英语国家概况论文FROM THE BRITISH EMPIRE TO THE COMMONWEALTH

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英美概况论文2

If Y ou Are Tired of London, Y ou Are Tired of Life.Y es, I think so.At first, London was in a depression in the chalk north of the weald. It is surrounded by richer clay soil which produced food for the citizens of London. two thousand years ago, Roman built this city, from that time, London has been owing a maximum influence in the world, and from 1801 to 20 century, as a empire of the world-the capital of British empire, London become the biggest city of the world for acquiring a outstanding achievement in politics, economy, humanity culture, science and technology invention.T hat’s the history of London, but now London is still the biggest city of Europe a nd meanwhile it also a city which is worthwhile to visit.London is a cosmopolitan mixture of the Third and First worlds of chauffeurs and beggars, of the establishment the avowedly working class and the avant-garde. Unlike comparable European cities, much of London looks unplanned and grubby, but that is part of its appeal. Visiting London is like being let loose on a giant-sized Monopoly board clogged with traffic. Even though you probably won’t know where the hell you are, at least the names will look reassuringly familiar.London has many famous places, such as River Thames, Tower Bridge, Swiss Re Towe r, Palace of Westminster, Big Ben, Millennium Bridge, London Eye, St Paul’s Cathedral, and Tower of London and so on. At the same time, as we known, it is one of the most important economic centre of the world and the maximum economic centre of Europe as well.London is a year-round tourist center, with few of its attractions closing or significantly reducing their opening hours in winter. Y our best chance of good weather is, of course, at the height of summer in July and August, but there’s certainly no gu arantee of sun even in those months and that is when you can expect the biggest crowds and highest prices. Besides when it rains hard, the weather gets a little cold in the later, afternoon the sky will be clear, the sun will begin to shine and it will be summer at this time of day. And then, London fog is the obviously characteristic.With so many beautiful places and the amazing history, anyone who didn’t visit it before is really a pity. No other area of Britain is as rich in history tradition and cultural associations as London. Throughout the capital there are great mansion, venerable old buildings, houses, unrivalled collections of art treasure and colorful ceremonies to suit every possible taste and mood. History is from there and, of course, it is worthwhile visiting London. So, if you are tired of London, you are tired of life. I think that’s true.。

英语国家概况论文

On the Rise and Fall of Great Britain.班级：学号：姓名：教授：分数：______On the Rise and Fall ofGreat Britain.中文摘要：英国，又称大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，是由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰组成的联合王国。

它曾经在世界历史发展的漫长时期中湮没无闻，人口不过数百万，国土资源也很有限，却率先敲开通向现代世界的大门，从地理的边缘变成了世界的中心，一跃成为西方强国的领头人，并独领风骚数百年，给人类文明烙上了不可磨灭的印记。

然而到了十九世纪末期，由于美、德等国的崛起以及其他种种原因，英国逐渐失去优势,后来又在第二次世界大战中受到严重创伤，大英帝国国力日渐衰落,海外殖民地也在二战后纷纷宣告独立，大英帝国逐渐演变成一个组织松散的英联邦。

