英美概况英国的扩张(英文版)

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英美概况内容及翻译

英美概况内容及翻译

英美概况复习此为大学英语专业考试内容,下文含翻译。

USAI. Geography1. Geographic Features1.1 The Eastern HighlandsFormed by the Appalachian Range.?1. An average elevation of 800 meters above the sea level.?2. The highest peak:? Mount Mitchell (1856 m):the highest peak of the Appalachian Range ?3. East: the narrow Atlantic Coast plain1.2 The Central Plains1. Vast plains between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountains?2. Drained by the Mississippi River and its tributaries?3. Usually divided into two regions:?1) the Great Plains in the west: vast treeless prairies in the west and agricultural areas in the east?2) the Central Lowland in the east: from the five Great Lakes to central Texas1.3 The Western MountainsHigh plateaus and mountainous country?1. The Rocky Mountains: over 3,000 meters above the sea level?The continental divide of the United States ?2. West of the Rockies:? the Columbia Plateau in the north ?the Colorado Plateau in the southGrand Canyon,the Great Basin in between?The Pacific Mountain System consists of three regions: The Cascade Range, the Sierra-Nevada, and the Pacific Coast Range.?The Sierras contain Mount Whitney (4421m), the highest peak in the US outside Alaska.?Death Valley in eastern California, 85 meters below sea level2. ClimateThe United States has a large size and a wide range of geographic features. Every type of climate is represented in the country: The climate is temperate in most areas, tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida, polar in Alaska, semi-arid in the Great Plains west of the 100th meridian, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in Coastal California, arid in the Great Basin?Extreme weather is common: the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur within the continental United States, primarily in the Midwest.3. RiversThe Mississippi River (Great River, Big River in Indian language) is 3,770 km long: the second longest river in the United States. It originates from Minnesota and empties into the Gulf of Mexico.?The Missouri River is 4,090 km long. It is the longest river (longest branch of the Mississippi). It is a Mississippi tributary, flowing from the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin and emptying into the Mississippi River.The length of the Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson combination is approximately 6,262 km?The Arkansas River (2,364 km) is the second longest tributary of the Mississippi River. The Ohio River is the largest Mississippi tributary measured by water volume.?The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. Rising in British Columbia, Canada, it runs 3,700 km long, emptying into the Bering Sea.5 great lakesII. American History1. Where did the first Americans come from and why did they migrate to America?Book P 4-52. American Civil warThe American Civil War (1861–1865), also known as the War Between the States, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America (the Confederacy). Led by Jefferson Davis, they fought against the U.S. federal government (the “Union”), which was supported by all the free states and the five border slave states.2.1 The CausesThe coexistence of a slave-owning South with an increasingly anti-slavery North made conflict likely. Lincoln did not propose federal laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, expressed a desire to “arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction”. Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories. All of the organized territories were likely to become free-soil states, which increased the Southern movement toward secession. Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would wither and die.The coexistence of a slave-owning South with an increasingly anti-slaveryNorth made conflict likely. Lincoln did not propose federal laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, expressed a desire to “arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction”. Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories. All of the organized territories were likely to become free-soil states, which increased the Southern movement toward secession. Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would wither and die. Southern fears of losing control of the federal government to antislavery forces, and Northern fears that the slave power already controlled the government, brought the crisis to a head in the late 1850s. Sectional disagreements over the morality of slavery, the scope of democracy and the economic merits of free labor vs. slave plantations caused the Whig and “Know-Nothing” parties to collapse, and new ones to arise (the Free Soil Party in 1848, the Republicans in 1854, the Constitutional Union in 1860). In 1860, the last remaining national political party, the Democratic Party, split along sectional lines.2.2 Factors Affecting the Process and ResultsWhat greatly affected the process as well as the result of the war were the differences between the South and the North in their strategies, geographical features, technology, and manpower and finance.2.2.1 StrategiesAs men poured into the armies, Northern and Southern leaders discussed strategies that would achieve victory.Northern armies would have to invade the Confederacy, destroy its capacity to wage war, and crush the will of the Southern people to resist. The Confederacy could win by prolonging the war to a point where the Northern people would consider the effort too costly in lives and money to persist.The South had a compelling example in the American Revolution of a seemingly weaker power defeating a much stronger one. If the North chose not to mount a military effort to coerce the seceded states back into the Union, the Confederacy would win independence by default.Lincoln and other Northern leaders, however, had no intention of letting the Southern states go without a fight. The most prominent American military figure in the spring of 1861 was Winfield Scott, the general-in-chief of the United States Army. With a brilliant mind, Scott conceived a long-range strategy to bring Northern victory. Scott’s plan sought to apply pressure on the Confederacy from all sides. A combined force of naval and army units would sweep down the Mississippi River, d ividing the Confederacy’s eastern and western states. At the same time, the Union navy would institute a blockade to deny the Confederacy access to European manufactured goods. Should the South continue to resist evenafter the loss of the Mississippi and the closing of its ports, Scott envisioned a major invasion into the heart of the Confederacy.2.2.2 GeographyGeography played a major role in how effectively the two sides were able to carry out their strategies.The sheer size of the Confederacy posed a daunting obstacle to Northern military forces. Totaling more than 1,940,000 km2 and without a well-developed network of roads, the Southern landscape challenged the North’s ability to supply armies that maneuvered at increasing distances from Union bases.It was also almost impossible to make the North’s blockade of Southern ports completely effective because the South’s coastline stretched 5600 km and contained nearly 200 harbors and mouths of navigable rivers.The Appalachian Mountains also hindered rapid movement of Northern forces between the eastern and western areas of the Confederacy while the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia offered a protected route through which Confederate armies could invade the North.The placement of Southern rivers, however, favored the North. The Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers provided excellent north-south avenues of advance for Union armies west of the Appalachians.2.2.3 TechnologyTechnological advances helped both sides deal with the great distances over which the armies fought. The Civil War was the first large conflict that featured railroads and the telegraph. Railroads rapidly moved hundreds of thousands of soldiers and vast quantities of supplies; the North contained almost twice as many miles of railroad lines as the South. Telegraphic communication permitted both governments to coordinate military movements on sprawling geographical fronts.The combatants also took advantage of numerous other recent advances in military technology. The most important was the rifle musket carried by most of the infantrymen on both sides. The rifle musket, with an effective range of 225 to 275 meters, allowed defenders to break up attacks long before they reached the defenders’ positions.Other new technologies included ironclad warships, which were used by both sides; the deployment of manned balloons for aerial reconnaissance on battlefields, used mainly by the North. The technology for all of these weapons had been present before the Civil War, but never before had armies applied the technology so widely.2.2.4 Manpower and FinanceAt the beginning of the war, state militias provided most of the troops for both Union and Confederate armies. Soon large numbers of civilianswere volunteering for military service. Throughout the war, the bulk of the forces consisted of volunteers.When the number of volunteers lagged behind the growing battle casualties, both the Northern and Southern governments resorted to drafting men into the armies. The Confederacy passed the first draft act in April 1862. The Union followed almost a year later.Although the draft itself did not produce a sufficient number of soldiers, the threat of being drafted led many to volunteer and collect a bounty, which was paid to volunteers. Some soldiers were unscrupulous enough to enlist, desert, and reenlist to collect the bounty more than once.The Civil War, like all wars, called for great sums of money to pay troops and supply them with equipment. At the outset of the war the Confederacy depended on loans, but this source of finance soon disappeared as Southerners began to be affected financially by the cost of the war and unable to buy bonds. Instead it relied on paper money, freely printed. The Confederacy suffered greatly from severe inflation and debt throughout the war. The Confederate rate of inflation was about 9200%.The Union financed its armies by loans and taxes to a much greater degree than the Confederacy, even resorting to an income tax. The people of the North were more prosperous than those of the South. A national banking system was established by Congress to stimulate sales of U.S. bonds. Northerners had savings with which they could buy the bonds and had earnings from which taxes could be taken.2.3 The Process2.6.1 Eastern Theater (1861-1863)2.6.3 Western Theater (1861-1863)2.6.4 Trans-Mississippi Theater (1861-1865)3. America in World War IWorld War I, military conflict, from August 1914 to November 1918, that involved many of the countries of Europe as well as the United States and other nations throughout the world.World War I was one of the most violent and destructive wars in European history.Of the 65 million men who were mobilized, more than 10 million were killed and more than 20 million wounded.The term World War I did not come into general use until a second worldwide conflict broke out in 1939. Before that year, the war was known as the Great War or the World War.1.1 Coalitions InvolvedThe war began as a clash between two coalitions of European countries.The first coalition, known as the Allied Powers, included the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Russian Empire.The Central Powers, which opposed them, consisted of the empires of Germany and Austria-Hungary.1.2 The Immediate CauseThe immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by a Serbian nationalist.The fundamental causes of the conflict, however, were rooted deeply in the European history of the previous century, particularly in the political and economic policies that prevailed in Europe after 1871, the year that Germany emerged as a major European power.2. The Great DepressionOn October 24, 1929, the American stock market crashed. Billions of dollars of paper profits were wiped out within a few hours. This led to a long economic depression.However, the post-war industrial boom and the prosperity were soon to vanish. The Great Depression in the United States, worst and longest economic collapse in the history of the modern industrial world, began from the end of 1929 until the early 1940s.2.1 The CausesThe depression was caused by a number of serious weaknesses in the economy.It is a common misconception that the stock market crash of October 1929 was the cause of the Great Depression. The two events were closely related, but both were the results of deep problems in the modern economy that were building up through the “prosperity decade” of the 1920s.As is typical of post-war periods, Americans in the Roaring Twenties turned inward, away from international issues and social concerns and toward greater individualism.The self-centered attitudes of the 1920s seemed to fit nicely with the needs of the economy. Modern industry had the capacity to produce vast quantities of consumer goods, but this created a fundamental problem: Prosperity could continue only if demand was made to grow as rapidly as supply. Accordingly, people had to be persuaded to abandon such traditional values as saving, postponing pleasures and purchases, and buying only what they needed. Advertising methods were used to persuade people to buy such relatively new products as automobiles and such completely new ones as radios and household appliances. The resulting mass consumption kept the economy going through most of the 1920s.But there was an underlying economic problem: Income was distributed very unevenly, and the portion going to the wealthiest Americans grew larger as the decade proceeded. This was due largely to two factors: While businesses showed remarkable gains in productivity during the 1920s, workers got a relatively small share of the wealth this produced. Between 1923 and 1929, manufacturing output per person-hour increased by 32 percent, but workers’ wages grew by only 8 percent. Corporate profits shot up by 65 percent in the same period.As a result of these trends, in 1929 the top 0.1 percent of American families had a total income equal to that of the bottom 42 percent. This meant that many people who were willing to purchase new products did not have enough money to do so. To get around this difficulty, the 1920s produced another innovation—“credit,” an attractive name for consumer debt. People were allowed to “buy now, pay later.”International problems also weakened the economy. After World War I the United States became the world’s chief creditor as European countries struggled to pay war debts and reparations. Many American bankers were not ready for this new role. They lent heavily and unwisely to borrowers in Europe, especially Germany, who would have difficulty repaying the loans, particularly if there was a serious economic downturn. These huge debts made the international banking structure extremely unstable by the late 1920s.In addition, the United States maintained high tariffs on goods imported from other countries, at the same time that it was making foreign loans and trying to export products. This combination could not be sustained: If other nations could not sell their goods in the United States, they could not make enough money to buy American products or repay American loans.The rising incomes of the wealthiest Americans fueled rapid growth in the stock market, especially between 1927 and 1929. Soon the prices of stocks were rising far beyond the worth of the shares of the companies they represented. People were willing to pay inflated prices because they believed the stock prices would continue to rise and they could soon sell their stocks at a profit.In 1928 the Dow Jones industrial average, an index that tracks the stock prices of key industrial companies, doubled in value in less than two years. But the stock boom could not last. The great bull market of the late 1920s was a classic example of a specul ative “bubble” scheme. In the fall of 1929 confidence that prices would keep rising faltered, then failed.Starting in late October the market plummeted as investors began selling stocks. On October 29, known as Black Tuesday, the worst day of the panic, stocks lost $10 billion to $15 billion in value. By mid-November almost all of the gains of the previous two years had been wiped out, withlosses estimated at $30 billion.The stock market crash announced the beginning of the Great Depression.2.3 R oosevelt’s New DealThe initial government response to the Great Depression was ineffective, as President Hoover insisted that the economy was sound and that prosperity would soon return.But business owners saw no reason to increase production while unsold goods clogged their shelves. By 1932 investment had dropped to less than 5 percent of its 1929 level. By the election year of 1932, the depression had made Hoover so unpopular that the election of the Democratic presidential candidate Franklin Delano Roosevelt was all but assured. Shortly after his inauguration in 1933, Roosevelt quickly lifted the nation’s spirits with the rapid and unprecedented actions of the New Deal.The New Deal produced a wide variety of programs to reduce unemployment, assist businesses and agriculture, regulate banking and the stock market, and provide security for the needy, elderly, and disabled. The basic idea of early New Deal programs was to lower the supply of goods to the current, depressed level of consumption. The government sought to raise farm prices by paying farmers not to grow surplus crops and to create codes for many industries that regulated competition while guaranteeing minimum wages and maximum hours for workers. The New Deal also tried to increase demand, pumping large amounts of money into the economy through public works programs and relief measures.Public works projects not only provided jobs but built schools, dams, and roads. The New Deal helped people to survive the depression. Unemployment was reduced, but remained high through the 1930s. Farm income rose from a low of $1.9 billion in 1932 to $4.2 billion in 1940. The demands of the depression led the United States to institute social-security programs and accept labor unions, measures that had been taken decades earlier in many European nations.3.2.1 US and Japanese ConflictIn the final result, however, the United States had little choice in the matter. When France had fallen to Germany, Japan had begun to move into French Indo-China, which had been France's source of rubber and was thought to be rich in oil. The United States government had no desire to see Japan in possession of its own stocks of these essential resources and so threatened to place an embargo on these goods. The Japanese responded in an unexpected way. On Sunday, 7 December 1941, Japanese naval aircraft attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at anchor at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian islands. The Pearl Harbor Attack brought the United States into the war on December 8. Germany and Italy declared war on the United Stateson DecemberThe CongressThe United StatesCongress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election.As provided by the United States Constitution, each of the 435 members of the House of Representatives represents a district and serves a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population. The 100 Senators serve staggered six-year terms. Each state has two senators, regardless of population. Every two years, approximately one-third of the Senate is elected.checks and balances:The government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the executive and the judicial, each has part of the powers but not all the power. And each branch of government can check, or block, the actions of the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. This called “checks and balances”.What is American General Education?见书English2.1 The Iberians1) They are the earliest settlers on the British Isles.2.2 The Celts1) From 700 B.C. Celts came in several successive waves from the Upper Rhineland and began to inhabit British Isles.2) The fair-haired Celts imposed themselves as an aristocracy on the conquered tribes of Iberians throughout Britain and Ireland.3) These people found refuge in the mountains to the north and west.4) At least two big waves of Celtic invasion can be distinguished: first the Gaels or Goidels, still found in Ireland and Scotland, came over as early as 600 B.C.; secondly the Cymric and Brythons, still found in Wales, come over before 300 B.C.3. Roman Britain3.1 Roman InvasionRoman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410.The Romans referred to their province as Britannia.Prior to the Roman invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanization, industry and architecture, leaving a legacy that is still apparent today.It is believed that the Celts were related with the ancient people in what is now France. They gave some help in the struggle to resist the Roman invasion of France. As a result, the Roman army, commanded by Julius Caesar, invaded England in 55 BC. He landed in Kent with several thousand Roman troops, but meeting resistance and bad weather, the Roman withdrew soon after. In the following year, Julius Caesar and the Romans went across the English Channel and invaded Britain for the second time. Julius Caesar and his soldiers did not stay long in England before they withdrew again. The invasion marked the beginning of English recorded history because Julius Caesar kept a diary and wrote down what he saw in England. The successful invasion of England by the Romans did not take place until nearly a century later, in 43 AD, headed by the Emperor Claudius I. The Romans did not meet with much resistance on the part of the natives and soon got possession of what is now England by driving many of the native Celts into mountainous Scotland and Wales. The Romans failed to conquer Scotland, they built two great walls, the Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall, along the northern border of England to prevent the Picts in Scotland from invading England.3.2 Influences of Roman InvasionThe 3d and 4th centuries witnessed the decline of the Roman Empire. In 410 Rome abandoned Britain.1. Roman urban civilization, baths and amphitheaters, as well Hadrian’s Wall. People who spoke Latin and wore togas. Numerous villas——vast estates worked by slaves and featuring sumptuous noble dwellings—were also established. Beyond these, the countryside remained Celtic.2. A network of roads, still in use for 1400 years;3. A number of towns. They introduced a system of organized government and built a network of towns, mostly walled. These town used names ending with “ster”, “cester”, or “shire” -- Leicester, Worcester and Yorkshire—deriving from castra, the Latin word for camp; the Roman capital was London.4. Christianity; the Romans brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain. This came at first by indirect means, probably brought by traders and soldiers, before the first Christian Emperor, Constantine, we proclaimed in 306 AD.5. Water and sewage systems.1.1 Anglo-SaxonSoon after the Romans left, a band of new invaders landed in the southern part of England, in what is now the country of Kent. They were known in history as the Jutes. Other Germanic tribes came trooping after them. This continued for many years. The Saxons came from northern Germany and established their kingdoms in Essex (East Saxow), Succes (South Saxon) and Wessex (West Saxon). In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, also from northern Germans, came and settled in the east part of England. After the newcomers had taken possession of all the land now known as England, the movement, know in history as the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, was complete. But we must bear in mind that theses Germanic tribes never obtained possession of what we now call Scotland, Wales and Ireland. The inhabitants of these countries were still Celts.The England was divided into seven principal kingdoms, known as Heptarchy in English history: Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain.The influence of Anglo-Saxon?The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. They divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law.?They devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century. In this system, the arable land around a village was divided into three hedgeless (open) big fields. These fields were divided into narrow strips which were shared out among the villagers. Good land was thus fairly distributed. One great field was left “fallow” each year so that its soil could recover its richness after two years’ cultivation.?They set up the basis of the English agrarian civilization and subsistence farming. There were wastelands, known as commons, which were used by villagers to graze livestock and get firewood. This system was the basis of the English agrarian civilization and subsistence farming. It helped to shape the English community life and the Anglo-Saxon concept of equality.?They created the Witan(council or meeting of the wisemen) to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.2. Viking Invasion (800–1066)In the 8th century, the Vikings from theScandinavian countries of northern Europe, Norway and Denmark, began to attack the English coast. In the process of resisting the Vikings, the 7 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England gradually became united under Alfred the Great.Alfred was a king of Wessex. He was not only an able warrior but also adedicated scholar and a wise ruler. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system.After the death of Alfred, his successors were not as capable as he had been. Taking advantage of the situation, more Dane came and set about taking possession of the entire country. The Anglo-Saxon king didn’t care for fighting, but he dreamed of buying off the Danes. As a result, more invaders came. In 1016, the Witan chose Canute, the Danish leader, as king of England. Canute, who made England part of a Scandinavian empire which included Norway as well as Denmark.3. Norman Conquest3.1 Norman Conquest: CauseAfter the death of Canute’s son, the crown was passed to Edward the Confessor, the last Anglo-Saxon king.When Edward was on his death-bed, several men laid claim to the English throne, the king of Norway, the Duke of Normandy (Edward’s cousi n), and Harold Godwinson( a brother of Edward’s wife).William, the Duke of Normandy, claimed the Edward had promised the crown to him before his death. He became very angry when he heard that Harold had taken the crown. Harold knew that William would come to measure swords with him. he was prepared to fight, placing an army on the southern coast of England to watch for William’s coming. Several months passed by and William failed to appear. He was abiding his time. When the harvest time in England came, ma ny of Harold’s soliders went back home to gather in the crops/. The coast was thus left undefended.William seized the chance and landed his army in Southeastern England in Sep. 1066. Harold, who had been fighting in the north, hurried back with the exhausted troops. They fought at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October. It was a close battle at first, but in the final hours William’s superiority in cavalry and archers proved decisive. Harold was killed, along with his brothers Earl Gyrth and Earl Leofwine, and the English army fled.William became known as William the Conqueror, the first Anglo-Norman king of England.3.2 Control of EnglandAfter Willam became the king, he took a few measures to control England Soldiers rewarded: The Normans received from William lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion.All land was the king’s: William claimed ultimate possession of。

