英语词汇学教程期末总结
英语词汇学总结(细致)
Chapter 1Word-Structure1. The definition of morpheme1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language?- morphemeWhat are words composed of? - Words are formed by morphemes. A word is the smallest unit that stands alone to communicate meaning.1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents对应词of morpheme? 语素词素-形位2.1 Morphemes may be classified into free and bound.Free morphemes, also called content morphemes, may constitute words by themselves. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. So we may say that free morphemes are free roots.Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as grammatical morphemes, must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words, e.g. recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).Task:(1) Read the following words and find the root in each word.heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty, heartiness,sweetheart, heartbroken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly.(2) What is your definition of root?A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.(3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why?2.2.1 Two types of roots- Free rootIn English, many roots are free morphemes, such as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith.- Bound rootHowever, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes. For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive; mit in permit, commit, submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur, occur, incur, etc.these roots cannot be used to form new words.2.2.2 Two types of affixesAffix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.- Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to expressthe following meanings:(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes;en in oxen.(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.(3) the verbal endings: for example,a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third personsingular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the presentparticiple or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or pastparticiple.(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest,hardest.- Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.•(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g: unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech.- en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich- be- as in words like befriend, belittle- a- as in words like asleep, aside • (2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g.: darkness, worker. By the addition of the suffix,the word is usually changed from one part ofspeech into another, e.g. liberation, modernize.2.3 Relationship between the two classifications of morphemesMorphemeIt is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.a) Bound morphemes are morphemes which alone can be used as words .What is an allomorph?An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。
英语词汇学总结复习资料
英语词汇学总结复习资料⼤家请注意：笔记中⼤多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该⼀字不漏的背下来。
其实不少简答题也就是⼏个定义的汇总，再加上个例⼦就可以拿满分了。
区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各⾃的定义。
第⼀章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声⾳与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读⾳与拼写不⼀致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of thelanguage .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例⼦)1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation betweennotions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky第⼆章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words bycombining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements. More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements. more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要⽅式：创造新词、旧词新意、借⽤外来语词）1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。
英语词汇学知识点整理
英语词汇学知识点整理词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1⼀、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最⼩的⾃由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）⼆、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.⼀般来说，词汇指的是⼀种语⾔⾥所有单词的总和。
词的总和构成语⾔的词汇。
词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。
三、Sound&Meaning发⾳和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. ⼆者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发⾳和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.⾃然语⾔的书写形式是⼝语形式的书写记录。
(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发⾳与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来⾃罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发⾳改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发⾳不断变化，书写标准化。
英语词汇学总结
Chapter 3Word Formation I词语结构13.1 Morphemes词素1. the morpheme is ‘ the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。
2.Suffix：-ation：-tion, -sion, -ion.后缀：ation 的多变体，当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀3.Owing to different sound environment 因为存在不同的发生环境。