这个曾经号称“世界工厂”和“日不落帝国”的国家又逐渐衰落。

不过，英国仍然是一个在世界范围内拥有巨大影响力的政治、经济、文化和军事强国。

关键词: 英国；世界工厂；日不落帝国；衰落Abstract in English：Great Britain, also known as The United Kingdom of Great Britain and North Ireland, is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and North Ireland. It was once little-known in the long history of the development of the world and had only several millions of people. What' more, her territorial resources were also limited. However, she is the first country to open the door to the modern world ranging from the geographical edge to the center of the world. She had once been the leading power of the western countries for hundreds of years and also branded an indelible mark on the human civilization. However, in the late 19th century, with the rise of America and German and other factors, Britain began to lose the upper hand in the international competition. Afterwards, she suffered great loss in the two world wars. Britain began declining and the foreign colonies began to win independence one afteranother. The Great Britain Empire became a loose federal country and Britain which was once known as the "Workshop of the World" and "the Sun-Never-Setting Empire" began declining gradually. Nevertheless, Britain is still a political, economical, cultural and military great power which has great influence on the world.Key words: the Great Britain; the Workshop of the World; the Sun-Never-Setting Empire; fall1. IntroductionBritain is an island country surrounded by the sea to the west and off the European Continent. With the decline of the feudalism and the increase of the influence of the new-born bourgeoisie, she began her capitalist development. Through the closure and foreign plunder, expansion and aggression, she completed the primitive accumulation of capital. She became the first country to undergo the industrial revolution. Soon she became the workshop of the world and had the largest colonies. Of course, she became the most powerful country in the world. However, in the late 19th century with the competition of the new industrialized countries and other factors, she began to lose the upper hand. Afterwards, she suffered great loss in the two world wars. She began to decline. The colonies laid overseas began to revolt against Britain and won independences. Great Britain has gradually evolved into a loose organization of the Commonwealth. In the modern times, she tried to recover form it, but for different reasons she still developed slowly. Now she is still one of the major developed countries, she has been reduced to be a second-class world power that is always at the America's command in international affairs.2. The rise of Great BritainAs a small country, which had been invaded by several times, how could Great Britain developed into the workshop of the world and establish the largest empire that history has ever been seen? Let's explore it together.2.1 The Industrial RevolutionThe British Industrial Revolution was a great result of the socialdevelopment in Britain. In political power, Bourgeois had more say on national affairs; in economy ,they accomplished their "primitive accumulation of capital";in ideology, they are more open; besides ,Britain was gaining the upper hand in the contest to reign supreme on the sea ,which expanded foreign market.All the factors combined to make Britain the first country to undergo the Industrial Revolution. In first, it began in the textile industry. With the expansion of market, the demand for cloth also increased. The old instrument could not meet the need o the massive production. Therefore, before long, new and large machines which could increase productivity by hundreds of times appeared. The invention of the steam engine was used to furnish power. With the new source of power, iron, steel and coal industries began to a fast development. Productions needs were largely met by a series of refinements of existing techniques in the major industries and the extensions of mechanization to the other fields, as in sewing and the marketing of boots, cutlery and nails. The expansion of production and trade promoted the transportation revolution. The convenient transport made Britain products flood the world market. The Britain bourgeoisie amassed large amounts of wealth through trade, plunder and colonization. No country was strong enough to match Britain in the 19th century. Britain raced ahead of all the other countries.The industrial revolution marked the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind. Since