英美概况(英文版ppt)

英美概况(英文版ppt)

3.1.1 Economic reason Two different economic systems existed side by side In the South—slavery was the foundation In the North—commerce and industry led the economy led to increased conflicts between North and South.
A meeting of colonial leaders
who opposed British oppression was held in Philadelphia. They urged Americans to disobey The Intolerable Acts and to boycott (抵制) British trade. At the same time, the colonists began to defend themselves.
• Printing paper money and opening diplomatic relations with foreign powers.
2.2 The Second Continental Congress
George Washington, a wealthy Virginia planter, was respected as a man of ability and integrity.
The United States of America
History
英 语 国 家 概 况
CONTENT
I America in the Colonial Era The War of Independence The Civil War America in the 20th Century America in the 21st Century

英美概况考试重点复习材料(英国部分)

英美概况考试重点复习材料(英国部分)

英美概况考试重点复习材料(英国部分)Chapter 1第一章Land and People 英国的国土与人民I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰。

2. Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

3. The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛(较大的一个)和爱尔兰岛,及成千上万个小岛组成。

4. Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wale大不列颠岛上有三个政治区:英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。

(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区。

(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh 苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。

英美概况(个人总结)

英美概况(个人总结)

独立战争the war of independence
1774年,第一届大陆国会continental congress在费城philadelphia召开,呼吁抵制英国货
1775年,lexington(列克星敦)和concord(康科德)打仗独立战争开始。同年,第二届大陆会议在费城召开,乔治?华盛顿为领导人
中美关系
1972年,Nixon总统访华,签署上海公报Shanghai Communique。1979年,中美建交。
美国宪法起草于1789年,世界上最早的成文宪法。共有7个articles。
Articla I,the Legislative Article立法
只有国会有权立法,two-chamber system,包括senate参议院,house of representatives众议院。参议院100人,每个州来两人,众议院基于每个州的人口比例设立席位。
文艺复兴运动 The English Renaissance
文艺复兴是中世纪到现代的过渡时期,从1350-1650,有300年,从意大利发起,达芬奇等人为代表。在这段时期,罗马教会经历新教改革,人文主义兴起,海外探索(大航海时代?)。
英国内战 The Civil Wars
是国王和议会间的战争,Norttingham King Charles和议会开战,国王军是Cavaliers(骑士),议会军是Roundheads(圆颅党),因为他们短发。查尔斯战败,克伦威尔Cromwell称王。英国内战又称清教徒革命,因为国王的反对者多是清教徒Puritan。清教徒是基督教新教中的一派。这场战争颠覆了英国的封建制度,甚至动摇了欧洲的封建制度,被认为是世界现代史的开端。
议会组成

