语用学级期末深刻复习思考题

I. Put the following English terms into Chinese. (1'×10＝10')所指对象referent所指论Referential theory专有名词proper name普通名词common nouns固定的指称记号rigid designators指称词语deixical items确定性描述语definite descriptions编码时间coding-time变异性variability表示反复的词语iterative表述句constative补救策略redressive strategies不可分离性non-detachability不确定性indeterminacy不使用补救策略，赤裸裸地公开施行面子威胁行bald on record without redressive actions 阐述类言语行为representatives承诺类言语行为commissives指令类言语行为directives表达类言语行为expressives,宣告类言语行为declarations诚意条件sincerity condition次要言外行为secondary illocutionary act等级含义scalar implicature等级划分法rating scales副语言特征paralinguistic features非公开施行面子威胁行为off record非规约性non-conventionality非规约性意义non-conventional implicature非论证性的non-demonstrative非自然意义non-natural meaning (meaning-nn)否定测试法negation test符号学semiotics构成性规则constitutive rules古典格莱斯会话含义理论Classical Gricean theory of conversational implicature 关联论Relevance Theory关联原则Principle of Relevance归属性用法attributive use规约性含义conventional implicature人际修辞interpersonal rhetoric篇章修辞textual rhetoric含蓄动词implicative verbs合适条件felicity conditions呼语vocatives互相显映mutually manifest会话含义conversational implicature话语层次策略utterance-level strategy积极面子positive face间接言语行为indirect speech acts间接指令indirect directives结语upshots交际意图communicative intention可撤销性cancellability可废弃性defeasibility可推导性calculability跨文化语用失误cross-cultural pragmatic failure 跨文化语用学cross-cultural pragmatics命题内容条件propositional content condition 面子保全论Face-saving Theory面子论Face Theory面子威胁行为Face Threatening Acts (FTAs)蔑视flouting明示ostensive明示－推理模式ostensive-inferential model摹状词理论Descriptions粘合程度scale of cohesion篇章指示discourse deixis前提presupposition前提语presupposition trigger强加的绝对级别absolute ranking of imposition确定谈话目的establishing the purpose of the interaction确定言语事件的性质establishing the nature of the speech event 确定性描述语definite descriptions认知语用学cognitive pragmatics上下文co-text社会语用迁移sociopragmatic transfer社交语用失误sociopragmatic failure施为句performative省力原则the principle of least effort实情动词factive verbs适从向direction of fit手势型用法gestural usage首要言外行为primary illocutionary act双重或数重语义模糊pragmatic bivalence/ plurivalence顺应的动态性dynamics of adaptability顺应性adaptability语境关系的顺应(contextual correlates of adaptability)、语言结构的顺应(structural objects of adaptability)、顺应的动态性(dynamics of adaptability)和顺应过程的意识程度(salience of the adaptation processes)。

说话人经济原则speaker’s economy损－惠等级cost-benefit scale所表达的心理状态expressed psychological state所指reference所指对象referent特殊性会话含义particularized conversational implicature条件性的双重言外行为conditional bivalent illocutionary act 调节性规则regulative rules投射问题projection problem推理论inference theory推理模式inferential model文学语用学literary pragmatics问卷调查questionnaire习语论idiom theory显性施为句explicit performatives显映manifest限定语篇长度策略space-making strategies相对权势relative power相邻对adjacency pair象征型用法symbolic usage小句含义clausal implicature协商性negotiability新格莱斯会话含义理论Neo-Gricean pragmatic theories of conversational implicature 新格莱斯语用学机制Neo-Gricean pragmatic apparatus心理表征mental representation信息意图informative intention行事动词performative verb宣告类言语行为declarations言后行为perlocutionary act言内行为locutionary act言外行为illocutionary act言外之的illocutionary point言外之力illocutionary force言外之力显示手段illocutionary force indicating devices (IFIDs)言语事件speech events言语行为speech act一般性会话含义generalized conversational implicature意义sense因果的、历史的所指论Causal or Historical Chains Theory隐性施为句implicit performatives优先结构preference structure语际语语用学interlanguage pragmatics语境context语境关系的顺应contextual correlates of adaptability 语码模式code model语篇标示discoursal indicator语篇性语用模糊discoursal ambivalence语言顺应论Adaptation Theory语言结构的顺应structural objects of adaptability 语言能力linguistic competence语义学semantics语用模糊pragmatic ambivalence语用能力pragmatic competence语用迁移pragmatic transfer语用失误pragmatic failure语用语言迁移pragmalinguistic transfer语用语言失误pragmalinguistic failure语用语言学pragmalinguistics与事实相反的条件句counterfactual conditionals蕴涵、推涵、衍推entailment期待的第二部分preferred second part预先的元语用评论语prospective MPCs再表述reformulations指号designator指令类言语行为directives追溯性的元语用评论retrospective MPCs指示投射deictic projection指示语/指示性词语deictic expressions指示性用法referential use指示中心deictic center准备条件preparatory condition着重受话人的元语用评论addressee-oriented metapragmatic comments ( A-MPCs) 着重说话人的元语用评论speaker-oriented metapragmatic comments (S-MPCs)自然意义natural meaning自我中心性egocentricity最大关联maximal relevance最佳关联optimal relevance配对比较paired comparison卡片分类card sorting等级划分rating scales开放性面谈open interview引发法elicitationII. Fill in the blanks with a proper word or words. (2'×10＝20')1. How did Morris distinguish