the 18th century that rate of growth had been revolutionized, as one country that after another had embarked upon an industrialization which to this day was regarded as the key to the future development of new nations. It led on a much broader expansion. The major markets, however, lay overseas, where the more advanced economies were now moving into an intensive period of industrialization. Ultimately, of course, this was to create many powerful competitors for Great Britain, but at the time her superior technology made her the workshop o the world.2.2 Foreign Plunder, Expansion and AggressionOn the 7th July, 1588, the Spanish’s Armada, the Invincible Fleet was defeated by English which made a big difference to England’s getting sea supremacy as well as paving the way for her expansion. And Elizabeth was regarded as the foundation-layer-of the British Empire. During her reign, she encouraged her citizens to sail to trade, even plunder as much as they can. If they were accused of the international crime, the Queen would deny that she had nothing to do with it, in order to avoid stigma from other nations. But if they succeed to return in triumph like respectable soldiers, she might even grant an interview to these gainers, which was considered as a noble glory. In this way, ordinary people were all inspired to voyage, bringing about the prospect of England: nearly every one became rich and the society simultaneously made big change.With flourishing economy and proficient navigation base, the expansion and aggression enjoyed an unprecedented foundation. If the land was sparsely populated, they just drove away or killed off the natives to make room for Britain colonies. In other countries, they first knocked the door open with commerce, often backed by gunboats, and then, on a certain pretext, followed it up with armed occupied about 33million square kilometers, taking one fifth of the world's total dry land. These areas ever provided raw materials or became her market. Among them, the most famous one was East India Company. All these factors enabled Britain to be the “workshop of the world”and London became the financial center of the world trade. The British Empire had climbed to her peak.2.3The Great EmpireWhen the British Empire was in its prime of life, it occupied 33million square kilometers, taking up one fifth of the world dry land. The area was about 135 times as large as Great Britain. It ruled over a population of 560 million, which was more than 10 times as large as that of Britain. What’s more, the Britain fleet controlled the main sea routes and the strategic spots along them. The British Empire was on its crest and became the most powerful andimportant country in the world. That’s “the sun never setting”Great Empire-Britain.3. The fall of Great BritainTowards the end of the 19th century, the British began to go downhill.3.1 The Two World WarsUnder the two Industrial Revolutions’ pushing, more and more countries wanted to pursuit foreign markets and raw materials. Therefore, the competition became fiercer, so did the struggle between repartition and anti-repartition. So many factors combined, the First World War broke out in 1914 and had lasted a little more than four years. As we all know, nearly every country had suffered from it except America.Although Britain was one of the victorious nations and won many new colonies from the Germans in Africa and the Pacific, she could not continue to undertake the great expenses which were used to maintain an empire huge financial expenditure. Millions of people died, and many assets were destroyed, and caused mounting debt, capital market turmoil. At the same time, nationalism in the new and old colonies are high, and the Empire and the white soldiers fought in the war that felt in strong racial discrimination were much contributed to this kind of nationalism.Economically, Britain became debtor instead of creditor country and the economy postwar suffered depression, and the most important one was that the international financial center also transferred from British London to New York. On international influence, although Britain in Paris Peace Conference kept being a leader, her economic, military strength was retrogressing. Eventually, Britain could no longer maintain her hegemonic position. The most typical sign was the Washington Naval conference, limiting Britain’s naval power, which showed that the British had to admit that she was no longer the global hegemony. On the colony, although