UK panoramic view英美概况

UK panoramic view英美概况

The British Isles and Great Britains and Position P.3★The full name of the country--The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandThe British Isles—Great Britain, the largest oneIreland, the second largest oneThousands of other islesThe UK—Great BritainNorthern IrelandA number of smaller islands around them*Supplementary Material 1Great Britain—England, south, most populated and developed P.4Scotland, north, second largestWales, southwest, the smallestIreland, Northern Ireland P.5*Supplementary Material 2Location P.7—to the west and off the European Continent, on the east side of the Atlantic Ocean. It does not share land border with any other countries except the Republic of IrelandTo the north: the seaway between the coasts of Iceland and Norway to the Arctic OceanAcross the North Sea: Holland, Germany, Denmark, Norway.Across the English Channel: FranceTo the south: Spain and Portugal2.★Physiographic地形学的Features P.8A. The Highland Zone in the north and westB. The Lowland Zone in the south and southeastThe Highland Zone:a.The Highlands of Scotlandmountains with rounded tops, Ben Nevis the highest mountain, poor soil, pasture, animal husbandry, sparsely populatedb.The Central Lowland of Scotland (middle valley)once a shallow arm of sea, swamp forests, coalfield, thickly populated, cultivated farmland, industrial centerc.The Southern Uplandsdenuded剥蚀的remains of mountains, moorland turning into smiling pastures and woodsd.The Pennines奔宁山脉the Backbone of England, uplande.The Lake District of Cumbrialakes, hills, beautiful landscape, William Wordsworth, Samuel Coleridge, Robert Southey, the Lake Laureates湖畔诗人f.The Welsh Massif山丘高地all the hill masses which lie to the west of the Midlands of England, coal depositsThe Lowland Zone:g.The Midland of EnglandV-shaped area fitting into the Penninesh.The Plain of Lancastriabetween the Pennines and the Irish Seai.The North Eastern Lowlandson the eastern side of the Pennines, corresponding to the plains of Lancastria on the west.These three plains are mostly of rich soil suitable for agriculture.*Supplementary Material 3*Supplementary Material 4*Supplementary Material 53.Climate and Weather P.11★Three features— changeable weather *Supplementary Material 6mild temperatureabundant rainfall4.Inland Water P.14★Important rivers—The Severn River塞文河(the largest, 355 km)The Thames River(the second largest, the most important, 332km)The Clyde River克莱德河(in Scotland)Language, People and Religion1.The English Language P.16*Supplementary Material 1★Old English (5th-12th century) came with Anglo-Saxon invasion★Middle English (12th-15th century) after the Norman Conquest★Modern English (15th century) began to take shape during the Renaissance2. People P.20Mostly white but a mixture of ethnic groupsA. People of the English origin (the majority, descendents of the English-speaking Anglo-Saxons)B.The Scottish people*Supplementary Material 2C.The Welsh people*Supplementary Material 3D. The Irish people*Supplementary Material 4E.Some other minority groups*Supplementary Material 5★Origins of the People P.21A.The aboriginal CeltsB.The 1st century: the conquest of the Celts by the RomansC.The 5th century: the conquest of the Britons by the Teutonic tribes of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—the Anglo-SaxonsD. The 8th century: the invasion by the DanesE. 1066AD: the Norman Conquest★Common Characteristics of the People P.34A.Conservatism—adherence to traditions and familiar thingsB.Reservation—refusal to express one’s mind*Supplementary Material 6C.Deference—being rigidly stratified and status-conscious*Supplementary Material 7D.Politeness—being careful with their manners*Supplementary Material 8Generation Gap P.37The English Way of LifeA.The UK is an industrialized country with more than 90% of the population relying on cities for a living.B.Over 80% of the people live in houses in the suburbs, driving or commuting to and from work.C.Over half of women have paid jobs.D.There are a variety of pastime activities outside home.E.There is the five-workday week system.*Supplementary Material 93. Religion P.31★Britain is a Christian country, but the law protects freedom of religious belief, or no belief at all. However, the monarch has no freedom of belief. The law requires all school children to receive religious instructions and to take part in collective worship at their schools.★The state/established church—the Church of England( the Anglican圣公会Church) with the Queen as its head, who appoints church leaders on the advice of the Prime Minister. Protestant in nature, and the textbook of the Anglican Church includes the main doctrine of the Bible.★The Church of England→2 provinces教省(York and Canterbury) headed by archbishops→43 dioceses in England (44 including 1 in Europe) 主教教区headed by bishops→more than 10,000 parishes headed by fathers*Supplementary Material 10The Church of Scotland institutes Presbyterian长老system of government which is controlled by the Generally Assembly.Free Churches—the Roman Catholic Church, the Methodists循道宗/卫理公会,the Baptists浸信会/浸礼会,Quakers 贵格会/教友派, the Salvation Army救世军Other ReligionsThe Jewish CommunityThe Muslim CommunityThe Sikh CommunityThe Hindu CommunityThe Buddhist Community*Supplementary Material 11Moral IssuesThe Bible teaches us the following:*Supplementary Material 12But the reality is:A controversial issue: Abortion*Supplementary Material 13Government and Politics1. Government★The system of government of GB is c onstitutional monarchy.★The Central Government P.24*Supplementary Material 1A.★The Monarch P.129*Supplementary Material 2B.★Parliament is the nation’s supreme legislative body.★British Parliament—the House of Lords (the Upper House)the House of Commons (the Lower House)All members of the Parliament are considered as servants of the monarch.*Supplementary Material 3a.The House of Lords P.134*Supplementary Material 4b.The House of Commons P.138*Supplementary Material 5C.Cabinet P.142 & Civil Service P.25★The nucleus of the government is the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister*Supplementary Material 6*Supplementary Material 7B. Local Governments P.25Local government is divided into 45 counties (once called shires) outside London. Out-of-date!!!! Absurd!!!!After the 1889 reform, the 1965 reform, the 1974 reform and the 1990s reform, the UK now uses a system of complicated administrative divisions:●England is now divided into: 47 boroughs享有自治权的市镇, 36 counties郡, 29 London boroughs, 12 cities and boroughs, 10 districts, 12 cities, 3 royal boroughs;●Scotland is now divided into: 32 council areas地方自治会;●Wales is now divided into: 11 county boroughs, 9 counties, 2 cities and counties●Northern Ireland is now divided into: 24 districts, 2 cities, 6 countiesThe British government’s intention to adopt this system was to take both historical and modern factors into consideration. But on the contrary, this ridiculous system turns out to be too complicated and confusing for daily use (Even to the British themselves!!!), and without any doubt, it will be changed soon.Please google for more information after class.*Supplementary Material 8The Greater London Authority*Supplementary Material 9The Scottish Parliament*Supplementary Material 10The National Assembly for Wales*Supplementary Material 11The Northern Ireland Assembly*Supplementary Material 12Principles of Public Life*Supplementary Material 132. Party Politics P.23★Politics in Britain is based on the two-party system. P.144 ★The two major parties—the Conservative Partythe Labor Party*Supplementary Material 14*Supplementary Material 15★Election*Supplementary Material 16The Structure of Central Government:Law and Justice1. Law★The English national law consists of: P.27A.Statute Law (written laws established by legislative enactment)成文法, 法令经立法程序所制定的法律: Laws made by ParliamentB.Case Law (a type of law based on judicial decisions and precedents rather than on statutes)判例法, 建立在司法判决和先例基础上而非成文法条基础上的法律: Common Law/普通法/习惯法/不成文法and Equity Law衡平法C.The European Community Law: Since Britain joined the European Community (now European Union) in 1973, the European Court of Justice, which deals with disputes between states as well as individuals or companies and states where Community Law is applicable适用的, has become influential in determining English law. Decisions of the Court of Justice must be accepted by member states.2. JusticeThe Legal System in England &Wales (note: the system in Northern Ireland is similar. The system in Scotland is different. Please google for more information after class) P.28★*Supplementary Material 1*Supplementary Material 2Inside the courts: P.29★Open jury trials●It is the jury that decides whether the defendant is guilty or not.● A normal jury is made up of 12 jurors chosen from the communities.●The western legal principle is: A person cannot be punished by the law without a just trial by his fellow citizens.★Judges—Basic principle of judicial independence*Supplementary Material 3★Lay people—Basic principle of involvement of lay people as magistrates or as jurors*Supplementary Material 4Sentencing*Supplementary Material 5Outside the courts: P.30Legal profession*Supplementary Material 6A.Solicitors (初级)律师(junior lawyers)*Supplementary Material 7B.Barristers大律师(senior lawyers)*Supplementary Material 8Problems raised by the system*Supplementary Material 9Police force P.30*Supplementary Material 10Crime*Supplementary Material 11National Economy and Major Cities5.National Economy P.40★Framework of economy:Britain is● A capitalist country, a major market economy.●One of the major economies in the world.● A member of the G7.That is, the 7 (US, Germany, Japan, France, UK, Canada, Italy) most industrialized countries of the Western World (G8 if Russia is included).● A member state of the European Union.● A trading nation relying heavily on foreign trade.●One of the world’s largest importers. Mainly import raw materials.*Supplementary Material 1The forms of industrial organization and the pattern of ownership are varied in Britain. Generally speaking, they include three categories:●Unincorporated (small business) (15%GDP)●Incorporated (stock companies) (60%GDP)●State-owned businesses (25%GDP)*Supplementary Material 2IndustriesNatural resources in Britain: coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone石灰石, iron ore, salt, clay粘土, chalk白垩, gypsum石膏, lead, silica硅土.*Supplementary Material 3Heavy industries●Coal mining P.43: the Coal Act 1938; the Coal Industry Nationalization Bill; the National CoalBoard.●Oil industry P.43: Britain used to be dependent on imports for its oil supplies. But after the discovery of oil in the North Sea, it gradually became self-sufficient.*Supplementary Material 4●Iron and steel industry P.44: Britain’s largest manufacturing industry is the iron and steel industry. Half of its iron ore depends on importation.●Motor vehicle industry P.44:It is a world’s leading producer and exporter of agriculture tractors.●New industries P.44Textile industry P.45 (centered in South Lancashire)Agriculture P.46●Its principal agriculture products are cereals (wheat, barley and oat), potatoes, sugar beets, oilseed, vegetables, cattle, sheep, poultry and fish.●Animal husbandry: about three fifths of full time farmers are devoted mainly to dairying, beef cattle and sheep.*Supplementary Material 5Tertiary industry P.48It employs about 74% of the nation’s total work force and accounts for about 73.4% of its GDP.Transportation and communication●Highly efficient transportation system●300 seaports●17,700 kilometers of railroad track●371,603 kilometers of highways●3,303 kilometers of expressways●470 airports●Highly-developed postal services●30.5 million telephonesThe tertiary industry: 74% of the nation’s employment and 73.4% of the nation’s gross domestic product.2. Major CitiesBritain is an urban nation.London P.52: 1,580 square kilometers with a population of 7 million. The present-day London is divided into 2 parts: the City of London and the County of Greater London.It is the largest and most important city in Britain, the Capital of the UK, the political and cultural center of the nation, an industrial center, a hub of commerce and transportation.Famous sights: Westminster Abbey, St. Paul’s Cathedral, the Tower of London, the Tabard Inn, the Parliament Building, Big Ben, Scotland Yard, Downing Street, Buckingham Palace, Hyde Park-the speaker’s corner.*Supplementary Material 6Birmingham P.56: 264 square kilometers with a population of 1 million. The second largest city, well known for its production of automobiles, electrical equipment, electronics, munitions军需品and metal products.Manchester P.56: 116 square kilometers with a population of 2.3 million. Center of textile industries, once an important center of theChartist Movement.Liverpool P.57: 113 square kilometerswith a population of 0.5 million, seaport,food industry, machines, machine tools,electrical engineering equipment, chemicals,and electronics.Edinburgh: population 0.5 million ,capital of Scotland, well-knownfor the University of Edinburgh. Port city.Glasgow: population 0.75 million, largest city in Scotland, UK’s greatest industrial center, iron and steel, a shipbuilding center.Belfast: 140 square kilometers with a population of 0.345 million,capital of Northern Ireland. Cardiff: 120 square kilometers with a population of 0.27 million, capital of Wales.Education and Welfarecation P.148●★The aim of education is to develop the abilities of individuals for their own benefit and that of society as a whole.●★The common belief is that proper education is indispensable to qualified citizens.●★Support from and administration by the government:A. The central government is responsible for general education policies and financial support for universities.B.Local authorities are responsible for primary and secondary education.*Supplementary Material 1Primary and secondary education●Britain has instituted compulsory full-time schooling for children between the ages of 5—16.●All school children must receive religious instruction and attend daily worship at school.●Free meal, free education, free transportation, free medical care, and even free stationary.●In primary and secondary schools the pupil-teacher ratio is about 19 to 1.Teachers:A.University graduates—a one-year postgraduate course—Postgraduate Certificate of Education (PGCE)B.Non-graduates—a four-year course—Bachelor of Education degree (BED)In either case, about two thirds of the training will take place in school classrooms.*Supplementary Material 2*Supplementary Material 3*Supplementary Material 4Universities●Higher education is Britain is not compulsory and students have to pay their tuition and fees.