3.2 Allomorphs （语素变体）同质异晶，同质异象变体1.Morphemes are abstract units.‘They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning’语素是抽象的单位,它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体.The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone:语素是一个音素发音的形素①single morphs单一语素词：bird, tree, green, sad, want, desire,Most morphemes are realized by single morphs,Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，语素与词相同叫做单一语素词.These morphemes coincide withe words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。
英语词汇学期末复习资料
1、选择题（2 ×15=30）2、填空题（2×5=10 ）3、搭配题(1×10=10)4、名词解释题(4×5=20)5、问题回答(5×3=15)6、论述题(第39题7分，第40题8分)选择题：1. Which of the following is an initialism ? D. UN2. The following are all nominal suffixes EXCEPT A. –ful .3．Both English and B. Danish belong to the Germantic branch of the Indo-European language family.4.Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatik relationships are known as C. inflectional morphemes.5.Motiation accounts for the connection between word-form and C.its meaning.6.Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and C.homonymy.7.Affixes attached to other morphemes to create new words are known as B .derivational affixes.8.The semantic unity of idioms is reflected in the A.illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom as in rain cats and dogs.ually a small number of languages have been designated official languages for an organization’s activities ,for example, the UN was established with five official languages English, French, A.Spanish Russian, and Chinese.中英俄法西填空题Ⅱ.Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions1.affixation Is the formation of new words by adding prefixes tobases.2.Back-formation Is considered to br opposite process suffixation it isthe method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. 3.Isolating language is a language in which each word form consiststypically of a singe morpheme .4.When a word with more than one meaning is used in unclearcontext.it creates ambiguity .5.Almost all affixes are bound morphemes because few as independentwords.搭配题Ⅲ. Match the terms in Column A with definitions in Column B.A B1. geomorphic earthlike2. zooid resembling an animal3. geochronology time measurements from earth data4.technocracy government by craftsmen5.petrographic caring on a rock6.polymorph having many shapes7.phonography recording of sound8.phytogenesis development of plants9.synergy working together10.geocentric earth-centered11.magnanimous宽宏大量的12.penology刑罚学13.inculpable无辜的；无可非议的14.revitalize bring to the life15.cosmonaut sailor of the universe16.enervate reduce mental vigor17.herbicide plant killer18subterranean地下的;秘密的;隐蔽的;地下工作者19.deviate move from the road20.semilunar crescent -shaped名词解释题Ⅳ. Define the following terms.unity;a unit of meaning;a form that can function in a sentenceis the minimal meaningful units of which the language is composed.functioning both grammatically ad semantically as a single word. Semantic motivation: refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.Extra-linguistic context: may extend to embrace the entire cultural background, which may also affect the meaning of words. Prefixation: the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases Affixation: the formation of new words by adding word-forming affixes to bases.Sematic change: means an old form, which takes on a new meaning to met the new need.Conceptual meaning: is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.Acronymy: is the process of forming new words by pointing the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.Homonymy: are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Dictionary: a book which presents in alphabetic order the words of the language ,with information as to its spelling, pronunciation , meaning and its etymology.问题回答Ⅴ. Answer the following questions，write your answers on the answer sheet.2. How would you explain the difference between back formation and suffixation? Give examples to illustrate your point?Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation,it’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases. For example:Inform-imforant donation-donate enthusiasm-enthuse3.What are the three types of antonyms ,give examples to illustrate them respectively?Complementary: dead-alive present-absent male-female Contrary: poor-rich good-bad cold-hotConverse: parent-child husband-wife employer-employee5.What are three areas to account for the difference between synonyms? illustrate your points?Different in denotation符号,connotation含义,application应用6.What are the major differences between basic word stock基本词汇and nonbasic非基本vocabulary?(1)basic word stock possesses five obvious characteristics,butnonbasic vocabulary doesn’t(2)basic word stock forms the common,core核心of thelanguage,however,nonbasic vocabulary doesn’t belong to the common ore of the language.7.How many means of word formation and what they are?3 Major processesAffixation（派生）Compounding（合成）Conversion（转化）8 Minor processes :Acronym(首字母缩略词）Blending（混合）Clipping（截短法）Words from proper names(专有名词来源）Back formation（逆构法）Reduplication（复制）Neo-classical Formation （新古典词构成法）Miscellaneous（混杂法）8.what are the difference between word and vocabulary?(1)word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters printed orwritten horizontally across水平穿越a piece of paper.(2)vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of总计all the words of a language.9.What is collocative meaning? give one example to illustrate your po int? Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation.In other words,it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by words before or fter the word in discussion.For example,Handsome(boy/car/man )论述题Ⅵ. Analyze and comment on the following questions，write your answers on the answer .1.Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out the types of the morphemes.1Destructive 2antibiotic 3composition 4unbearable 5international 6ex-prisoner1 de+struct+tive2 anti+bio+tic3 com+po+si+tion4 un+bear+able5 inter+bation+nal6 ex+prison+erment on the following pairs of sentences in terms of superordinate and subordinates.a.the man said he would come to our school next week.b.the visiting scholar said he would visit our university next Monday.3.Collocation can affect the meaning of words .Comment on the statement with your own words.Collocation refers to the words before or after the word in discussion, and collocative meaning consists of the associations the word acquires in its collocation.4.the ‘pen ‘ is mightier than the ‘sword’ .explain what ‘pen’ and ‘sword’mean respectively using the theory of motivation.‘pen’reminds one of the tool to write with,thus suggesting writing;‘sword’ reminds one of the weapon to fight with,thus suggestion war.Chapter 11、It is generally known that The Anglo-Saxon invasion ,the Scandinavian invasion and the Norman Conquest were three of the most important landmarks in the history of the English people as well as in the history of the English language.2、The English vocabulary can be classified by different criteria, according to the level of notion, English can be classified as full word实词and form word虚词.3、What are the four points does the definition of a word cover? minimal free form of a languagea sound unitya unit of meaninga form that can function alone in a sentencechapter2----It is estimated that there are about _5000___ languages all over the world, which can be grouped into about __25__ language families, such as Sino-Tibetan Family, Indo-European Family, Altaic Family阿尔泰语系(包括土耳其语、维吾尔语、蒙古语、满语等语言) and so on.---Q：What languages does Indo-European family host？The Indo-European Family hosts most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.----How many groups can Indo-European family be divided into according to the linguists？Linguists have divided the Indo-European languages into Eastern sets （groups）and Western sets（groups）.-----Q：Generally，How many stages can the development of English vocabulary be divided into？What are they？Old EnglishMiddle EnglishModern EnglishEarly modern EnglishLate modern EnglishThe period from 450 to 1100 is known as the Old English period or the Anglo-Saxon period.West Germanic dialects spoken by the invaders, as the original inhabitants (the Celts) were killed, were relocated, or adopted the language of the now dominant society.----Roughly speaking, the tribes that settled in Britain comprise three groups:the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes.---Norman conquest resulted in a massive borrowing of French words into English vocabulary.--What is the second result of Norman conquest?The Norman dialect of French became the language of the upper class, while English completely lost its scholarly and literary importance, and was used only by the peasants and people of the working class.---Q：What languages contributed to the vocabulary of modern English？What characteristics do those languages have？Latin and Greek，the former language were mostly connected with science and abstract ideas，while the latter were mostly literary，technical and scientific words.---Q：What are the reasons for the frequent appearance of neologisms?1、The rapid development of modern science and technology.2 、Social，economic，and political changes.3、The influence of other cultures and languages.1、The Angles lent their name to the language—English, and to the land —England.Chapter3Q1：What is the morpheme according to Engene Nida？The minimal meaningful units of which the language is composed.In other words，the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.Can you figure out three basic elements of morphemes？1、the smallest meaningful unit2、not divisible nor analyzable3、sound and meaningIs it a root, a stem, or base?desirable (adj.):不是词根(可再分解);不是词干(不可以加屈折词缀),是词基(既可以加词缀,又能再分解下去).一、Fill in the missing words.1. A minimum meaningful unit of a language is morpheme.2. The part carrying the basic meaning of a word is called root.