territory increased, her control became weaker on account of large death and losses. Then independence movements of colonies had affected British profoundlyAbout ten years later, in 1929, a serious crisis started in America and soon spread to other countries. Large unemployment caused endless demonstrations and strikes which shocked the whole capitalist world. Hitler’s constant thirst for power led Europe into the Second World War from 1939 to 1945. And the Second World War witnessed the disintegration of the British Empire.Though Britain and her allies won the war with Germany being invaded and Japan being hit by two atomic bombs, Britain suffered heavy losses. Repeated bombed, her financial position was greatly weakened and had to rely on America. The independence movement of colonies caused the British lose all her colonies except Hong Kong by the year 1970.As a result, the British Empire gave way to the British Commonwealth after 1931; her membership in European Community was endorsed by a national referendum in 1975; Britain’s defence policy is now based on the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Nowadays, the British Empire doesn’t exist and is replaced by the strong America, and then Britain is a second-class developed country.3.2 Postwar BritainAfter the two World Wars, much burden was laid on her and the Great Empire had gone downhill. Britain was no longer in the leading class in the world’s economy and underwent enormous economic difficulties. She lost the privilege in the industrial technology. Its financial was greatly weakened and it had to rely on America aid for its economic reconstruction. On the other, awakened and tempered by the war, consequently, most of its colonies in the world swept a large scale of independence movement. By the year 1970, Britain had lost all its former colonies except Hong Kong. Because its economy relied heavily on foreign markets and imports of raw materials, the losses of its colonies impose a great influence on Britain. She lost expansive lands and a large amount of British population, which weakened its power and was out-competed by other countries.4. ConclusionLooking back from Britain’s rise to fall, it is not difficult for us to find that Britain can become the European most powerful country and then the strongest country is a result of its new policy, technology and expansion. The rising bourgeoisie gave rise to the end of the feudal system and ushered a new stage to come. The Industrial Revolution turned Britain into the “workshop of the worl d” and England was the world’s economic center. And after the colonial expansion, wealth flooded in Britain and the great empire on which the sun never set was established. However, as we all are concerned, one’s previous glory doesn’t guarantee her a brilliant future. When the British were resting on their laurels, the world situation changed. When other countries were researching advanced technology and developing their economy, England was unwilling to adopt new technology and new equipment, she thus lost the monopolize position in the world’s industry and sea power. After two World Wars, the Great Britain’s power declined heavily. Though she won both of two wars, she is still a loser. Many problems were emerging, economic plunge, weakened sea power, loss of foreign colonies, large unemployment, and so on. It can no longer claim to be the most powerful country in the world. However, though it had lost its landlord position, the nation as a whole was not crushed by despair, it was still a powerful country in the world but not the strongest.From the process of Great Britain, we can sum up the experience and make China develop soundly and quickly. We should attach the importance to science, innovation and education. And the policy and society system should keep pace with the time. Last but not least, one nation's rise is based on science and technology, the competition between countries is in the contest of national quality, and talent competition. In addition, every country should keep in mind to be prepared for danger in the ties of safety.Bibliography：A.C.W., Winchester. Nineteenth Century Britain 1815-1914, Harlow, Essex, UK:Longman House, 1982, PP175-181Alderman Geoffrey. Modern Britain 1700-1983, Burrell Row: Provident House, 1986, PP1-15陈德新编英美概况，西安：西安交通大学出版社，2008来安方英美概况, 河南：大象出版社，2004年, PP1-212张奎武英美概况(上)，吉林，吉林科技大学出版社，1984,PP115-129/view/3565.htm/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_ Ireland//question/122668056.html。