●Each university has its own governing council composed of some businessmen, a few politicians and several teachers. The chairman is called Chancellor大学名誉校长(not paid) and he is only a figurehead. But the university benefits from his prestige. The Vice Chancellor who is usually a professional academic directs the day-to-day work.●Universities enjoy complete academic freedom, appoint their own staff, decide which students to admit, provide their own course and award their own degrees.●Admission is by selection on the basis of A level results, school results, school references and an interview.●Teachers: professors, lecturers, senior lectures or Readers.*Supplementary Material 52. Social WelfareBritain is a welfare State*Supplementary Material 6From cradle-to-grave social welfare program*Supplementary Material 7Recent ReformsThe Education Reform Act 1988 provided for:●The establishment of a National Curriculum for 5 to 16 year-olds and regular examination.●The introduction of city technology colleges (CTCs)—CTCs are sponsored by industry and commerce. Their curriculum emphasizes science, technology and business understanding within the framework of the National Curriculum. By September 2001, there were 15 of these.●More power being given to schools to run their own affairs within the framework of a set of national standards.School RulesWhen a young person goes to school, some of the legal rights and duties of a parent are passed on to the head teacher and staff. This means that they have a duty to protect and care for the student but at the same time are free to discipline the young person in the way a “responsible” parent would. During the school day, teachers are legally a kind of parent substitute.The following cases are the ones that usually take place in British primary and secondary schools.●School Uniform: The head teacher and governors of a school feel that it is important for studentsto be smart. They firmly support the idea of keeping the school uniform which is brown blazer运动夹克, tie, white shirt and brown skirt for the girls and brown trousers for the boys. Maria disagrees. She dislikes the colors and feels that young people at school should be free to dress as they wish. She arrives at school in a skirt and top of her own choice. She is immediately sent to the head who insists that Maria works alone for the rest of the day. At 4 o’clock, she is given a note asking her parents to make sure that Maria comes to school in uniform the next day.●Detention: A class of 12-year-olds are having a math lesson—the last period of the day. Fifteen calculators were issued at the beginning of the lesson. They are all returned but two have their batteries missing. The teacher asks for the batteries. None appears. She asks who used the calculators. Silence. She then says that the whole class will stay in for fifteen minutes, that evening and every evening until the batteries are returned or someone owns up to the theft.●Smoking: It is twenty minutes to nine. A group of students are making their way to school. John and Sonia from the fourth year are smoking and are seen by one of the deputy heads代校长, driving up the same road. She stops, rolls down the window, tells them both to put out their cigarettes and to be outside her office at first break. Their parents object to their smoking and it is illegal for people under16 to be supplied with cigarettes.●Confiscation: It is close to the end of term and half the class have finished the GCSE assignments. One student brings a radio into the lesson which is quietly playing as the teacher enters the room. Yesterday, everyone was told in assembly that radios and cassette recorders were not to be brought into school. The teacher takes the radio and tells the student to collect it at the end of term—a week away.Corporal PunishmentSeveral years ago, a fifteen-year-old boy, Jeffery Cosans from Scotland, decided to take a short cut home from school through a nearby cemetery. Students from the school were forbidden to do this and unfortunately for him, he was spotted and reported to the head teacher. After investigating the matter, the head decided that Jeffrey should be beaten, using a leather strap called a taws打孩子用的细小皮鞭, but the boy refused to take this punishment. Jeffery’s parents felt that corporal punishment was wrong and strongly supported him in his refusal to take a beating. They asked the school to punish him in some other way. Jeffrey was not beaten but, instead, suspended from school. After 3 months, the local education authority decided that Jeffrey had been punished enough. They offered to allow him back to school but on the condition that he would accept the discipline of the school. The authority would not promise that Jeffery would never be beaten for misbehavior. Jeffery did not return to school. Four months later, he passed the school leaving age. Jeffrey’s mother took the case to the European Commission on Human Right, which has the power to consider cases where it is claimed that the European Convention on Human Rights has been broken. This agreement, drawn up in 1950 and now signed by 21 countries, list basic human rights which it is now felt everyone should have. Article 3 states: No one shall be made to suffer torture or inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Protocol 1, Article 2 states No one shall be denied the right to education. Governments should give parents the right to make sure that their children are taught in a way which follows the parents’religious or moral beliefs.The verdict: Six years later, in 1982, the case eventually came to court in Strasbourg, France. The judges said that Article 3 had not been broken as Jeffrey had not been strapped. But they agreed (except the British judge) that Protocol 1, Article 2 had been broken. The court awarded Jeffrey Cosansdamages of £3,000 for the schooling he missed while suspended, Mrs Cosans was awarded £9,000 costs.Afterwards: Despite this ruling, most members of the Government did not wish to change the law and abolish corporal punishment. There was a great deal of discussion about what form the law should take but finally in July 1986, MPs voted to abolish corporal punishment in state schools. It was a close thing. There were 231 votes in favor of abolition and 230 against.What is a “Welfare State”?It can be defined as “a state with a government which assumes responsibility for the well-being of its citizens throughout life, through a range of interventions in the market economy”. The welfare state should aim to offer its citizens● A life with certain specified standards of living which it considers reasonable and possible for all;●Protection against the unexpected hazards of life (for example, losing a job, becoming sick, having an accident, etc.).These days, resources for welfare are raised through National Insurance contributions (the scheme administered by the government, where every working person contributes a fixed part of their earnings towards any sickness or other benefits they may need to claim in their life time) and general taxation (which is paid by all people in work above a certain level of income). There is also a Value Added Tax 增值税which is included in the price of many goods and services.Britain is said to be a state with a from-cradle-to-grave social welfare program. It is now widely accepted in Britain that the state, or the government, should ensure, as far as it can, that nobody should be without the means for the minimum necessities of life because of unemployment, old age, sickness, and over-large families. The British are very proud of their welfare programs, but it’s a heavy burden on the government, resulting in what is known as “dependency culture”.Let’s have a quick look at the three most important aspects of social welfare, namely health, social security and housing.HealthA.The National Health ServiceThe National Health Service program is based on the belief that the government should be responsible for improvement in the health of the people. The program provides medicare for almost all the people. The program require employers and employees to contribute some money to the program (80% of the costs of the NHS are paid for out of general taxation, the remainder out of national insurance contributions), but about 90% of the cost of the health services is paid by the government. All children under 16, people who are retired, and people from less well-off homes are entitled to free medicare. School children can also get necessary glasses from the government free of charge.Your GP (General Practitioner全科医生) will visit your at home generally, and if you are not too sick, you visit his or her surgery. Everybody in Britain can register with a local GP who is well-trained in medicine (for 7 years) and can give advice and treat basic illnesses. GPs are paid for by the government according to how many patients they have. Their services come free of charge. You may have a drug prescribed for you, which you will then go to your local chemist’s shop to get. Depending on your income, you may then have to pay part of the cost of the drug.If your GP decides that specialist help is needed, he or she will arrange for you to see a consultant at the hospital. Again, this service is free, as is any time actually spent in hospital, including surgery or other treatment. It can take some time to arrange this, depending on the seriousness of your illness. The problem of being on a “waiting list” has led some of those who can afford it to take out private medical insurance, as the private sector tends to be quicker.B.Private Health-careMost of the very rich only ever see a private doctor—Harley Street in London is very famous for its private doctors or consultants. There have been a lot of small new hospitals built exclusively for private patients. Some state hospitals now also provide beds which are paid for by private patients. Therefore, if you are poor, choose the National Heath Service. Although they are a little bit slow, they are free anyway. If you are rich, choose private health-care. You pay the money, and you get better and more efficient service.Social SecurityThe social security program refers to the various benefits (financial assistance) people are entitled to get under certain conditions. For those who are unemployed, sick or working on a low wage with a family to support, they may claim these benefits from the Department of Social Security (DSS).Major programs●Retirement Pension退休金: Pay a weekly sum towards the National Insurance scheme and the amount to be paid is related to earnings and there is a maximum. The pension is payable to women over 60 and men over 65.●Unemployment Benefit失业救济: Pay a weekly sum towards the National Insurance scheme and the amount to be paid is related to earnings and there is a maximum. The benefit is payable to the unemployed who are registered for employment and on condition that: a. They are available for and actively seeking work. b. They did not leave their last job voluntarily or through their own fault. c. They have not refused a suitable vacancy.●Sickness Benefit疾病津贴, 英政府向因病6个月内不能工作者发放: Need a certificate froma doctor. Generally, if an employee becomes sick and unable to work, the employer and/or state are responsible for paying them a minimum weekly sum.●Severe Disablement Allowance严重残疾补助: Available for persons over 16 who have been incapable of work for 28 consecutive weeks.●Attendance Allowance (残疾人)需照料补助: Paid to those aged 2 or over who are so severely disabled that they need either frequent attention or constant supervision.●Mobility Allowance(残疾人)交通补助: Payable to people with a physical disablement as they are “unable or virtually unable to walk or where the exertion required to walk would causeserious medical harm”.●Invalid Care Allowance照料残疾人津贴: Payable to someone providing regular and substantial care, for 35 hours per week or more, to someone receiving attendance allowance.●Maternity Grants产期津贴: Payable to women in pregnancy and after delivery. 18 weeks.●Widow’s Pension and Widowed Mother’s Allowance孀妇及寡居母亲补助: Based upon their husband’s contribution record, payable to women for the first 26 weeks of widowhood with an additional sum for each child.●Child Benefit儿童津贴: Paid to the parents or guardians of all children under 16, and children between 16 and 18 who are still at school.●Family Income Supplement家庭收入补贴: Payable to a family when its gross weekly income falls below the officially set standard.●Social Fund社会基金: Make “one-off”payments in emergencies or for special necessary purchases (for example, for a new cooker). These are discretionary (for special officials to decide) and you may receive either a grant (which does not have to be repaid), or a loan (which will have to be repaid by subtracting from your benefit a small amount of money each week).※Joke of the day: These programs are the very reason why the British people are quite lazy!!! HousingA.Public SectorBased on the belief that the State should be responsible for the provision of adequate housing with minimal standards to all people, from 1950s, local government authorities were entrusted with the responsibility in ensuring that an adequate housing was available in their authority and in maintaining the standards set by government. Houses built and owned by local councils are known as “council houses”, the people who rent them as “council tenants”. Later, high-rise blocks of flats replaced the slum areas. However, people living in these high-rise buildings reported feelings of isolation and loneliness, and many of the poor quality flats were demolished. During the 1980s, the Conservative government promoted the growth of home-ownership by introducing a policy encouraging local councils to sell off their rented houses to the tenants. Thus, those tenants who chose to accept the often-attractive prices became responsible for maintenance of the property. Today, about 22% of British homes are rented from the local authority. The local council still has a number of responsibilities to provide adequate housing and meet special housing needs in its area, usually through the local Social Services Department—●To house people in their area who are unintentionally homeless and in priority need—for example, a woman with children who has been thrown out of the family home through a marriage dispute.●To provide special facilities for disabled people and the elderly—for example, appropriately adapted housing, sometimes called Sheltered Housing, where alarm systems connect the home with a warden who can respond immediately to a distress call.B.Private Sector●Privately rented housing: accounts for about 9%. The government has introduced tenancy legislation租赁法to protect tenants against unjust rent increases.●Building Society 建房互助协会: Buy houses through mortgage over a long period of time—15-25 years—repaying the money on a monthly basis. This means that the person needs to have a steady job in order to be able to guarantee regular repayments. An average priced house。