二、What do the following words have in common? Can you guess out what the meaning of them is respectively?vitamin, vital, vivid, survive, revive.Chapter4Types of Motivation:1）Phonetic motivation（onomatopoeic）拟声，hiss by snakes2）Morphological motivation(derivation, compounding, conversion)形态学3）Semantic motivation（Metaphor，Metonymy，Synecdoche，Analogy）语义，a stony heart铁石心肠4）Etymological motivation词源Main types of word meaning1）Grammatical meaning2）Lexical meaning3）Conceptual meaning (Denotative meaning)4）Associative meaning（1）Connotative meaning（2）Stylistic meaning（3）Affective meaning（4）Collocative meaningWord-formation:Affixation/Derivation（派生）Compounding（合成）Conversion（转化）Chapte4.22、Besides conventionality, As for motivation, how many types of motivation are there, and what are they?Onomatopoeic motivationMorphological motivationSemantic motivationEtymological motivationChapter 61.Types of changes: Extension /Narrowing / Elevation / DegradationChapter7Meaning and context1. Two types of contexts: Linguistic context / Extra-linguistic context2. The vital role of context in determination of word meaning?Eliminating ambiguities /Conveying emotional overtonesChapter 8English Dictionary1) According to James Root Hulbert, English dictionary-making began in Anglo-Saxon times.2) The first dictionaries in England were printed in Latin.3) Cockeram’s book was the first in English to use the word dictionary in the titleFirst English dictionaries published:1) Robert Caswdrey’s Table Alphabetical of Hard Words(1604)2) John Bollokar’s An English Expositor(1616)3) Henry Cockeram’s The English Dictionary(1623)。
英语词汇学知识点总结
Word-formationWord-formation Word-formation or or or word-building word-building word-building is is that that branch branch branch of of of lexicology lexicology lexicology which which which studies studies studies the the the patterns patterns patterns on on which a language, in this case, the English language, coins new words. Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after World War The three major processes of word formation: Composition or CompoundingDefinition : Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or or more more more bases bases bases to to to form form form a a a new new new unit, unit, unit, a a a compound compound compound word. word. word. Compounding Compounding Compounding is is is the the the most most productive word-formation process in contemporary English . Identity crisis 个性危机stand-up collar 竖领hit-and-run tactics 打了就跑的战术spoon-feed 填鸭式灌输，娇养糊里糊涂muddle-headed/minded 笨嘴笨舌heavy-tongued 无忧无虑carefree 饱经风霜weather-beaten/worn 令人心碎heart-breaking 半死不活dead-alive/dead-and-alive 不合时宜ill-timed/badly-timed 批量生产mass-produce Compounds are very often used because of their brevity and vividness. For example, A schoolboy is more concise than “a boy attending school ”; “U p-to-the-minute information information” ” is more vivid than “the latest information ”; “The The old old old man man man would would would sit sit sit for for for hours, hours, hours, thinking thinking thinking sadly sadly sadly of of of all all all the the might-have-beens ” ” is is is more more compact and expressive than “…thinking sadly of the desirable things that could have happened in the past .”The relative criteria of a compound wordOrthographic criterion (书写标准) : Compounds are written in three ways, e.g. solid: airmail ;hyphenated: air-conditioning ; open: air force, air raid.Phonological criterion (语音标准) : Compound accent: a single stress on the first element; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element. E.g. 'blackboard, 'blue ‘bottle (a large buzzing fly with blue body ) ) Normal phrase accent : : a a a secondary secondary secondary stress stress stress on on on the the the first first first element element element and and and a a a main main main stress stress stress on on on the the second element. E.g. ‘ blue 'bottle (a bottle which is blue) Semantic criterion (语义标准) : A compound is a combination forming a unit expressing a a single single single idea. idea. idea. The The The lexical lexical lexical meaning meaning meaning of of of the the the components components components are are are closely closely closely joined joined joined together together together to to to create create create a a compound compound with with with a a a meaning meaning meaning which which which one one one can can can easily easily easily recognize, recognize, recognize, e.g. e.g. e.g. backdoor, backdoor, backdoor, sunset, sunset, sunset, workday. workday. However, the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts, e.g. dog days, flatfoot ( a policeman), greenhouse, greenback (美钞)，green-hand(生手), greenroom （演员休息室）, mother wit （天生的智力）, Indian paper （字典纸）. More examples:home letters(家信), home voyage （归程）, home life （家庭生活）, home affairs （家庭事务），home bird （不爱外出的人）（不爱外出的人）, home economics （家政学）, home front （大后方）, home games （在本地举行的比赛）, home help （家务女佣）（家务女佣）, homemaker （主妇）（主妇）, home plate（棒球的本垒打）, home sickness （思家病）（思家病）. Word order: A flower pot (花盆) a pot flower (盆花) tiptoe(脚尖) deaf-mute （聋哑者）（聋哑者）Some of them were influenced by French : court martial(军事法庭) ; president elect （当选总统）; ambassador designate （尚未上任的大使）（尚未上任的大使）Classification of compoundsCompounds can be classified according to parts of speech of the compounds . noun compounds : airplane , flower potadjective compounds: w eather-beaten weather-beaten , snowwhite verb compounds: p roof-read, proof-read, baby-sit proposition compounds: notwithstanding, alongside of conjunction compounds : whenever ,whereas pronoun compounds: a nother another , myselfThe three commonest types are noun compounds, adjective compounds, andverb compounds.noun compounds• Noun + nounrainwater 雨水; ; springwater springwater 泉水; ; houseplants houseplants 室内植物;fireball 火球火球 ; ; firecracker firecracker 鞭炮 ; spacecraft/spaceship 太空船；spacesuits 