程度的上限。
因此,当我们针对一种特定的应用(比如说输入法),拿第二种熟语料在特定语言模型一般框架下训练出一个具体的语言模型的时候,这个模型的局限,也就由上面说的两个上限所决定。
注意,我们
虽然用HMM作为语言模型的例子,但实际上语言模型不限于统计模型;我们虽然用北大标注体系作为标注体系的例子,但实际上可以选择的标注体系天地还广阔得很。
在这种语境下一个语言模型取得的成功,本质上是应用本身对错误的容忍度、语言模型的一般框架的相对于应用的合理性和标注体系与前两者之间的匹配性所共同决定的。
切不可因此而超越应用场景本身的语境而过分夸大语言模型的合理和标注体系的正确,更不可把这种场景下的第二种熟语料误认为是客观的语言事实。
换另一个应用语境,也许这一切都需要重来。
总的说,语言学研究当中,不存在像物理学中的实验观测数据那样的理想的客观语言事实。
无论是活语料、生语料还是熟语料,都是有局限性的。
虽然不一定贴切,但这种现状确实很像物理学中的测不准原理。
语言学就是在这样不理想的“语言事实”下羞羞答答地朝着一门更加成熟的经验科学的方向迈进。
语言学家不仅要多些自然科学的方法论素养,还要对语言事实认定的艰巨性有足够的思想准备。
在一般的自然科学学科中,输入的是客观事实和规律的一般形态,输出的是具体的规律。
但是在语言学中,输入的除了客观的事实和规律的一般形态之外,还可能有按某种主观理念对客观事实进行解读的标注,这三者决定了输出的具体规律,甚至还可以根据实践效果的反馈对标注体系进行评估和修正。
这是语言学研究方法论的独特之处,不可不察。