three aspects of semiotic inquiry?The use of the term is usually attributed to two American philosophers C. Morrisand R. Carnap, who first introduced the term ‘pragmatics’in their study of semiotics in the 1930s. Morris distinguished three aspects of semiotic inquiry, i.e. syntactics (or syntax), being the study of the ‘formal relation of signs to one another’, semantics, the study of the ‘relation of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable, and pragmatics, the study of ‘the relation of signs to interpreters.’2. What are the two most important notions in Pragmatics?3. How does P. Grice distinguish meanings?The American philosopher P. Grice distinguishes between what he calls natural meaning (meaning-n) and non-natural meaning (meaning-nn). The two terms parallel ‘sentence meaning’and ‘speaker meaning’.4. What distinction did Frege make in 1952?The German philosopher Frege (1952) is generally credited with the distinction between the reference of a linguistic expression, ‘that to which the sign refers’, and its sense, an interpretation of the sign, provided by the grammar of the language.5. What are the two major philosophical theories about reference?referential theory of names and causal-historical theory6. What are the 2 distinct uses of definite descriptions?K.S. Donnellan (1966:285-286) called attention to what he called the ‘referential use,’as opposed to the ‘attributive use,’of a definite description.7. How many types of deictic expressions are there? What are they?Deictic expressions in English are usually classified into five main types: person deixis, spatial deixis, temporal deixis, social deixis, and discourse deixis.8. What are the two different uses of deictic expressions?There are basically two different uses of deictic expressions. They are called gestural usage and symbolic usage respectively.12. What are the two categories of utterances did Austin distinguish?Austin distinguished two categories of utterances, which he referred to respectively as ‘constatives’and ‘performatives.’9. Who made the greatest contribution to Speech Act Theory in the post-Austinian age?Most of the contributions to Speech Act Theory in the post-Austinian age are ascribed to the American philosopher-linguist John Searle.10. What distinction did Searle make about an utterance?Searle made the distinction between the illocutionary act and the propositional content of an utterance.11. What did IFID stand for?According to Searle, IFID stood for illocutionary force indicating devices. 12. What are the two types of rules that govern the linguistic communication according to Searle?Searle distinguishes two basic types of rules, i.e. regulative rules and constitutive rules.13. What are the three most important dimensions of variation in whichillocutionary acts differ from one another?Based on his criticism of Austin’s classification, Searle presented his taxonomy of illocutionary acts. He first of all specified 12 dimensions of variation in which illocutionary acts differ from one another. The most important of them are the following three: illocutionary point, direction of fit, and expressed psychological state.14. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts that identified Searle’s taxonomy?It is mainly based on these three dimensions of difference that Searle builds his taxonomy, which identifies five types of illocutionary speech acts: (1) assertives/representatives，(2) directives，(3) commissives，(4) expressives，(5) declarations.15. What did Jenny Thomas think of indirect language as?Compared with direct language, indirect language is ‘costly and risky.’16. Searle believed that in performing indirect speech acts, there exist two speech acts. What are they?In performing indirect speech acts, two speech acts instead of one are involved,i.e. primary illocutionary act and secondary illocutionary act.17. What is the implied meaning termed in Grice’s theory.The implied meaning is termed conversational implicature in Grice’s theory.18. What are the most important properties of conversational implicature?Calculability, cancellability or defeasibility, nondetachability,non-conventionality, indeterminacy19. What do Sperber and Wison apply to language understanding?Sperber and Wison apply cognitive psychology and monetary economics to language understanding,20. What are the two models that Ostensive-Inferential Model base on?