英语语义学 Semantics
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学:Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning意义研究的不同观点5.2.1 The naming theory命名论(by希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论:Words are just names or labels for things.词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory局限性:1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only.这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object:eg. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in,hearted, think, hard, slowly…)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world:ghost, gragon, unicorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse.有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。
chapter5semantics语言学
chapter5semantics语言学语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子意义的研究。
1.“意义”的意义G.Leech提出7种意义：概念意义，内涵意义，社会意义，感情意义，反射意义，搭配意义，主题意义。
G.Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。
涵义和指称的区别类似内涵与外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。
每个单词都有涵义，即概念意义，否则他们无法使用或理解，但并非每个单词都有指称。
2.指称论（命名论）：该理论把词语意义与词所指或词所代表的事物联系起来。
该理论对于解释专有名词或在现实中有所指的名词时很有效。
但其无法指称抽象概念。
有时同一东西会有不同词语的表达。
3.概念论。
代表是语义三角说。
该理论认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，而是以抽象的概念为中介。
4，语境论认为应该在具体语境中研究词的意义. 语境包括情景语境和上下文两种。
5.行为主义理论认为词的意义是说话者说话得情景及听话人的反应6.意义关系词语词之间的主要意义关系：相同关系，相反关系，包含关系a.同义关系。
完全同义关系很少，所谓的同一都依赖语境，并总在某方面不同。
（方言，内涵，文体等）b.反义关系主要包括：等级反义关系，互补反义关系，关系反义关系。
1）等级反义的特点：第一，否定一方并不必然是肯定另一方，还有中间状态；第二，没有绝对评判标准，标准随对象而改变。
第三，通常用其中表示较高程度的词来覆盖整个量级。
覆盖性词被称为“无标记的”，即一般性的；被覆盖词被称为“有标记的”，即特殊的。
一般使用覆盖性词语。
一旦使用被覆盖词语，表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况。
第四，可用very修饰，可有比较级最高级2）互补反义关系，第一，肯定一方意味着否定另一方。
反之亦然。
第二，不用very修饰，没有比较级最高级。
第三，评判标准绝对。
没有覆盖性词语3）关系（反向）反义关系，表现两个实体间的一种反向关系，不构成肯否定对立。
一个预设着另一个的存在。
Chapter-5-Semantics(语义学)
• Three types of connotative meanings: • positive(褒义), neutral(中性),negative(贬义)
• A good meal, • A good car, • A good movie, • a good road, • A good child, • good weather • A good umbrella
• A fast road, • a fast typist • A fast book • A fast decision.
the hearer (stimulus—response)
Jill is hungry and wants Jack to pick the
apple for her from the tree:
Jill
Jack
• S-------------r…….s---------------R
• 证实论：一个句子只有得到经验证实才有 意义：John is outside。
Chapter 5 Semantics(语义学）
5.1 what is semantics
• Semantics（语义学）is the study of meaning.
• What is meaning? Love, friendship， truth, fact, democracy, good, chair, ghost, unicorn；真善美，justice, soul
语言学知识_语义学
语义学一．语义学（Semantics）的定义：研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。
二．词汇意义（Lexical Meaning）：1）意义与指称（sense and reference）：意义与指称是语言研究中的两个术语，它们之间既相互联系，又相互区别。
意义（sense）是一系列抽象语义特征的集合，与语境无关，可以在字典中查到。
而指称（reference）是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物；它涉及语言形式与非语言的现实世界之间的关系。
意义与指称是意义的两个相关但不同的方面，例如“morning star”和“evening star”的意义虽然不同，但其指称一样，都指代天空中的同一颗星星。
2）外延意义（denotative meaning）：指词语所指称的外部世界的事物、状态、抽象情感。
例如：dog(狗)的外延意义是指“一种四肢、有毛、会汪汪叫的哺乳动物”，这种意义在任何国家、任何时代都不会改变。
3）内涵意义（connotative meaning）：指源于语言使用者的个人经历、情感、评价、语境等外部因素的意义。
例如dragon一词，在汉语文化中象征着“高贵”、“权利”，但在某些英语国家文化中，其内涵意义则为“残暴”和“邪恶”。
三．意义关系（Sense Relationship）：1）同义关系（Synonymy）：方言同义词（Dialectal synonyms）：意义相同但方言有差异的词，例如：autumn（BrE）= fall（ArE）。
文体同义词（Stylistic synonyms）：意义相同但在文体上或者正式程度上有差别的词，例如：buy（较为随意）——purchase（较为正式）。
搭配同义词（Collocational synonyms）：指意义上相同，但是搭配不相同的词。
例如：provide和supply，provide sth. for sb.和supply sth. to sb.在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词（Synonyms with different emotive or evaluative meaning）：意义相同，但在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的词，例如：politician （政客）含贬义色彩，statesmen（政治家）含褒义色彩。
新编简明英语语言学Chapter5Semantics语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning意义研究的不同观点5.2.1 The naming theory命名论(by希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论: Words are just names or labels for things.词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory局限性:1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only.这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object: eg. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in, hearted, think, hard, slowly…)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world: ghost, gragon, unicorn麒麟. 有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such as joy and impulse. 有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。