英美概况笔记(中英文对照整理版)[1]

英美概况笔记(中英文对照整理版)[1]

英美国家概论路人整理2011-7-27目录第一章英国的国土与人民LAND AND PEOPLE (3)第二章英国的起源THE ORIGINS OF A NATION (9)第三章英国的形成THE SHAPING OF THE NATION (16)第四章向现代英国的过渡TRANSITION TO THE MODERN AGE (22)第五章大英帝国的兴衰THE RISE AND FALL OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE (28)第六章英国经济THE ECONOMY (40)第八章法律与司法机构JUSTICE AND THE LAW (49)第九章英国社会SOCIAL AFFAIRS (55)第十章体育运动SPORTS (60)第十三章美国地理位置GEOGRAPHY (66)第十四章美国人口种族POPULATION.RACE AND ETHNIC GROUPS (70)第十五章美国历史(一)AMERICAN HISTORY(I) (73)第十六章美国历史(二)AMERICAN HISTORY(II) (77)第十七章美国历史(三)AMERICAN HISTORY(III) (81)第十八章美国经济THE ECONOMY (84)第十九章政治制度POLITICAL INSTITUTION (88)第二十章美国教育EDUCATION (93)第二十一章文化建筑和音乐LITERATURE, ARCHITECTURE AND MUSIC (98)第二十二章节日和假期HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS (102)第二十二章节:HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS 节日和假期 (102)第一章英国的国土与人民Land and PeopleI. Different Names for Britain and its Parts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰。

[笔记]英美概况英国的扩张(英文版)

[笔记]英美概况英国的扩张(英文版)

Small Island,Big worldAs it is a fact that England has been a big country in the world for a long period,not only on the land ,but also on the sea.The British Empire was the largest country at that time,which occupied about 33 million square kilometers,taken up one fifth of the world’s total dry land and about 135 tomes as large as Great Britain.It ruled over a population of 560 million,which was more than ten times as large as that of Britain.It was called an empire “on which the sun never set”.Because on almost all the continents of the world Britain had its colonies that kept the sun can be seen on the sky all the time.Britain’s Overseas ExpansionBritish overseas expansion was clearly part of an older tradition of European empire building.They traced this back to classical Greece and Rome,Spanish and Portuguese expansion following Columbus’ voyage to the new world.Britain’s overseas expansion was begin with several battles against Spanish during Elizabeth ’era.Elizabeth avoided open hostility with Spain,but she secretly encouraged English seadogs to raid Spanish colonies and plunder the Spanish ships that were returning back home to Spain.At first,the Spanish king did not know that Britain was their most dangerous rival or Elizabeth’s intention until Spanish king Philip was at the helm of the state.So ,in 1588,the king dispatched a fleet of 130 vessels which named “the Invincible Fleet ”to England.The fleet sailed up the English Channel and a large naval battle out.The English battleships threw their enemies into panic with fire ships.The badly battered the Spanish’s fleet fled to northward in confusion.Caught in a storm ,many of the Spanish warships died and only half of them survived and went back to Spain,never dare to come to England again.The lost of the war made Spain lose its lead position on the sea,while ,on the other hand,Britian could take over Spanish power became the leader.The victory not only established the position of England as a major sea power but also paved the way for its foreign expansion as a colonizing nation.What’s more,British overseas expansion helped the state gather many property for this empire’s construction.British Foreign ExpansionIn the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,Britain experience the Industrial Revolution.It is a big event for all the British.During the Industrial Revolution,a varity of chater companies were the tentacles and they spearheaded the foreign expansion and colonization.These companies,such as the East India Company,had the right to use the English Navy.Charter companies would first force a foreign country to open its market,then they would control the market and establish the British sphere of influence.If the British had occupied the land,the natives would have to leave their land or controlled by them.At the same,as a result of the Industrial Revolution,the empire was quite eager for raw material and expanding its foreign market.So the Britain began to expand its colonies all over the world.The expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland,soon,many continents had became British colonies.In Asia,the East India company was founded in 1600.At first,it traced with India through a few trading posts it had managed to secure on the coast and the southern tip of the peninsula.They also managed to edge out the French and Portuguese colonists who had also come for conquest.By 1819 the British conquest of India was almost complete.The British aggression caused angeramong the natives.In 1857,a large anti–aggression mutiny broke out when the colonial authority ordered the hired native Indian soldiers to use greased catridges.Many of the Indian troops were from the Hindus,who regarded touching of the fat of a cow as contamination worse than death,and the Mohammedans who were also horrified by the fat of the swine.Many parts of the country were involved in the revolt.After the mutiny was suppressed,the control of India was passed to British Crown in 1858,and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.After conquering India,British merchants tried to make a profit in China.But because the Chinese economy was still based on agriculture and self–sufficiency,British used to suffer a deficit in the early trades.To make a profit,British merchants started to import opium into China from India .After China banned the opium trade in1799,still some British merchants continued to smuggle opium into China .In 1839,the Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu ordered the confiscation of about 20 000 chests of opium and burnt them at Canton.The British used this as a excuse and launched a war of aggression against China in 1840.The British troops occupied Hong Kong in 1841,and invaded Zhenjiang before threatening Beijing itself.Due to failure of the Opium War,the Qing dynasty signed the Treaty of Nanjing,which included China ceded Hong Kong to British,opened five ports to British trade and many money to Britain .Among all the colonies of Britain ,Hong Kong was the last one to get its independence until 1997.As for other areas of Asia ,Btitish invaded Burma and occupied the coastal areas.At the same time,Singapore was forced to become British colony.So,Britain had a strategic base to the Indian Ocean and the Far East.After that,British power could expand to the whole Malaysia.It controlled the Strait of Malacca and built the Straits Settlements.In Africa,at the end of the 19 century,this continent is the focus of British colonial expansion.As for its abundant mineral resources, British wanted to control this area and get the resources for their industrial development .Besides,Btitish confined to a number of forts and slave trading posts on the West Coast.The Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip and Egypt in the northern part of the continent were the two chief centers of British advance in Africa.Britain was eager to control the Cape of Good Hope in order to protect its route to India. After England seized Cape Town from Dutch in 1806,English setters began to flock in and they brought in the English language.Then the English colonists pushed northward until the South Africa Union was organized by the English Parliament in 1910.Britian was also interested in controlling Egypt and Sudan.Egypt and France built the Suze Canal which was opened to navigation in 1869.In 1875,the British government bought half of the Suez Canal shares from the bankrupt Egyptian ruler,while the other half was still held by the French .After fierce struggle,the British drove the French from Egypt and gained control of the Suez Canal in 1882.The British suppressed a rebellion and occupied Egypt.By the beginning of the twentieth century,about one third of Africa was controlled by British colonialists.In East Africa,British occupied Somali,Zanzibar,Malawi and Buganda in 1980s and 1990s.In South Africa ,the British South Africa Company invaded to Zambia in 1890.In North America,when the old colonial powers:Portugal,Spain were concentrating their attention on dominating on the sea the deserted east coast of North American became the first British colonial areas of activity.The early imm igrants were actually “pushed out of Europe” because they refused to conform to the rules they did not like in their home country .They hated the system which had impoverished and persecuted them. The first colony was Newfoundland,established in 1583.Until 1733, 13 colonies on the east coast of North Americawere under British control.In the 18th century the population in the British colonies in North America quickly increased from 260000 to 2, 3 million within a fewdecades(1700-1770). Also, 3, 4 million slaves were brought to the British colonies from Africa between 1162 and1807. The settlers in the colonies were mostlyself-governed while still under rule of the English Crown.But conflicts started. Additional taxes on tea or legal documents led to discrepancies. The settlers rejected any sort of taxation .The confrontation tightened up through the Townshend Acts or the Boston Massacre.The reaction of the settlers was for instance the Boston Tea Party in 1773. After several tough battles,i n 1776 the Declaration of Independence was signed. In the North American Independence War (1776-1783) Britain had to admit defeated and with the Peace of Paris in 1783 acknowledged the independence of the colonies. At the early 17 century,France and Britain began to compete in establishing colonies in Canada.But after seven years war ,Britain defeat France and monopolized Canada in1763.by the 1840s, British North America had 1.5 million people: 650,000 in Lower Canada, 450,000 in Upper Canada, and more than 300,000 in Atlantic Canada.In Latin American,British began to immigrate to Bahama Islands and controlled it in 1783.After that,British could controlled Caribbean.In Oceania,as a newly found continent ,it was a large continent of low populationdensity.During 1583 and 1587,a British named James Cook investigated the east coast of Australia and claimed the east coast region for Britain,naming it New South Wales.The British began to immigrant to the land.In 1788,the British government began to transport convicts to Australia and established some penalty settlements for these convicts.As more and more free colonists had come to settle,the British government was forced to stop transferring convicts to Australia after 1840.The sudden discovery of gold in Australia led to the gold rushes which brought large numbers of free immigrants to Australia,resulting in the founding of six separate colonies.In 1901,the six separate and self-governing colonies were united to form one dominion----the independent Commonwealth of Australia. Until 1900 Australia became profitable exporters of wool and gold.At the southeast to the Australia land, lying another country----New Zealand, originally settled by Maoris,was first discovered by Dutch in1642.James Cook visited New Zealand in the 1770s and claimed it for England.English missionaries began to arrive in the early nineteenth century before the New Zealand Company started systematic colonization in the1840s.New Zealand achieved self-government in 1852 .Then Britain had completed its control in the Oceania,this area also became one of British accesses to raw materials for the industrial constriction and foreign market for their goods.Decline of the British EmpireThe old Btitish colonial system began to decline in the 18th century.during the longperiod of unbroken Whig dominance of domestic political life,the Empire became less important and less well-regarded,until an ill-fated attempt to reverse the resulting“salutary neglect”provoked the American War of Independence,depriving Britain of her most populous colonies.Although Britain was the first country to industrialise,other countries,such as Germany,United States also took rapidly step to start their industrialization,Britain experienced real competition abroad.Especially after the World War 1,British suffered a heavy lose,which led to debt accumulation,loss of capital markets and manpower deficiencies in the staffing of far-flung imperial posts in Asia and the African colonies.The Empire’s end began with the onset of the World War 2,when a deal wasreached between the British government,and the Indian independence movement,whereby the Indians would cooperate and remain loyal during the war,after which they would be granted independence.Following India’s lead,nearly all of Britain’s other colonies would become independent over the next two decades.This vast colonial empire finally out of sight.Effect of British Foreign ExpansionThe foreign expansion ,as for the Britain,has reached their goals----achieve accesses to more materials and foreign markets.Through the expansion all over the world,British got a large amount of capital fund,which contributed quite a lot to British economic construction.Cities grew and prospered with the development of industry and foreign trade.The Strand in London became the finest street in Europe.Fleet Street flourished as a publishing center.British foreign expansion has changed people’s life.“Respectable”districts for rich people in the near suburbs were expanding.A middle class house in England in the nineteenth century commonly had there or fourservants ,usually women,while a rich house had many more.But the majority of workers excluded from a decent life.The street swarmed with barefooted children who wore very few clothes that were no protection against rain and wind.Many children were forced to go to factories to work more than 12 hours a day at the age of eight or nine.An increasing number of people required the government to solve these problems.Under the pressure of public demand,the government took some measures to ensure workers rights and mitigate the social conflicts.When it comes to the colonies,British expansion was a disaster for the colonial people.After the settler arrive at a new place,they would try every method to make the colonial people give in.When the land was under their control,they plundered the raw materials and bullied the locals.They had to leave their home land for decades of years before independence.The plunder also slow down the economic development of the colonies.However,on the other hand,since the Britain was more developed than any other countries at the time,the colonialists brought many advanced technology,culture and experience,which helped the colonies developed,anyhow.Although the colonial era has passed,we must bear in mind a saying“Backwardness will lead to defeat”.Only our nation is strong enough can we avoid bullied by the stronger countries.。