语码模式（Code Model）和推理模式(Inferential Model)21. What is relevance defined in terms of?Relevance is defined in terms of contextual effect and processing effort.22. What are the most important notions that Relevance Theory focus on?cognition and communication23. What are the most influential ones in the pragmatic studies of politeness?In the pragmatic studies of politeness, the most influential are Leech’s Politeness Principle and Brown & Levinson’s politeness strategies.24. What are the factors that measure the weightiness of a face-threatening act?The weightiness of a face-threatening act is measured by three factors: social distance, relative power and absolute ranking of impositions.25. What are the two aspects of face according to Brown & Levinson?Brown & Levinson define face as the public self-image of an individual, which has two aspects: first positive face, which represents an individual’s desire to be accepted and liked by others; second, there is negative face, which refers to an individual’s right to freedom of action and his/her need not to be imposed upon by others.26. What are the five sets of politeness strategies put forth by Brown & Levinson?P. 230 bald on record without redressive actions, positive politeness, negative politeness, off record, and Don’t do the FTA.27. What are the three types of meaning in the course of communication?The meaning that is conveyed in the course of communication falls roughly into three types: the asserted meaning, the implied meaning, and the presupposed meaning.28. What’s the way to tell presupposition from entailment?To tell presuppositions from entailments, semanticists proposed the so-called ‘negation test’.29. The study of Cross-cultural pragmatics mainly consists of pragmalinguistics, sociopragmatics and interlanguage pragmatics.30. What is p ragmatics parameters?Pragmatics parameters refer to those factors that affect the choice of pragmatic strategies, including social distance, power, size of imposition, and rights and obligations. (P. 253)31. The studies of Interlinguage pragmatics include four aspects: pragmatic understanding, language expression, pragmatic transfer and pragmatic failure. 32. What cause negative pragmatic transfer?Interlingual interference, Intralingual interference, influence of L1 literacy 33. What are the categories of discourse roles?Thomas has distinguished five different categories of producer of talk:Speaker, Author, Reporter, Spokesperson, Mouthpiece; four categories of receivers of talk: Addressee, Audience, Bystander, Eavesdropper.34. What are the types of pragmatic ambivalence?Thomas and Yu Dongming divided pragmatic ambivalence into four major types: 1) Pragmatic multivalence, 2) Pragmatic bivalence/plurivalence, 3) Conditional bivalent illocutionary act, and 4) Discoursal ambivalence.35. Presupposition is associated with some lexical items or certain syntactic structures, which are thus given the name of presupposition triggers. What do you know about them?A large variety of presupposition triggers in English have been identified. They can be found at the lexical, syntactic, and phonological level.Presupposition triggers at the lexical level:1) Definite descriptions, 2) Factive verbs 3) Implicative verbs 4) Change of state verbs 5) Iteratives 6）Verbs of judgingPresupposition triggers at the syntactic level:7）Adverbial clauses and expressions of time 8）Cleft sentences 9)Structures and expressions indicating comparison 10) Non-restrictive attributive clauses 11) Counterfactual conditionals 12) QuestionsPresupposition can also be triggered off by some phonological means such as the shift of the normal sentence stress.36. According to Adaptation Theory, communicative context consists of language users, the mental world, the social world, the physical world,etc.37. According to Adaptation Theory, the reason why people make choices constantly is that language has variability, negotiability and adaptability.38. GU Yueguo thought that in Chinese culture, politeness included four basic elements: repectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth, and refinement.39. Generally speaking, pragmatic research includes theoretical exposition and empirical study.40. In empirical study, people usually adopt observational method which is usually divided into two broad categories: quantitative and qualitative.III. Put the following passages into Chinese. (10'×1＝10') 分值分布根据两段的长短可能比例有变化，但总分不变。