语言学知识_语义学
语言学知识_语义学语义学一．语义学（Semantics）的定义：研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。
二．词汇意义（Lexical Meaning）：1）意义与指称（sense and reference）：意义与指称是语言研究中的两个术语，它们之间既相互联系，又相互区别。
意义（sense）是一系列抽象语义特征的集合，与语境无关，可以在字典中查到。
而指称（reference）是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物；它涉及语言形式与非语言的现实世界之间的关系。
意义与指称是意义的两个相关但不同的方面，例如“morning star”和“evening star”的意义虽然不同，但其指称一样，都指代天空中的同一颗星星。
2）外延意义（denotative meaning）：指词语所指称的外部世界的事物、状态、抽象情感。
例如：dog(狗)的外延意义是指“一种四肢、有毛、会汪汪叫的哺乳动物”，这种意义在任何国家、任何时代都不会改变。
3）内涵意义（connotative meaning）：指源于语言使用者的个人经历、情感、评价、语境等外部因素的意义。
例如dragon一词，在汉语文化中象征着“高贵”、“权利”，但在某些英语国家文化中，其内涵意义则为“残暴”和“邪恶”。
三．意义关系（Sense Relationship）：1）同义关系（Synonymy）：方言同义词（Dialectal synonyms）：意义相同但方言有差异的词，例如：autumn（BrE）= fall（ArE）。
文体同义词（Stylistic synonyms）：意义相同但在文体上或者正式程度上有差别的词，例如：buy（较为随意）——purchase（较为正式）。
搭配同义词（Collocational synonyms）：指意义上相同，但是搭配不相同的词。
例如：provide和supply，provide sth. for sb.和supply sth. to sb.在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词（Synonyms with different emotive or evaluative meaning）：意义相同，但在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的词，例如：politician （政客）含贬义色彩，statesmen（政治家）含褒义色彩。
英语语言学概论Chapter7Semantics(语义学)
7.1 Introduction7.1.1 What is semantics??Semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.7.1.2 Sub-branches of semantics. John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics, Wen Qiufang makes a distinction between l exical semantics and sentence semantics the latter of which is also termed sentential semantics by some people.7.2 meaning7.2.1 Uncertainty of meaningThe words mean and meaning can be used in many different contexts and for different purposes in daily communication.Even as a technical term, meaning is defined and used differently according to different theoretical approaches.7.2.2 theories of meaningJohn Lyons1.The referential (or denotational theory) 指称说2.the ideational, or mentalistic theory 意念说.3.the behaviourist theory 行为反应说4.the meaning-is-use theory 用法说5.the verificationist theory验证说6.the truth-conditional theory.真值说Li Fuyuan Semantic triangular 语义三角理论7.2.3 Basic concept related to meaningReference所指is the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers.Denotation指称is a term which is intrinsically connected with referenceReferent is the object or state of affairs in extra-linguistic reality or a linguistic element to which the speaker or writer is referring by using a linguistic sign. LimitationsSense意义the characteristic or quality of the object denoted by the linguistic expression. Denotes the relationship inside language.Extension and intensionExtension is the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied Intension is the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression.Concept is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in human mind.7.2.4 Types of meaningDenotation and connotation 外延意义和内涵意义The denotative meaning of a linguistic form is the person,object, abstract notion, event, or Mate which the word or sentence denotes.We can say that the denotation of a linguistic expression is its dictionary meaning.The main application of the term connotation is with reference to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of a linguistic unit, especially a lexical item.Positive neutral negative (Wen Qiufang)7.3Lexical semantics is concerned with the meaning of lexical items.7.3.1 componential analysis成分分析The way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is known as componential analysis. We can analyze a word as a set of semantic features or semantic components with the values: plus ( + ) or minus ( -)7.3.27.3.2 Semantic field 语义场Words do not exist in isolation. They are always related to each other in one another and form different semantic fields. Semantic field theory is a theory of the German structuralist school：the vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. (Crystal. 