太空服；mousemat ； 鼠标垫鼠标垫 Dream Team ；bar code 条形码；条形码； lip service 口头上说得好听的话；口头上说得好听的话； information highway 信息高速公路； science fiction 科幻小说；科幻小说； sugar cane 甘蔗；gaslight 煤气灯；煤气灯；• Noun + verbdaybreak 拂晓； nightfall 夜幕降临；sunset/sunrise 日落， earthquake 地震；landslip/landslide (山体滑坡)； headache toothache ；stomachache ；heartbeat drumbeat ； footbeat 脚步节拍 ； wingbeat 翅翼振动 ； window-dress 布置橱窗；布置橱窗； water-supply 自来水自来水 ； snowfall 降雪量； toothpick 牙签；牙签； haircut ； pickpocket ； scarecrow 稻草人稻草人 ( scare the crow) • V erb + noun cry baby (爱哭的婴儿)； playboy (花花公子) ；glowworm (发光虫)； watch-dog (看家狗), swearword （骂人话）, breakwater （防波提）（防波提）, driveway （车道）, jump suit （伞兵跳伞服，连衣裤工作服）；rattle snake(响尾蛇响尾蛇) • V erb + adv / prep changeover (转变进程) ； setback (挫折挫折)； breakdown (崩溃)， show-off(炫耀), slip-up（疏忽，不幸事故）, put-off （推迟，搪塞）, follow-up （连续广告法）（连续广告法）sit-in, dropout, breakdown, walk-on, walkout, setback, take-off• Adjective + nounclear-way(超速道路), easy-chair, deadline, hard disk, soft disk ，red tape(官样文章官样文章) • adverb + noununder-clothes(内衣), after-effect （后效，副作用）（后效，副作用）, upgrade（升级）, overburden • V+ing + nounchewing gum(口香糖), baking powder （发酵粉）, reading lamp （台灯）, lodging house （分间出租供人休息用的房屋），leading article(社论), working party （作业队）（作业队）• Adverb + verb outlet(出口), upset （颠覆）（颠覆）, downfall （垮台，陷落）（垮台，陷落）, upstart （暴发户）（暴发户）, onflow （滚滚向前）前）adjective compounds• Pre-modifier VS. Post-modifier Post-modifier ( ( ( describe describe describe a a a noun noun noun phrase phrase phrase or or or restrict restrict restrict its its its meaning meaning meaning in in some way) • Compound modifiers, because of their expressiveness and brevity, are used quite flexibly in current English, especially in journalistic writings. • noun + adjective• skin-hungry, power-hungry, news-hungry, career-hungry (急于成名的) , bloodthirsty • duty-free, tax-free, fat-free, toll-free, maintenance-free, dust-free, interest-free, care-free, ice-free, danger-free, nuclear-weapon-free • water-proof, fire-proof, bullet-proof, rain-proof, bomb-proof, vibration-proof • air-sick, seasick, car-sick, home-sick, heartsick (沮丧的) • user-friendly, reader-friendly • profit-conscious,time-conscious, class-conscious, environment-conscious, security-conscious • slap-happy(被打得晕头转向的) boxer ， trigger-happy (嗜杀成性的)gangster ， travel-happy(对旅游入迷的) • accident-prone, crisis-prone (危机四伏的)，error-prone, • air-tight(不透气的)，water-tight, light-tight(不透光的), rain-tight • work-shy(不愿工作的)，camera-shy(怕上镜头的)， publicity-shy (不愿出头露面的) • color-blind, night-blind • blood-weary (厌战的)，travel-weary(旅途劳累的) •stone-deaf, skin-deep, snow-white, ice-cold, knee-deep, paper-thin, mirror-bright, feather-light, fire-hot, crystal-clear, waist-high, shoulder-high, life-long, grass-green, dog-tired, threadbare （穿旧的）（穿旧的） • college-bound/preparatory (准备考大学的)，labor-short (缺乏劳动力的)，top-heavy(头重脚轻的)，penny-wise(小事聪明的) ， oven-fresh (刚出炉的) line-dry(一晾就干的一晾就干的)，world-famous • adjective + adjectivewet-cold, wet-cold, icy-cold, icy-cold, icy-cold, red-hot, red-hot, red-hot, white-hot, white-hot, white-hot, bitter-sweet, bitter-sweet, bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, deaf-mute, deaf-mute, shabby-genteel(shabby-genteel(穷酸的)，dead-alive(半死不活的)，dark-blue, dark-blue, deep-blue, deep-blue, deep-blue, light-blue, light-blue, light-blue, pale-blue, pale-blue, pale-blue, bright-red, bright-red, bright-red, bloody-red, bloody-red, yellow-green, yellowish-green ，social-political• V+ing + adjectivesteaming-hot/smoking-hot steaming-hot/smoking-hot ((滚烫的，热气腾腾的)，soaking-wet/wringing-wet(湿淋淋的，湿得可拧出水来的)，biting-cold/freezing-cold (冷得刺骨的，冰冷的) • Adverb/Prep + adjectiveever-victorious (战无不胜的)，over-cautious, all-round (全面的全面的)， far-reaching (深远的，广泛的)，evergreen (tree), wide-awake (机警的)，over-sensitive, over-anxious, under-ripe (不成熟的)，too-rapid • noun +V+ingpeace-loving, time/space/energy/labor-saving, time-consuming, summer-flowering(夏季开花的), ocean-going (远洋的)， fault-finding, record-breaking, heart-breaking, hair-raising, side-splitting (令人捧腹的)，thirst-quenching (解渴的)，man-eating• noun + V+edheart-felt(衷心的), air-born （空降的，（空降的，空运的）, home-made, travel-worn （旅行得疲乏的）, hen-pecked, book-filled, poverty-stricken, weather-beaten, thunder-struck, suntanned • adjective/adverb + V+ingfresh-frozen(速冻的), easy-going(随和的), familiar-sounding (听起来熟悉的)，hard-working, ever-lasting (永恒的) • adjective/adverb + V+ednewly-developed, well-balanced, far-fetched (牵强附会的)，half-baked(烤得半生不熟的，肤浅的), hard-won (来之不易的)，quick-frozen (速冻的), new-laid (eggs), so-called, fresh-caught, newly-built, well-informed, well-organized • noun + Noun+edhot-tempered(急性子的)，chicken-hearted (胆怯的，软弱的)，honey-mouthed, paper-backed (平装本的)， eagle-eyed(目光尖锐地) • adjective/adv. + Noun+edshort-sighted, short-sighted, tender-hearted, tender-hearted, tender-hearted, sweet-hearted(sweet-hearted(性情温和的), ), green-fingered(green-fingered(擅长园艺的)，open-handed, single-handed, bald-headed, empty-headed, hot-headed, kind-hearted, light-hearted, whole/half-hearted, absent-minded, narrow/broad-minded, double-faced, straight-faced, blue-eyed, muddle-minded/headed muddle-minded/headed ((糊里糊涂) ) , , , commercially-minded, commercially-minded, commercially-minded, heavy-tongued heavy-tongued heavy-tongued ((笨嘴笨舌的)，middle-aged, middle-aged, cold-blooded, cold-blooded, cold-blooded, strong-bodied, strong-bodied, strong-bodied, rosy-cheeked, rosy-cheeked, rosy-cheeked, apple-cheeked, apple-cheeked, apple-cheeked, close/tight-fisted(close/tight-fisted(吝啬的)， bare-footed, white-haired, high-heeled, ill-intentioned, weak-kneed (易屈服的)，long-legged, close/tight-lipped (嘴紧的), ill-mannered, thick/thin-skinned (脸皮厚/薄)，high-spirited, iron-willed, iron-willed, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, glib-tongued glib-tongued glib-tongued ((油嘴滑舌的)，loose-tongued(嘴不严的) • adjective + Nounlong-distance, full-length （未删节的），white-collar, red-letter(喜庆的), ，full-time, first-rate, high-speed, high-level, low-frequency, left-hand, real-time(实时的)， long-range, deep-sea (fish) • Verb + Nounbreak-neck (危险的)， telltale(搬弄是非的)， cut-rate (减价的，次等的减价的，次等的)• Phrases or sentencesat-risk （处境危险的）, in-your-face （明目张胆的）, devil-may-care(不顾一切的), dog-eat-dog （狗咬狗的）, round-the-clock, on-the-spot, cards-on-the-table, matter-of-fact, never-to-be-forgotten, once-in-a-life-time, off-the-cuff (临时想起的意见)opinion, back-up (备用) a stand-up collar (竖领), a walk-in closet (走入式大壁橱)，a see-through shirt （透明的衬衫）（透明的衬衫）（透明的衬衫） take-home pay ，cross-border raid ，a keep-fit class （保健班）（保健班）（保健班） verb compoundsThe common way to form a compound verb is by means of back-formation. The back-formation back-formation is is is a a a process process process of of of word word word formation formation formation by by by which which which a a a word word word is is is created created created by by by dropping dropping dropping the the supposed or imagined affixes Housekeeping → housekeep, test-drive(试车)，machine-gun, nickname, spotlight, honeymoon, honeymoon, outline, outline, outline, speed-read, speed-read, speed-read, soft-land, soft-land, soft-land, vacuum-clean, vacuum-clean, vacuum-clean, mass-produce, mass-produce, mass-produce, sight-see, sight-see, sight-see, proof-read, proof-read, tape-record, chain-smoke, ghost-write, air-condition, baby-sit, window-shop, spoon-feed, hen-peck, snowball, middle-road(走中间道路), chain-react, face-harden(使表面硬化), wire-pull (幕后操纵)，daydream, skyrocket, sleepwalk, highlight, safeguard, whitewash, sweet-talk，job-hop A compound verb can also be formed by means of analogy1.chain-drink: from chain-smoke 2.bottle-feed: feed from a bottle. from breast-feed:• feed from a mother's breast A compound verb can also be formed by means of verb phrasesoverwork, withhold(扣留), cross-question(盘问)，upbuild (建立建立), uplift, uproot, fast-talk(花言巧语地企图说服)，off-load(卸货)，outeat(吃得比……多)，outgo, outgrow , ill-treat, overhear, overtake, undergo, underline, undermine, undertake, Affixation or DerivationIt is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix, or combining form, to an already existing word. A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek, such as auto-（from GK a utosautos self）. 据统计下列14个词根和20个词缀出现在词典里10，000多个英语单词中词根词前缀前缀 词根Precept pre- (before) capere (take, seize) detain de- (away, from) tenere (hold, have) intermittent inter- (between) mittre (send) offer ob- (against) ferre (bear, carry) Insist in- (into) stare (stand) monograph mono- (alone, one) graph (write) epilogue epi (upon) egein (say, study) 词根词前缀前缀 词根aspect ad- (to, toward) spicere (see) com- (together) plicare (fold) uncomplicated un- (not); c omnonextended non- (not); e x ex- (out of) tendere (stretch) reproduction re- (back, again); pro- (forward) ducere (lead) dis- (apart from) ponere (put, place) indisposed in- (not); d isoversufficient over - (above); s ub sub - (under) facere (make, do) mistranscribe mis - (wrong); t rans trans - (across) scribere (write) Number-related prefixes from Latin prefix meaning examples uni- one uniform duo- two duet (二重唱二重唱/奏）奏） tri- three trio (三人组）三人组）三人组） quad-, quart- four quadruplets (四胞胎）四胞胎）四胞胎） quint- five quintuplets sext six sexet (六人组）六人组）六人组） sept seven september (7th month, Roman calendar) oct- eight october nona nine nonagenarian (90-99岁的人）岁的人）Number-related prefixes from Latin deca- ten decade cent- hundred centigrade (一百度的）一百度的）一百度的） multi- many multiply prim-, prin- first primary secund second secondary ambi both (双）双）双） ambivalent (两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的）两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的） equi- equal equidistant (等距离的）等距离的）等距离的） omni- all omnipotence (全能）全能） semi-, sem half semester (half a year 学期）学期）demi- half demitasse (half a cup for serving coffee (一小杯清咖啡）一小杯清咖啡）Number-related prefixes from Greek prefix meaning examples Mono- one monologue duo-, di- two dialogue tri- three triangle tetra- four tetrameter (四音步诗）四音步诗） penta- five pentameter ，pentagon hexa- six hexagon hepta- seven heptagon deka-, dec- ten decathlon hemi- half hemisphere pan- all pandemic (大流行病）大流行病）I.Prefixation The definition of prefixation Prefixation Prefixation is is is the the the formation formation formation of of of new new new words words words by by by adding adding adding prefixes prefixes prefixes to to to stems. stems. stems. Prefixes Prefixes Prefixes do do do not not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixes Non-class-changing prefixes: n atural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfair natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfairClass-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger , form-deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollegeThe classification of prefixes In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are classified according to their source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. view. It seems It seems more helpful to classify the most important productive prefixes by their meaning into the following ten categories: The most productive prefixesPrefixes which are negative a-, dis-, in-, non-, un- Prefixes which are reversative or privative de-, dis-, un- Prefixes which are pejorative mal-, mis-, pseudo-Prefixes which are of degree or size arch-, arch-, extra-, extra-, extra-, hyper-, hyper-, hyper-, macro-, macro-, macro-, mini-, mini-, mini-, out-, out-, out-, over-, over-, sub-, super, sur-, ultra-, under- Prefixes which are of attitude anti-, co-, contra- counter-, pro- Prefixes which are locative extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, super-, tele-, trans-, Prefixes which are of time and order ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re- Prefixes which are of number semi-, uni-, mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly- Prefixes which are of a miscellaneous category Auto-, neo- pan-, proto-, vice-1.Negative prefix a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy, dis- dishonest, discontent, disobey, disagree in- Incomplete, Incomplete, inconsistent, inconsistent, inconsistent, incorrect, incorrect, incorrect, invulnerable, invulnerable, invulnerable, illogical, illogical, illogical, illegal, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregular non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic un- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest 2.Reversative or privative prefix 含“消除”意思意思 de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, denationalize ，dehydrate depollute, devalue, decentralize un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested(公正的，无私的), disambigulate 3.Pejorative prefix mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice, mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction, maldevelopment,maltreat, malodorous, malnutrition pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend, pseudodemocratic, 4) Prefixes of degree or size hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious ultra- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative mini- minibus, minicamera, miniskirt out- outdo, outgrown, outlive over- overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate super- supermarket, superpower, superstar sub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive, counterattack, counterculture, counterpart anti- anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial, anticancer, antibody pro- pro-American, pro-American亲美的, pro-Communist, pro-student, proslavery 6) Locative prefixes fore- forearm, forehead inter- international, intergovernmental, interdisciplinary, intercollege trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication U.S. intercontinental missile洲际导弹洲际导弹 是指射程在8000千米以上的导弹。
词汇学总结
Ⅰ。
What is lexicology?The study of words/lexical components of a language.Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage.Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human communication Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.the definition of a word comprises the following points:A minimal free form of a language A sound unity A unit of meaning A form that can function alone in a sentenceA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic functionWhat is vocabulary①The total number of the words in a language. ②All the words used in a particular historical period③.All the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.①．5 basic features of the basic word stock All national character 全民性 Stability 稳定性 Productivity 能产性 Polysemy 多义性 Collocability 搭配能力强Non-basic vocabulary includes the following:Terminology 专业术语technical terms （formal）Jargon 行话specialized vocabulary in certain professionsSlang 俚语substandard words often used in informal occasions (colloquial)Argot 隐语words used by sub-cultured groups (informal)Dialectal words 方言词only by speakers of the dialect (informal)Archaisms 古语词words no longer in common use or restricted (formal)Neologisms 新词语newly created words with new meaning (formal)②Content words/Notional words/full words/lexical wordsConstitute the main body of the English vocabulary, numerous and the number is ever growingFunctional words/ Grammatical wordsConstitute a very small number of the vocabulary; stable③Native words / Angle-Saxon words Native words are not native in fact but words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words.Native words are small in number, but form the mainstream of the basic word stock. What is true of the basic word stock is also true of the native words. Besides they are also (1) neutral in style, (2) frequent in use.Borrowed words/ loan words / borrowings Denizens 同化词Aliens 非同化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic loans 语义借词Ⅱ。
现代英语词汇学（课后总结中文）
现代英语词汇学（课后总结中文）第一篇：现代英语词汇学(课后总结中文)第一章一个词可以被定义为一个基本单位的言论和作为一个最低的自由形式。