英语国家概况英文作文

英语国家概况英文作文The United States is a diverse and vast country located in North America. It is known for its rich history,cultural diversity, and technological innovation. From the bustling city streets of New York to the serene natural beauty of Yellowstone National Park, the US offers a wide range of experiences for visitors.The population of the US is over 300 million, and it is made up of people from all over the world. This diversityis reflected in the country's cuisine, music, and traditions. Whether you're craving a classic American hamburger or want to try authentic Mexican tacos, you can find it all in the US.The US is also a global leader in technology and innovation. Silicon Valley, located in California, is home to many of the world's largest technology companies. From smartphones to social media platforms, many of the products and services that we use every day were created in the US.In terms of natural beauty, the US has it all. From the stunning beaches of Hawaii to the majestic mountains of Colorado, there is no shortage of breathtaking landscapes to explore. The country is also home to many national parks and protected areas, making it a paradise for outdoor enthusiasts.The US is a melting pot of cultures, ideas, and opportunities. It is a place where people from all walks of life can come together to pursue their dreams and build a better future. Whether you're interested in history, technology, or nature, the US has something for everyone.。

英语国家概况考试作文

英语国家概况考试作文**English Overview Exam Essay: Exploring the Cultural Nuances of English-Speaking Nations**The English Overview Exam essay, a crucial component of understanding the diverse cultures and nuances of English-speaking countries, offers a unique opportunity to delveinto the rich tapestry of these nations. This essay notonly examines the historical backgrounds, political systems, and social structures of these countries, but also explores their unique cultural identities and traditions.Beginning with the historical backgrounds, the English Overview Exam essay highlights the significant events and periods that have shaped the identities of English-speaking nations. From the colonization of the Americas by theBritish Empire to the establishment of independent governments, these countries have experienced a diverse range of historical influences. The essay delves into the impact of these events on the political systems and social structures of these nations, analyzing how they haveevolved over time.Moreover, the essay explores the cultural identities and traditions of English-speaking countries. From the vibrant festivals and celebrations to the diverse culinary delights, these cultures offer a fascinating array of experiences. The essay examines how these traditions have been preserved and adapted over the centuries, reflecting the unique blend of old and new in these nations.In addition, the essay considers the role of language in shaping the cultural identities of English-speaking countries. English, as a global language, has become a unifying force among these nations, allowing for greater cultural exchange and understanding. However, the essay also acknowledges the existence of regional dialects and accents, which further enrich the cultural landscapes of these countries.Furthermore, the essay analyzes the social and economic impact of English-speaking countries on the global stage. From the economic prowess of the United States and the United Kingdom to the cultural influence of Australia and Canada, these nations have left an indelible mark on the world. The essay explores how these countries haveleveraged their resources and strengths to shape global policies and trends.Finally, the English Overview Exam essay concludes with a reflection on the importance of understanding thecultural nuances of English-speaking nations. In a world increasingly connected by globalization, it is crucial to appreciate the diversity and uniqueness of different cultures. By exploring the historical backgrounds,political systems, social structures, and culturalidentities of these countries, we can gain a deeper understanding of their people, values, and traditions.In conclusion, the English Overview Exam essay provides a comprehensive overview of the cultural nuances ofEnglish-speaking nations. Through an exploration of their historical backgrounds, political systems, social structures, cultural identities, and global influence, the essay offers a unique perspective on the rich and diverse cultures of these countries. This understanding not only enhances our appreciation of their uniqueness but also fosters a greater sense of cultural tolerance and respectin a globalized world.**英语国家概况考试作文：探索英语国家文化细微差别** 英语国家概况考试作文，是深入了解英语国家多样文化和细微差别的重要途径，它为我们提供了探究这些国家丰富文化纹理的独特机会。