英美概况英国部分整理

英美概况英国部分整理

EnglandOrigin of the countryIntroduction:1. prehistoric period: Iberians2. Celts (Britons): 8th -5th BC3. Roman Occupation (55 BC/ 43 AD-410 AD)4. Anglo-Saxons Conquest and Heptarchy (5th -8th c.)5. The Danish and Viking Invasion (8th c.-1066)6. Norman Conquest (1066)详细介绍:1.Between 3000 and 2000 BC, the first known settlers on the British Isles were the Iberians,relics they left was Stonehenge, which was built about 3500 years ago(2000BC) on the Salisbury Plains, Wiltshire.2.The name of Britain—Britons (tribe of Celts)Moved to Great Britain in about 700 BC (8th century)The Celts in Britain are believed to be ancestors of the Highland Scots,the Irish and the Welsh people.3.Roman Britain (43 AD—5th Century)First invasion—In August 55 BC, Julius Caesar invaded BritainSecond—Caesar's second raid in 54 BCThird and final—In 43 AD, Emperor Claudius, final and successful Roman invasion of Britain [recorded in Caesar’s diary which begun the written history of Britain]; drove the Celts into Scotland and WalesInfluence of Roman Occupation---Romans built towns, cities, temples, theaters, fine buildings “Every road lead to Rome.”---systematic city government: e.g. Manchester, Leicester, Wiltshire, etc. London, York, Bath, etc.---religion: ChristianityIn 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine to England to convert English people to ChristiansRomans Leaving BritainLeft in 410 AD1) Germanic attack in Rome;2)Invaders (Picts or Scots)4.The Anglo-Saxons (446-871) and HeptarchyJutes: KentSaxons: Essex, Sussex and WessexAngles: East Anglia, Mercia and NorthumbriaEngland: the land of the Anglesancestors of English: Anglo-SaxonsHeptarchy: these seven kingdomsWessex: dominantInfluence of Anglo-Saxons1)Brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain.The names Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday respectively derive from their gods.—Tiu—god of war—Woden—king of heaven—Thor—god of storms—Freya—goddess of peace2)The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state.1) divided the country into shires.2) established the manorial system.3) created the Witan5.Danish Invasion (8th Century—1066)8th century, the Vikings (from the Scandinavian countries: Norway, Denmark and Sweden) invaded Britain.A peace treaty: the eastern half of the island was to be subject to the Danish law and come to be known as the Danelaw.Edward the Confessor(because of his intense personal religious piety) (1042-1066)Built Westminster Abbey6.The Norman ConquestIn 1066, Edward chose Harold of Wessex to be King in his place.Duke William, often referred to as William the Conquer, challenged Harold’s succession, won the Battle of Hastings. Crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey by the Archbishop of York on Christmas, 1066Influence of Norman Conquest1. marking the formal establishment of feudalism in England (the House of Norman was the first feudal house)2. a strong Norman government:1) confiscated all the land2) the administration of justice directly dependent on the crown3) replacing the English bishops with Normans4) building the Tower of London as a military fortress5) French and French civilizationTo sum up, we usually take Celts as the native settlers in Britain.Norman Conquest was the last time of England’s being invaded in its history.~ Medieval TimeHenry II and His Legal Reform 亨利二世与法律改革-- The House of Plantagenet金雀花王朝( the second feudal house)-- Reigned over 300 years from 1154 to 1485-- 15 kingsWilliam died in Normandy in 1087,1)EldestsonRobert(Normandy)2)secondsonWilliamtheRufus(England)3)thirdsonHenry(alargesumofmoney)HenryhadhimselfcrownedasHenryIinWestminsterabbeyinAugust1100In 1154, little Henry, the great grandson of Henry I became the English King known as Henry II.He was the founder of Plantagenet dynasty.Henry II ’s Legal ReformReason: Anglo-Saxon trial by ordeals and Norman trial by duelResult :1.the circuit courts and jury systemcircuit courts:itinerant(巡回) justicesJury:12 jurors2.the English common lawBased on the Anglo-Saxon tradition and custom,or precedentsReform of the courtHenry II insisted that all clerks charged with criminal offenses should be tried in the king’s courts instead of in the Bishop’s courtConflicts between King and Becket1)In 1162, HenryII appointed him Archbishop of Canterbury, thinking he would help him with the reform of the church court.2)Direct cause:different views of a murder charge of a clerk man3)Constitutions of Clarendon in 1164 to increase the jurisdiction(管辖权) of the civil courts at the expense of the church courts,Becket refused.Famous works about Becket:BOOK:Canterbury tales byGeoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), an English poetDRAMA:Murder in the Cathedral (1935) modern poet T.S. EliotKing John and the Great Charter 约翰王与《大宪章》King John: Henry II 's third son (reign:1199-1216)Bad Reputation:-- Ganged up with careerists-- Tried to snatch the kingdom away from his brother Richard I-- Greedily collected money for himself-- Lost all the land in FranceBad Relationship with the Pope:Conflict over the candidate to be Archbishop of CanterburyKing John:Drove the monks out of the kingdom and took over the profits of their landPope:-- Closed all the churches in England and suspended public services.-- Intended to excommunicate King JohnBad Relationship with the Nobles:-- Increased taxes-- In 1213, he proposed to lead the nobles in a war to reconquer his lost lands in France, but the nobles refused to follow him.-- A number of barons met in 1214 and decided to compel the king to sign the charter they had prepared.June 19th, 1215, Magna Carta/ the Great CharterThe Great Charter: Most important document;corner stone of English history ;almost as important to the English as the Declaration of Independence to the Americans. (63 clauses条款)Significance of the Great Charter :1. the first step of constitutional experiment in England.2. protect the rights of the merchant class and thus promoted the development of commerce and handicraft,and laid the foundation for the rise of capitalist class3. set the basic rules for the English and American legal system: for life, property, and freedom4. limit the power of the king.5. the turning point in British history: challenge the feudal society.800th Anniversary in 2015 (All these rules, designed to protect the privileged class at first, were later extended to the broad masses of common people and established the basis for protection of human rights in the Western World)The Hundred Years’ War英法百年战争(1337-1453)A series of wars fought between England and France over territory, trade and the throne.Reason:Territory: The English were eager to regain Henry II's French land lost by King John.Trade: the English wanted to expand foreign markets.Throne: Edward III vs. Philip VI (Valois House in France)Stages of the Hundred Years’ War:At first:English (Edward III) were successful; won a land battle near Calais at Crecy and then took Calais; put the French King into prison.Later:After a long peaceful lull, English (HenryⅤ) won victory at Argencourt; Henry was recognized to French throne in 1420.(historical play, Henry V byShakespeare;movies,Argencourt and Henry V )After French King’s death:Joan of Arc drove the English out of France in 1453. By 1453 Calais was the only part of France that was still in the hands of the English.Significance of Hundred Years’ WarA blessing for both countries.1. English was established as the official language in Britain rather than French. [language]2. Development of woolen textile industry [commercial development]3. The rise of merchants and craftsman due to the need of money (the rise of middle class)4. Sped up the decline of feudalism and reduction of importance of knights because of gunpowder (the fall of the nobles)5. Two national states [Britain and France; not integrated]The Wars of Roses (1455—1485)A war for the throne between the House of York(white rose) and the House of Lancaster (red rose).Actually, they were both the branches of House of Plantagenet.Reason: After the Hundred Years’ War, nobles, driven out of France, wanted to gain wealth and power at home. Result:The House of Lancaster won and their leader Henry Tudor became King Henry VII and started the rule of the House of Tudor (1485-1603).~ Transitional PeriodRenaissance in England英国文艺复兴House of Tudor (1485-1603). Henry VII, 1485The Tudor Monarchy-- Strengthened and developed rapidly-- Secure its peace by careful diplomacy and graceful isolationism-- Built navy to protect and promote the development of trade and industryGreat Events Witnessed in Tudor Monarchy1.Discovery of American Continent in 14922.Renaissance (it was during this monarchy that the Renaissance spread into England)3.Reformation宗教改革Renaissance 文艺复兴Literal meaning: “rebirth”, rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek cultures in Northern ItalyModern meaning: variety of changes which Europe underwent politically, economically and culturally between the middle of 1350-1600The period of 5th and 15th centuries were called the Middle Ages.Ottoman Empire vs.East Roman EmpireCause: In 1453, Ottoman Empire (Turkey) took Constantinople and overran Greece and the Balkans. Greek scholars fled with manuscripts of classics.The three Italian writers and their works(Literary Masters) 文学三杰Dante with his Divine Comedy 但丁《神曲》Boccaccio and his Decameron 博伽丘《十日谈》Petrarch and his sonnets 彼得拉克《十四行诗》Three Italian Artists: 艺术三杰Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa,The Last Supper)Michelangelo (David,Genesis创世纪)Raphael (大量圣母像;The Sistine Madonna西斯廷圣母;School of Athens雅典学院)1.Believe that men could achieve wonders through their own efforts2.No longer regarded this life as a mere penance to be endured by good Christians3.Men had the right to enjoy the beauty of this life and strive to enrich it4.humanists/ humanismRenaissance in EnglandWhy late: endless wars in Britain and geographic locationWhen: House of Tudor, 1485catalyst: printing technique by William Caxton in 1476Elizabethan drama:1) Christopher Marlowe: Tamberlaine, Dr. Faustus, The Jew of Malta, Edward II.2) Ben Johnson: Volpone, The Alchemist, Bartholomew Fair3) William Shakespeare:William ShakespeareShakespeare's birthplace: Stamford-upon-Avon, Warwick shireWrote 37 plays : comedies, tragedies and historical playsComedies 四大喜剧The Merchant of Venice《威尼斯商人》A Midsummer Night's Dream《仲夏夜之梦》As You Like It《皆大欢喜》Twelfth night《第十二夜》Tragedies 四大悲剧:Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, King Lear;Poet:Sonnets: Sonnet 18 “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer's Day?”Other Literary AchievementsPoet: Edmund Spencer: The Faerie QueenPoet: John Milton: Paradise LostHumanist: Thomas More: UtopiaStatesman and philosopher : Francis Bacon: EssaysReformation in England and Queen Elizabeth I’s Time英国宗教改革及伊丽莎白时期Major churches in the worldIn Middle East: In the Far East:1) Judaism 1) Hinduism2) Christianity 2) Buddhism3) IslamismChristianity in EnglandNearly 1000 years from 597 AD since St. Augustine landed and built the first monastery in CanterburyBenefits besides religious belief:---Latin language and ancient classics---church schools, e.g. Oxford, Cambridge---early techniques: masons and glass-makers---Roman cultureThe Catholic Church in the Middle AgesThe Catholic Church: dominant in the Middle Ages: either believer or paganProblems:1. Power abuse: put the pagans to death2. Corruption:a) tithe (a regular tax, one-tenth of the farm produce);b) selling indulgences and church postsRevolt of the ProtestantsPioneer in religious reformation: Martin Luther from Germany-- A monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation.-- He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money.-- Justification by faith “因信称义”(to read the Bible instead of listening to what the Pope said)ProtestantismProtestants/ Puritans: to purify the Catholic church by getting rid of bishops and the old ritualsBelief:---Predestined---Prepare for grace by reading the Bible, and by living as good and decent life as they could---Advocated a strict moral code---Stressed the virtues of self-discipline, thrift and hard workHenry VIII' s Reformation in England 亨利八世的改革Reasons:1) Encouraged by the success of Martin Luther2) The privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented by many people3) Henry VIII believed the monarchy would establish an absolute power without the Pope’s interference Immediate cause: Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Argon because she could not produce a male heir for him.Process1. Declared churchmen guilty agents of the Pope and not forgive them until they acknowledged him head of the Church of England.2. Suppression of the monasteries and plunder of properties of church3. Married Anne Boleyn4. Parliament passed two acts:1)1534 Act of Succession; 2) 1535 Act of SupremacyResults1.Henry VIII got the title of Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1535.2.also increased the importance of Parliament3. power to appoint high English churchmen and enjoy all the income which was formerly given to the Pope.4. Catholicism declined and Protestantism became a major branch of Christianity.Queen Mary-- After Henry VIII’ s death,he religious conflict between Catholicism and Protestantism was beyond reconciliation-- Catherine's daughter,a Catholic-- Persecuted Protestants--“Bloody Mary”Queen Elizabeth IAnne Boleyn's daughterPro-Protestant from the startCompromise: not persecute CatholicsFrom her, England maintained Protestant ever since.