1985, 274).7.3.3 Lexical relationsSaeed 8 lexical relations一Form relation 形式关系Homonymy同音（同形）异义关系two or more lexical items are synonyms when they have the same meaningsAbsolute homoyms 同音同形异义词Homopones 同音异义词Homographs 同形异义词二Sense relations 语义关系1.Polysemy一词多义关系 a lexical item has a range of different meanings2.Synonymy同义关系two or more lexical items have the same meanings3.Antonymy反义关系two words are opposite in meaningcomplementary antonymy 互补反义关系Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系Relational opposite 关系对立反义词4.Hyponymy下义关系Hyponym 下义词Hyperonym 上义词三object relations 实体关系1.Meronymy 组成部分与整体关系2.Member-collection 成员与集体关系3.Portion-mass 部分与整体关系Lexical ambiguity is caused by ambiguous words rather than by ambiguous structures and is usually created by polysemy or homonymy.7.4 sentential semanticsSix essential factors for determining sentence meaningi) the meanings of individual words which make up a sentence;ii) grammaticality of a sentence;iii) the linear ordering of the linguistic forms in a sentence;iv) the phonological features like stress and intonation;v) the hierarchical order of a sentence;vi) the semantic roles of the nouns in relation to the verb in a sentence.Nine semantic rolesAgent （施事格）Patient （目标格）Experiencer （经验者）Instrument （工具格）Cause （动因格）Attribute （属性）Recipient （接受者）Locative （方位格）Temporal （时间格）SynonymousEntailContradictPresuppose presupposition triggerTautologyContradictionSemantically anomalous 异常的反常的Predicate谓语argument论元proposition命题。
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SemanticsSemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Semantics = Theory of MeaningIts goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words.Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences.History of Semantics1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖.1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning.1900 – Its English version came out.1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China.One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三角Concept（meaning）refers tosymbolizesSymbol Thing（word）（referent）stands forThe Referential Theory 指称论Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind.Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression.Concept VS. Referent (Thing)A referent may exist in the physical world.The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word.Sense 语义Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context.It’s abstract and de-contextualized.Sense RelationsSense relations between wordsWords are in different sense relations with each other.There are generally 5 kinds of sense relations:1) synonymy 同义2) antonymy 反义3) hyponymy 上下义4) polysemy 一词多义5) homonymy 同音同形异义1. SynonymyIt is the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.2. AntonymyIt is the oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymy (relational opposites)Gradable antonymy 分级反义词good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wideThe members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.Not good≠badHot ---warm---cool---coldComplementary antonymy 互补反义词alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girlIt is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.Converse antonymy 换位反义词(relational opposites关系对立反义词)buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after,teacher/ student, above /belowThe members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.ExerciseClassify the following pairs of antonyms:Gradable antonymyComplementary antonymyConverse antonymymarried-single male-female hot-coldgive-take big-small awake-asleepnorth-south logical-illogical win-losebuy-sell doctor-patient above-below3. Hyponymy上下义关系It is the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word.HyponymyMusical instruments ---piano flute guitar violin tuba tromboneFish---snapper salmon bass sole troutSalmon---chinook spring coho king sockey4. PolysemyA word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.Wood:family treea geographical area with many trees5. HomonymyWhen two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.3 types of homonyms:perfect homonyms(同音同形异义词)homographs（同形异义词）homophones (同音异义词).Perfect homonymsPerfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning.bank (银行、河岸)bear (容忍、生（孩子）)sound (声音、完美的)HomographsHomographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning."bow" /bəʊ/ -----"弓―"bow" /bau/ -----"鞠躬"HomophonesHomophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning.tail / taleto / two / toopair / pearsee / seaI / eyepiece / peace。