英美概况论文unit1ABriefIntroductiontotheUnitedKingdom1

英美概况论文unit1ABriefIntroductiontotheUnitedKingdom1A Brief Introduction to the United Kingdom Ⅰ As a student majored in science in my high school, I have little knowledge about the society and culture of countries. But I’m still curious about this. So I hope I will learn more about the English-speaking countries. Next I will talk about the preview of the unit 1.The first passage is about the introduction of the United Kingdom. In my memory, I only know the United Kingdom is a developed country, and the building of United Kingdom is very beautiful and magnificent. Now, after reading those passages, I know The UK is includes 4 parts : England , Scotland , Wales , and Northern Ireland . I always thing the UK is point at English, but now I know the four country make up the UK. The United Kingdom is a complicated country with a complicated name and it is a multiracial social. The remarkable class , regional and economic difference of the United Kingdom make it different.Now let’s talk about the four countries.England is a highly urbanized country. And its capital, London, which is dominant in the UK in all fields: government, finance, and culture. So London is a huge weight in Britain’s economic and culture life. It is the conquest of Britain. Before the 1st century AD, British was made up of many tribal Kingdoms of Celtic people. In 43AD Britain was invaded by the Roman Empire, and became part of the Roman Empire for nearly 400 years; Then it came under threat from Germanic peoples; from the late 8th century on, raiders from Scandinavia, the ferocious Vikings threatened Britain’s shores; King Alfred the great turned in the tide in south against the Vikings; the next invaders were theNormans who speak French, from Northern France, who English throne, and became William the First , King Arthur and his Round Table, giving Knights equal precedence and showing Knights’demand for a more democratic system. Second, Robin Hood hid in the forest, rebelled against Normans and robbed from the rich to give to the poor. The next few hundred years following the Norman invasion and power gradually transferred from the monarch to the parliament. Scotland is the second largest of the four nations, both in population and in geographical area. And Scotland is the most rugged part of the UK, and the most confident of its own identity. The largest city is Glagow, and its capital is Edinburgh. Both cities have ancient and internationally respected universities dating from the 15th century. The capital, Edinburgh, which is a east coast, famous for its beauty, dominated by its great castle on a high rock largest city. Scotland was neither conquered by the Romans nor by the Anglo-Saxons. The division between highland and lowland Scotland remains a cultural divide today, in much the same way as north and south England see themselves as different from each other. Scotland has a great tradition of innovation in the arts, philosophy and science.Wales is the smallest on the British mainland. It is very close to the most densely populated parts of central England. It retains a powerful sense of difference from England. And it retains its own language. 19% population speak Gaetic. The capital of Wales is Cardiff.Ireland has been divided by a long and blood conflicts as a result of its colonial history. Until 1921 the full name of the UK was “The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland”One of the key issues in late 19th century. British politics was a campaignin parliamen t for what was called “the Home Rule Bill”.The artistic and cultural activity in the UK Artistic and cultural activity in Britain ranges from the highest professional standards to a wide variety of amateur involvement, London, is one of the leading world centers for drama, music, opera and dance. Some 650 professional arts festivals take place each year. The Edinburgh International Festival is the largest of its kind in the world.There is music for every taste in Britain including opera, choral and classical orchestras pieces, rock and pop, folk and jazz, military and brass bands, acoustic and newly emerging musical collaborations such as music theatre, music with live arts. In musical composition, experimentation is in vogue, with composers mixing their sources: medieval modes and minimalism, quotations from Wagner and from Debussy, Indian melodies and African rhythms. Since the early 60s with the emergence of the Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and the Who, through the 70s with Genesis, Led Zeooelin and Pink Floyd and the 80s with Dire Straits bands have generated major followings worldwide representing a multi-million dollar industry. And the legacy continued into the 90 with Pop phenoms The Spice Girds and groups like Oasis, the Verve, Jamiroquai, and the list goes on. British Pop music is alive and well and will continue to be in 2000 and beyond.。