执政时期:1. Foreign policy: made use of the contradictions between two Catholic powers: France and Spain2. Economy: charter companies(granted charters to English merchants)(ex,East India Company)3. War with Spanish Armada西班牙无敌舰队in 1588:4. Social life: brick and stone houses; pillows; carpets; carriages;5. Literature: esp. drama6. Travel and adventureElizabeth I was regarded as the foundation layer of the British Empire.the Oscar award-winning film Elizabeth I~ Modern TimeThe Two Kings of the House of Stuart 斯图亚特王朝二国王Elizabeth died in 1603 without an heir to succeed her, her nephew, James VI of Scotland, became the English king known as James I, which was the beginning of the House of Stuart.James I (reign: 1603-1625)Religious Controversy: repressed both Protestants and Catholics1. Puritan ask for further Reformation; but James declared “No Bishop, No King”2. James I suspected as a secret Catholic.James I's Policy: “make them conform or harry them from the land”James I took drastic measures to make the Puritans to conform to the Church of England, otherwise, they would be persecuted. Many Puritans fled England.In 1620, a group of 102 Puritans, called the Pilgrim Fathers, sailed from Plymouth in the ship Mayflower to America.King James I: Protestant VS Guy Fawkes: CatholicReason:The Catholics in England were opposed to James I and his succession to the throne since he came from Scotland, a pure Protestant countryGunpowder Plot, Nov. 5th(failed)Guy Fawkes Day, annual celebrationPolitically 詹姆士一世-- Believe in “Divine Right of Kings”-- Ruled without Parliament for seven years-- Academically King James Bible (the translation of James I)Charles I (reign: 1625-1649) (James I ‘s son)not capable as his father-- Believed in “Divine Right of Kings”-- Continuous religious controversy-- Bad relationship with the Parliament---e.g. 1. conflict over monopolies---e.g. 2. 1st Parliament in 1625: conflict over import revenue; dissolved Parliament(He started collecting import duties and raising forced loans without the agreement of the Parliament.)---e.g. 3: 3rd Parliament in 1628: Petition of Right(the second Magna Carta), which echoed the Magna Carta and further limited the military power of king---e.g. 4: force the Scots to accept the textbook of Church of England; led to warsummoned for money and dissolved the Parliament in 1640Known as Short Parliament(only two weeks)---e.g. 5: was defeated in the war with Scotstreaty: ₤850 a day to Scottish armysummoned (for money )the 5th Parliament in 1640Known as Long Parliament (1640-1653)This Parliament existed for more than ten years during the English Bourgeois Revolution until Cromwell dissolved it in April 1653.The Militia Bill: deprived military command from the CrownThe Great Remonstrance: limited the King's religious powerReplaced the King’s counselors by ministers approved by ParliamentThe English Civil War and the Time After It 英国资产阶级革命及革命之后Conflicts: Church( reformed in the Reformation)king vs parliamentNobles(most perished during the Hundred Years’ War and the Wars of Roses)Development of Parliament:1265 formed;Simon de Montfort↓Developed in the House of Tudors, esp. Henry VIII's time↓Rivaled against the King James I and Charles ITrigger of War(reason)Charles I marched to the House of Commons to arrest John Pym and other four radical MPs.Voices in the ParliamentRight Wing“no victory, no defeat”policyLeft Wingmore revolutionary;-- Charles I and his Royalists/ Cavaliers-- Parliamentarians/ Roundheads-- Oliver Cromwell and his New Model Army(These soldiers were mostly devout Protestants. They thought were fighting for God’s cause charged fearlessly, singing psalms. That’s why the Civil War was also called the Puritan Revolution.)-- In June ,1645,Cromwell and Fairfax defeated the royalist army.-- By autumn 1646,Parliament controlled most of England-- In May,1646,Charles I could no longer struggle and surrenderedIn 1646, Parliament won and Charles I gave himself to the Scottish armyIn 1647, Charles was transferred by Scots to Parliament for a payment of ₤400,000.In 1649, King was sentenced “Tyrant, Traitor, Murderer and public Enemy”and was executed.Charles I on the Scaffold 断头台After the Civil Wars(Taxes were increased to keep the army and Cromwell became tyrannical and unpopular.)Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard succeeded him But abdicated.Restoration (1660): Charles II, son of Charles I 斯图亚特王朝复辟A new Parliamentary election was held in 1660. The new Parliament negotiated with Charles I’s son and asked him back to be the King under their limitation. The Republic was thus put to an end. The Restoration of the House of the Stuart.Glorious Revolution (1688):(Upon Charles II’s death,his brother, a Catholic,James II succeeded.He refused to give up his belief and the Protestant English couldn’t agree to.The leading figures invited William, the nephew and son-in-law of James II, and Mary, the daughter of James II to come back from Holland and rule England. They accepted the invitation and landed an army in England in November 1688. James II fled to France)Bill of Rights 1689-- Confirmed constitutional monarchy with parliamentary supremacy(guaranteed free speech within both houses of Parliament and excluded any Catholics from succession to the English throne.)Industrial Revolution in Britain 英国工业革命The Industrial Revolutions in Human HistoryThe 1st Industrial RevolutionDefinition: The Industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.Reasons:1. huge market:---domestic market---colonial markets in North America, India and other colonies(Britain won in the Seven Years War from 1756 to 1763)2.enormous wealth from the colonies: business trade and slave trade(East India Company:had a trading monopoly in India and parts of East Aida.The Royal African Company: involved in trade with Africa, the slave trade in particular. )3. Enclosure movement圈地运动Other factors:1) good location and near to seaports2) engineer had good training;3) inventors were respected;4) “Protestant work ethic”and laissez faire;5) broadened vision and aggressive spiritProcess of Industrial Revolution--- First began in the textile industry1) 1733, flying shuttle,飞梭John Kay, sped up hand weaving;2) 1766, spinning jenny, 珍妮纺纱机James Hargreaves, enabled to spin many threads at a time;3) 1784, power loom, Edmund Cartwright, enabled weaving to catch up with spinning;(established a great factory by applying power-driven mules and powerlooms in 1784and he became the Father of the Factory System in England.)EX:Spinning Jenny by James HargreavesPrepared the way for a new system of production: large-scale industry.Transportation industry1. In 1785, James Watt modified and improve Thomas Newcomer’s steam engine.2. In 1814, George Stephenson built the first steam locomotive.(Marked the beginning of a new stage of the Industrial Revolution.)3. In 1825, t he first railway was completed and by 1850, Britain completed its railway system nationwide.ResultsPositive1)“workshop of the world”2) mass urbanization: new cities like Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham and Sheffieldnegative1)simplified class structure; gap between rich and poor2)terrible working conditionThe serious problem of unemployment, over-population, bad living conditions and so on made the crime rates in London become the highest in the world.Literary works:Charles Dickens’ novels, such as Oliver Twist.~ Imperialist TimeQueen Victoria and the British Empire维多利亚与大英帝国的建立Britain after Industrial Revolution-- “workshop of the world”-- London---the financial center of world-- The English language was spread all over the worldThe British Empire was formed.(completely established)Queen VictoriaReign: 1837 to 1901Victoria's TimeShe encouraged further industrialization, the building of railways and the growth of trade and commerce.Sciencethe publication of Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859“survival of the fittest适者生存”Victorian NovelsWilliam T hackeray萨克雷(Vanity Fair名利场)Charles Dickens狄更斯(A Tale of Two Cities双城记,Oliver Twist雾都孤儿,David Copperfield大卫科波菲尔,Great Expectations远大前程)Bronte sisters(Emily Bronte Wuthering Heights呼啸山庄,Charlotte Bronte,Jane Eyre简爱,Anne Bronte)George Eliot乔治·艾略特Their works played an important role in pushing forward social reforms and promoting the development of British values.Victoria's Society-- strict discipline-- careful behavior-- harmonious relationship--“Victorian”: decency and morality, self-satisfaction based on wealth, and great industrial and scientific development. --"the polite society"The British EmpireLand:1/5 of the world’s dry land(1/4 of the world’s landmass):135 times as large as BritainPopulation:560 million;ten times as large as that of BritainForeign expansion and aggression:the sun-never-setting”empireThe Formation of the EmpireFoundation: Elizabeth I’s timeEstablishment: 18th and 19th c, Victoria.Processes: Aggression(侵略) against national states and annexation(合并,兼并)of uninhabited or sparsely-populated wild landSpearhead (先锋): Chartered Companies, e.g. East India CompanyMethod: “Flag follows trade”Aggression:Southeast AsiaIndia and ChinaIndia: The British government took over control of India in 1858 and Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1876.China: Opium War in 1840; the Treaty of Nanking (1842): heavy indemnity, to cede to Britain the island of HK, to open five ports to foreign commerceAnnexation: North America and OceaniaAmerica: English colonists first in Jamestown,1607; westward movementCanada: defeat France in Seven Years' War (1756-1763);Australia and New Zealand: discovered by James Cook in 1770s---drove the nativesAmerica independent in 1783; the other three became dominions of the British EmpireAfrica1. Egypt: Suez Canal, 18822. 20C,occupied Gold Coast (now Ghana), Nigeria, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda and Zambia.3. South Africa: gold and diamonds4. After the Boer War,the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910,the 4th dominion of British EmpireThe Decline and Fall of the British Empire 大英帝国的衰落Decline of the British EmpireTime of imperialism帝国主义: expansion and invasionConflict: England was dominant in the world colonization, while other younger imperialist countries were eager to have a share.Military blocs:Central Powers:Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey(Ottoman Empire)the Allies:Britain, France, Russia, Italy(后来加入), the United States (1917)Outbreak of WWI导火索:June 28, 1914, the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo by a young Slav nationalistThe Process of the War1. German (ally of Austria-Hungary) declared war on Russia (ally of Serbia) on Aug. 1st and on France on Aug 3 since France rejected being neutral.2. German invaded Belgium and Britain felt German’s threat and went into war with Germany.3. Australia and New Zealand sent support in Gallipoli.The war finally ended in 1918 with the victory for the Allies.Paris ConferenceParis Conference, in Versailles on January 18th, 1919.The Allies divided the colonies of Germany, Austro-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and imposed much indemnity on the defeated countries.Influence of WWI on BritainWinner but also loser1.Drained of manpower2.Britain lost 70% of its merchant ships and a large amount of money.(Britain lost the sea supremacy.)3.Changed from a creditor to a debtor nation4.London was replaced by New York as the world’s leading financial center.5.Foreign trade declined to about only half of the prewar total.6.Disillusionment of the soldiers: Lost Generation(Hemingway The Sun Also Rises)(Large-scale strikes and hunger marches caused political unrest which led to four general elections in just over five years. The general election of 1924 brought the Labor Party to power for the first time. )Britain after WWI1920s: Roaring TwentiesEconomy downturn:---slack business---closed factories---soaring taxes---unemployment---The Great Depression (1929-1939)WWII (1939-1945)Continuation of WWIGermany: lost all colonies, disarmed, paid reparations;Great Depression归咎经济萧条于凡尔赛条约Adolf Hitlter(came to power in 1933):aroused nationalism and racismBritain: foreign policy known as nonintervention and appeasementTogether with France signed the Munich Agreement with Hitler, planning to trade Sudetenland (other countries’ land) for peace.Outbreak of WWIISept.1, 1939, German's attack on PolandBritain in WWIIForced to declare war on Germany-- ill prepared and repeatedly defeated-- War Cabinet and Churchill as Prime Minister in1940-- War-time speeches(King’s speech)Nazi:Germany,Italy,JapanAnti-Nazi:Britain,France,Russia,America,ChinaEnd of WWIIGermany surrendered unconditionally on May 7, 1945Influence of WWII on Britain1.London was repeated bombed by German planes and was nearly destroyed.2.357,000 people were killed or missing and 475,000 were wounded.3.Lost navy supremacy4.In deep debt to AmericaDisintegration of British Empire1.British colonies fought for independence one after another.2.More than 20 countries won their independence3.By the year 1970, Britain is now what it was before its foreign expansion。