它是一个统一的声音和意义，帽子能够执行一个给定的句法功能，所有的话在一个语言的共同组成的词汇。
英语的历史发展表明，英语是一个沉重的借用者，它采用了几乎所有已知语言的词汇，尤其是拉丁语、法语和希腊语。
第一次世界大战的英语词汇¬拉里扩大的速度比以前快后渣土。
对了一天英语词汇快速增长的根本原因是科学技术进步的标志，社会经济、政治和文化的变化¬宝在英语母语国家的发生，和其他国家的语言和文化的强烈影响，由于在历史发展过程中出现大规模借贷，英语词汇极其丰富和异质。
词汇量从旧英语的50000个增加到了60000个，增加到了世界上最大的一百万个单词。
尽管外来词在本土词汇上占优势，但后者却是英语词汇中最熟悉、最有用的部分。
前者增加了灵活性和语言资源¬丰满。
英语词汇包含不同种类的词汇。
可根据不同的¬租金标准分类。
词汇可以根据其来源分类为母语反借词。
通过使用水平，词可以分为普通（或流行〉词文学的话口语词、俚语和术语。
一个词的状态不是固定不变的，而是不断变化的。
技术术语可能会很流行，而流行词可以用作专门术语。
一些俚语也成为常用词或俗语词可以分为实词和虚词前有独立的词汇意义，后者，在大多数情况下，没有词汇本身的含义，作为语法信号显示内容之间的连接词。
虚词比内容词少得多，但使用频率更高。
第二章词是由语素构成的，语素是英语最有意义的单位，既有音也有义。
一位是任何一个рЬешеMOR的变体形式。
语素111ay被归类为自由或束缚，自由语素是一个可以成为一个独立的COM¬完整的话语，而粘着语素不能单独存在；它必须出现至少一个其他语素自由或束缚。
语素可以分为根和根进行affixies，在аіягогсІ意义的重要组成部分，根可以免费或黏着语素自由根可以独立成为单词，并为语言的形成提供基础。
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1、what is lexicology?Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language。
It deals not only with simple words，but also with complex and compound words。
2、morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components。
Inmorphology，morpheme is a basic concept。
Morphemes are considered as the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words。
Semantics is often defined as the study of meaning。
Semantics is usually approached from one of two perspectives：philosophical or linguistic. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words。
First…second…third P23、lexicography is closely related to the words in a given language. It involves thewriting and compilation of dictionaries，especially dealing with the principles that underlie the process of compiling and editing dictionaries。
4、Major features of words:1)。
a word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily withour vocal equipment。
2）。
a word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.3)。
the word is an uninterruptible unit。
4）。
a word has to do with its social function.5）。
a word may consist of one or more morphemes。
6). Words are part of the large communication system we call language.7)。
A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases。
5、Lexical words：are nouns，verbs，adjectives，and adverbs。
Grammaticalwords are words like pronouns，prepositions，demonstrative，determiners，conjunctions, auxiliary verbs，and so on。
6、The morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents，the smallestmeaningful units of language。
One morpheme：boy, desire, sayTwo morphemes：boy+ish, desire+ableThree morphemes：boy+ish+ness, desire+able+ityFour morphemes: gentle+men+li+ness, un+desire+able+ity7、Phonemes，which are the smallest working units of sound per se，build up intomorphemes，a morpheme is composed of one or more phonemes。
8、Lexical item as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of anyinflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain。
Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants。
9、Types of morphemes：1）。
Bound morphemes and free morphemes2). Derivational and inflectional morphemes10、seven types of meaning：conceptual meaning，connotative meaning，social meaning,affective meaning,reflected meaning，collocative meaning，thematic meaning.11、conceptual meaning，which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning，refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary。
12、connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to ，over and above its purely conceptual content. Connotations vary from age or age, from society to society, and from individual to individual within the same speech community。
13、roots tend to have a core meaning which is in some way modified by the affix，but determining meaning is sometimes tricky.14、polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings。
15、homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape。
16、Old English period（450-1066）：features: the vocabulary of Old English is almost purely Germanic，a large part of this vocabulary has disappeared from the language.The Middle English period （1066-1500)：features：some of the changes were the results of the Norman Conquest and the conditions which followed that event；others were a continuation of tendencies that had begun to appear in Old English；in grammar, English changed from a highly inflected language to an analytical one。
The English vocabulary was characterized by the loss of a large part of the Old English word—stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin.Early Modern English period （1500—1800)：the advent of the printing revolution marked its beginning。
Printing played a major role in fostering the norms of spelling and pronunciation。
Throughout the modern period，written English has been quite uniform. It is the transitional period from Middle English to Modern English period。
The Modern English period （1800—present)：unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary; the assertion of American English as a dominant variety of the language；the emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes'。
17、major influences on English:The Scandinavian influenceThe Norman ConquestThe Latin influence18、borrowing is the process of imitating a word from a foreign language and, at least partly，adapting it in sound or grammar to the native language。