英语国家概况(英国部分)

Chapter 1 The Land and History英国全称大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士及北爱尔兰构成，位于大西洋东部的不列颠群岛，是个岛屿国家，由大不列颠岛，爱尔兰岛北部和众多小岛组成。

面积约24.40万平方公里，人口超过6400万(2013年)。

英国属于温带海洋气候，常年温和多雨，气候多变。

受高纬度因素的影响，有类似极昼极夜的现象，冬季日短夜长，夏季日长夜短。

公元前3000年左右，伊比亚人最先到达大不列颠岛。

随后，比克利人、凯尔特人相继来到不列颠。

公元前1世纪到公元5世纪，罗马入侵。

罗马人撤离后，欧洲北部的盎格鲁撒克逊人和以丹麦人为主体的斯堪的纳维亚先后入侵。

到了1066年，诺曼底公爵威廉征服了英格兰，英国的封建制度正式形成。

1215年，国王约翰被迫签订了大宪章。

不久，议会制度形成，从此英国的王权被不断削弱和限制。

1688年，“光荣革命”爆发，确立了君主立宪制。

18世纪后期到19世纪前期，英国成为世界上第一个开始并完成工业革命的国家。

19世纪是英国发展的鼎盛时期，分别建立了第一大英帝国和第二大英帝国。

到二战前夕，英国统治了世界约1/4的土地。

第一次世界大战以及第二次世界大战的爆发，导致英国的政治、经济势力大为削弱，失去了霸权地位。

随着其殖民地的相继独立，20世纪60年代，大英帝国彻底瓦解。

I. General IntroductionMap of British Isles1. Location and the Four NationsThe full name of the UK is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is made up of four nations: England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. It is located to the northwest of continental Europe, separated by the English Channel. Geographically, it is an island country, covering an area of about 244,019 km2, and consists of Great Britain and northeastern part of Ireland, together with many small islands of British Isles.Great Britain accounts for over 90% of the country’s tota l landmass. It is the largest island off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe with England, Scotland and Wales on it. Ireland is the second largest island of British Isles located to the northwest of Great Britain. It is divided into two parts: Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland (an independent country).England is the largest part of the UK and occupies most of the southern two thirds of Great Britain. The total area of England is 130,410 km2 with a population of around 53.9 million (Mid-2013 estimated), which covers more than 84% of the total UK population. It is the most populous and highly urbanized part of the UK. London, the capital of the UK and England, as well as the seat of government, is located in its southeastern part.Scotland is the second largest and most mountainous part of the UK in the north of Great Britain. Compared with that of England, the population density is quite low. There are only 5.3 million people with an area of 78,789 km2. Edinburgh, its largest city, is the capital of Scotland. Scotland is famous for its beautiful natural scenery, such as Scottish Highlands1and Loch Ness2, as well as many historical places, like the Edinburgh Castles.Wales is on the western side of central southern Great Britain. The total area of Wales is 20,779 km2, which accounts for 1/4 parts of the UK. It is also a mountainous part of Great Britain, particularly in the north and central regions. The southeast region is the most built up region of Wales, and the majority of its population live there and a large proportion of its industry is based there. Its capital city, Cardiff, is also in this region.Northern Ireland lies in the northeast of the island of Ireland, covering14,139 km2, which constitutes 1/6 of the island. It is the smallest part among the four nations of the UK, as well as the second sparsely populated part after Scotland. The capital is Belfast, the largest city in Northern Ireland both in population and in area. It is the center for government, economic, arts, higher education, business, law of Northern Ireland. Additionally, it is the birthplace of Titanic, and voted one of the world’s top destinations.2. ClimateThe overall climate in the UK is temperate maritime, which means that it is mild with temperatures neither much lower than 0℃in winter nor much higher 32℃in summer. Generally, the UK has warm summers and cool winters, with July and August as the warmest month, and January and February as the coldest. However, due to the influence of Gulf Stream3, the summers are cooler than those in continent while the winters are milder. Normally, the temperature in summer is around 20℃，with the high rarely going above 30℃. The average temperature in winter is around 0℃and seldom go below -10℃even in the most northern part of the country.Meanwhile, since Britain is an island country and surrounded by the sea, the climate is considerably changeable compared with other countries. Since the variable climate changing day to day, it is hard for people to predict what the weather will be like the next day. Additionally, the unique geographical position is also the reason for the dampness of the climate. The rainfall is fairly distributed throughout the year. Although it does not rain every day, it is always advisable for people to bring an umbrella or waterproof clothing every day.II. History1. The Founding of the NationThe recorded history of the UK begins with the Roman invasion in 55BC. In 55 and 54BC, Britain was twice invaded by Julius Caesar and his Roman troops. However, it was not until 43AD that the Roman led by Claudius I finally successfully invaded and Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The native Celtic were driven to the mountain regions of Scotland and Wales, which remained unconquered by the Romans.The Romans have great impact on many aspects of the British culture. The Roman civilization was introduced to the Britain during this period. For example, Roman style baths and temples were built, cities like London and towns were constructed, and the system of government was also introduced. With the decline of the Roman Empire, when the Germanic troops attacked Rome in 410 A.D., the Romans had to withdraw in order to protect their own nation, which led to the end of Roman occupation.After the leave of the Romans, three groups of Germanic tribes called the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons came to Britain from the European continent in the mid-4th century. They conquered different regions of Britain:1Scottish Highlands：苏格兰高地，是对苏格兰高地边界断层以西和以北的山地的称，被认为是欧洲风景最优美的地区。

英语国家概况（英国部分）

Chapt ‎e r 1 The Land and Histo ‎r y英国全称大‎不列颠及北‎爱尔兰联合‎王国，由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士及北‎爱尔兰构成‎，位于大西洋‎东部的不列‎颠群岛，是个岛屿国‎家，由大不列颠‎岛，爱尔兰岛北‎部和众多小‎岛组成。