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Small Island,Big worldAs it is a fact that England has been a big country in the world for a long period,not only on the land ,but also on the sea.The British Empire was the largest country at that time,which occupied about 33 million square kilometers,taken up one fifth of the world’s total dry land and about 135 tomes as large as Great Britain.It ruled over a population of 560 million,which was more than ten times as large as that of Britain.It was called an empire “on which the sun never set”.Because on almost all the continents of the world Britain had its colonies that kept the sun can be seen on the sky all the time.Britain’s Overseas ExpansionBritish overseas expansion was clearly part of an older tradition of European empire building.They traced this back to classical Greece and Rome,Spanish and Portuguese expansion following Columbus’ voyage to the new world.Britain’s overseas expansion was begin with several battles against Spanish during Elizabeth ’era.Elizabeth avoided open hostility with Spain,but she secretly encouraged English seadogs to raid Spanish colonies and plunder the Spanish ships that were returning back home to Spain.At first,the Spanish king did not know that Britain was their most dangerous rival or Elizabeth’s intention until Spanish king Philip was at the helm of the state.So ,in 1588,the king dispatched a fleet of 130 vessels which named “the Invincible Fleet ”to England.The fleet sailed up the English Channel and a large naval battle out.The English battleships threw their enemies into panic with fire ships.The badly battered the Spanish’s fleet fled to northward in confusion.Caught in a storm ,many of the Spanish warships died and only half of them survived and went back to Spain,never dare to come to England again.The lost of the war made Spain lose its lead position on the sea,while ,on the other hand,Britian could take over Spanish power became the leader.The victory not only established the position of England as a major sea power but also paved the way for its foreign expansion as a colonizing nation.What’s more,British overseas expansion helped the state gather many property for this empire’s construction.British Foreign ExpansionIn the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,Britain experience the Industrial Revolution.It is a big event for all the British.During the Industrial Revolution,a varity of chater companies were the tentacles and they spearheaded the foreign expansion and colonization.These companies,such as the East India Company,had the right to use the English Navy.Charter companies would first force a foreign country to open its market,then they would control the market and establish the British sphere of influence.If the British had occupied the land,the natives would have to leave their land or controlled by them.At the same,as a result of the Industrial Revolution,the empire was quite eager for raw material and expanding its foreign market.So the Britain began to expand its colonies all over the world.The expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland,soon,many continents had became British colonies.In Asia,the East India company was founded in 1600.At first,it traced with India through a few trading posts it had managed to secure on the coast and the southern tip of the peninsula.They also managed to edge out the French and Portuguese colonists who had also come for conquest.By 1819 the British conquest of India was almost complete.The British aggression caused angeramong the natives.In 1857,a large anti–aggression mutiny broke out when the colonial authority ordered the hired native Indian soldiers to use greased catridges.Many of the Indian troops were from the Hindus,who regarded touching of the fat of a cow as contamination worse than death,and the Mohammedans who were also horrified by the fat of the swine.Many parts of the country were involved in the revolt.After the mutiny was suppressed,the control of India was passed to British Crown in 1858,and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.After conquering India,British merchants tried to make a profit in China.But because the Chinese economy was still based on agriculture and self–sufficiency,British used to suffer a deficit in the early trades.To make a profit,British merchants started to import opium into China from India .After China banned the opium trade in1799,still some British merchants continued to smuggle opium into China .In 1839,the Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu ordered the confiscation of about 20 000 chests of opium and burnt them at Canton.The British used this as a excuse and launched a war of aggression against China in 1840.The British troops occupied Hong Kong in 1841,and invaded Zhenjiang before threatening Beijing itself.Due to failure of the Opium War,the Qing dynasty signed the Treaty of Nanjing,which included China ceded Hong Kong to British,opened five ports to British trade and many money to Britain .Among all the colonies of Britain ,Hong Kong was the last one to get its independence until 1997.As for other areas of Asia ,Btitish invaded Burma and occupied the coastal areas.At the same time,Singapore was forced to become British colony.So,Britain had a strategic base to the Indian Ocean and the Far East.After that,British power could expand to the whole Malaysia.It controlled the Strait of Malacca and built the Straits Settlements.In Africa,at the end of the 19 century,this continent is the focus of British colonial expansion.As for its abundant mineral resources, British wanted to control this area and get the resources for their industrial development .Besides,Btitish confined to a number of forts and slave trading posts on the West Coast.The Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip and Egypt in the northern part of the continent were the two chief centers of British advance in Africa.Britain was eager to control the Cape of Good Hope in order to protect its route to India. After England seized Cape Town from Dutch in 1806,English setters began to flock in and they brought in the English language.Then the English colonists pushed northward until the South Africa Union was organized by the English Parliament in 1910.Britian was also interested in controlling Egypt and Sudan.Egypt and France built the Suze Canal which was opened to navigation in 1869.In 1875,the British government bought half of the Suez Canal shares from the bankrupt Egyptian ruler,while the other half was still held by the French .After fierce struggle,the British drove the French from Egypt and gained control of the Suez Canal in 1882.The British suppressed a rebellion and occupied Egypt.By the beginning of the twentieth century,about one third of Africa was controlled by British colonialists.In East Africa,British occupied Somali,Zanzibar,Malawi and Buganda in 1980s and 1990s.In South Africa ,the British South Africa Company invaded to Zambia in 1890.In North America,when the old colonial powers:Portugal,Spain were concentrating their attention on dominating on the sea the deserted east coast of North American became the first British colonial areas of activity.The early immi grants were actually “pushed out of Europe” because they refused to conform to the rules they did not like in their home country .They hated the system which had impoverished and persecuted them. The first colony was Newfoundland,established in 1583.Until 1733, 13 colonies on the east coast of North America were under British control.In the 18th century the population in the British colonies inNorth America quickly increased from 260000 to 2, 3 million within a fewdecades(1700-1770). Also, 3, 4 million slaves were brought to the British colonies from Africa between 1162 and1807. The settlers in the colonies were mostlyself-governed while still under rule of the English Crown.But conflicts started. Additional taxes on tea or legal documents led to discrepancies. The settlers rejected any sort of taxation .The confrontation tightened up through the Townshend Acts or the Boston Massacre.The reaction of the settlers was for instance the Boston Tea Party in 1773. After several tough battles,i n 1776 the Declaration of Independence was signed. In the North American Independence War (1776-1783) Britain had to admit defeated and with the Peace of Paris in 1783 acknowledged the independence of the colonies. At the early 17 century,France and Britain began to compete in establishing colonies in Canada.But after seven years war ,Britain defeat France and monopolized Canada in1763.by the 1840s, British North America had 1.5 million people: 650,000 in Lower Canada, 450,000 in Upper Canada, and more than 300,000 in Atlantic Canada.In Latin American,British began to immigrate to Bahama Islands and controlled it in 1783.After that,British could controlled Caribbean.In Oceania,as a newly found continent ,it was a large continent of low populationdensity.During 1583 and 1587,a British named James Cook investigated the east coast of Australia and claimed the east coast region for Britain,naming it New South Wales.The British began to immigrant to the land.In 1788,the British government began to transport convicts to Australia and established some penalty settlements for these convicts.As more and more free colonists had come to settle,the British government was forced to stop transferring convicts to Australia after1840.The sudden discovery of gold in Australia led to the gold rushes which brought large numbers of free immigrants to Australia,resulting in the founding of six separate colonies.In 1901,the six separate and self-governing colonies were united to form one dominion----the independent Commonwealth of Australia. Until 1900 Australia became profitable exporters of wool and gold.At the southeast to the Australia land, lying another country----New Zealand, originally settled by Maoris,was first discovered by Dutch in1642.James Cook visited New Zealand in the 1770s and claimed it for England.English missionaries began to arrive in the early nineteenth century before the New Zealand Company started systematic colonization in the1840s.New Zealand achieved self-government in 1852 .Then Britain had completed its control in the Oceania,this area also became one of British accesses to raw materials for the industrial constriction and foreign market for their goods.Decline of the British EmpireThe old Btitish colonial system began to decline in the 18th century.during the longperiod of unbroken Whig dominance of domestic political life,the Empire became less important and less well-regarded,until an ill-fated attempt to reverse the resulting“salutary neglect”provoked the American War of Independence,depriving Britain of her most populous colonies.Although Britain was the first country to industrialise,other countries,such as Germany,United States also took rapidly step to start their industrialization,Britain experienced real competition abroad.Especially after the World War 1,British suffered a heavy lose,which led to debt accumulation,loss of capital markets and manpower deficiencies in the staffing of far-flung imperial posts in Asia and the African colonies.The Empire’s end began with the onset of the World War 2,when a deal was reached between the British government,and the Indian independence movement,whereby the Indians would cooperate and remain loyal during the war,after which they would be grantedindependence.Following India’s lead,nearly all of Britain’s other colonies would become independent over the next two decades.This vast colonial empire finally out of sight.Effect of British Foreign ExpansionThe foreign expansion ,as for the Britain,has reached their goals----achieve accesses to more materials and foreign markets.Through the expansion all over the world,British got a large amount of capital fund,which contributed quite a lot to British economic construction.Cities grew and prospered with the development of industry and foreign trade.The Strand in London became the finest street in Europe.Fleet Street flourished as a publishing center.British foreign expansion has changed people’s life.“Respectable”districts for rich people in the near suburbs were expanding.A middle class house in England in the nineteenth century commonly had there or fourservants ,usually women,while a rich house had many more.But the majority of workers excluded from a decent life.The street swarmed with barefooted children who wore very few clothes that were no protection against rain and wind.Many children were forced to go to factories to work more than 12 hours a day at the age of eight or nine.An increasing number of people required the government to solve these problems.Under the pressure of public demand,the government took some measures to ensure workers rights and mitigate the social conflicts.When it comes to the colonies,British expansion was a disaster for the colonial people.After the settler arrive at a new place,they would try every method to make the colonial people give in.When the land was under their control,they plundered the raw materials and bullied the locals.They had to leave their home land for decades of years before independence.The plunder also slow down the economic development of the colonies.However,on the other hand,since the Britain was more developed than any other countries at the time,the colonialists brought many advanced technology,culture and experience,which helped the colonies developed,anyhow.Although the colonial era has passed,we must bear in mind a saying“Backwardness will lead to defeat”.Only our nation is strong enough can we avoid bullied by the stronger countries.。

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