面积约24‎.40万平方‎公里，人口超过6‎400万(2013年‎)。

英国属于温‎带海洋气候‎，常年温和多‎雨，气候多变。

受高纬度因‎素的影响，有类似极昼‎极夜的现象‎，冬季日短夜‎长，夏季日长夜‎短。

公元前30‎00年左右‎，伊比亚人最‎先到达大不‎列颠岛。

随后，比克利人、凯尔特人相‎继来到不列‎颠。

公元前1世‎纪到公元5‎世纪，罗马入侵。

罗马人撤离‎后，欧洲北部的‎盎格鲁撒克‎逊人和以丹‎麦人为主体‎的斯堪的纳‎维亚先后入‎侵。

到了106‎6年，诺曼底公爵‎威廉征服了‎英格兰，英国的封建‎制度正式形‎成。

1215年‎，国王约翰被‎迫签订了大‎宪章。

不久，议会制度形‎成，从此英国的‎王权被不断‎削弱和限制‎。

1688年‎，―光荣革命‖爆发，确立了君主‎立宪制。

18世纪后‎期到19世‎纪前期，英国成为世‎界上第一个‎开始并完成‎工业革命的‎国家。

19世纪是‎英国发展的‎鼎盛时期，分别建立了‎第一大英帝‎国和第二大‎英帝国。

到二战前夕‎，英国统治了‎世界约1/4的土地。

第一次世界‎大战以及第‎二次世界大‎战的爆发，导致英国的‎政治、经济势力大‎为削弱，失去了霸权‎地位。

随着其殖民‎地的相继独‎立，20世纪6‎0年代，大英帝国彻‎底瓦解。

I. Gener ‎a l Intro ‎d ucti ‎o n1. Locat ‎i on and the Four Natio ‎n s The full name of the UK is the Unite ‎d Kingd ‎o m of Great ‎ Brita ‎i n and North ‎e rn Irela ‎n d. It is made up of four natio ‎n s: Engla ‎n d, Scotl ‎a nd, North ‎e rn Irela ‎n d, and Wales ‎. It is locat ‎e d to the north ‎w est of conti ‎n enta ‎l Europ ‎e , separ ‎a ted by the Engli ‎s h Chann ‎e l. Geogr ‎a phic ‎a lly, it is an islan ‎d count ‎r y, cover ‎i ng an area of about ‎ 244,019 km 2, and consi ‎s ts of Great ‎ Brita ‎i n and north ‎e aste ‎r n part of Irela ‎n d, toget ‎h er with many small ‎ islan ‎d s of Briti ‎s h Isles ‎. Great ‎ Brita ‎i n accou ‎n ts for over 90% of the count ‎r y’s‎total ‎ landm ‎a ss. It is the large ‎s t islan ‎d off the north ‎w este ‎r n coast ‎ of mainl ‎a nd Europ ‎e with Engla ‎n d, Scotl ‎a nd and Wales ‎ on it. Irela ‎n d is the secon ‎d large ‎s t islan ‎d of Briti ‎s h Isles ‎ locat ‎e d to the north ‎w est of Great ‎ Brita ‎i n. It is divid ‎e d into two parts ‎: North ‎e rn Irela ‎n d and the Repub ‎l ic of Irela ‎n d (an indep ‎e nden ‎t count ‎r y).Engla ‎n d is the large ‎s t part of the UK and occup ‎i es most of the south ‎e rn two third ‎s of Great ‎ Brita ‎i n. The total ‎area of Engla ‎n d is 130,410 km 2 with a popul ‎a tion ‎ of aroun ‎d 53.9 milli ‎o n (Mid-2013 estim ‎a ted), which ‎ cover ‎s morethan 84% of the total ‎ UK popul ‎a tion ‎. It is the most popul ‎o us and highl ‎y urban ‎i zed part of the UK . Londo ‎n , the capit ‎a l of the UK and Engla ‎n d, as well as the seat of gover ‎n ment ‎, is locat ‎e d in its south ‎e aste ‎rn part.Map of Briti ‎s h Isles ‎Scotl‎a nd is the secon‎d large‎s t and most mount‎a inou‎s part of the UK in the north‎of Great‎Brita‎i n. Compa‎r ed with that of Engla‎n d, the popul‎a tion‎densi‎t y is quite‎low. There‎are only 5.3 milli‎o n peopl‎e with an area of 78,789 km2. Edinb‎u rgh, its large‎s t city, is the capit‎a l of Scotl‎a nd. Scotl‎a nd is famou‎s for its beaut‎i ful natur‎a l scene‎r y, such as Scott‎i s h Highl‎a nds1and Loch Ness2, as well as many histo‎r ical‎place‎s, like the Edinb‎u rgh Castl‎e s.Wales‎is on the weste‎r n side of centr‎a l south‎e rn Great‎Brita‎i n. The total‎area of Wales‎is 20,779 km2, which‎accou‎n ts for 1/4 parts‎of the UK. It is also a mount‎a inou‎s part of Great‎Brita‎i n, parti‎c ular‎l y in the north‎and centr‎a l regio‎n s. The south‎e ast regio‎n is the most built‎up regio‎n of Wales‎, and the major‎i ty of its popul‎a tion‎live there‎and a large‎propo‎r tion‎of its indus‎t ry is based‎there‎. Its capit‎a l city, Cardi‎f f, is also in this regio‎n.North‎e rn Irela‎n d lies in the north‎e ast of the islan‎d of Irela‎n d, cover‎i ng14‎,139 km2, which‎const‎i tute‎s 1/6 of the islan‎d. It is the small‎e st part among‎the four natio‎n s of the UK, as well as the secon‎d spars‎e ly popul‎a ted part after‎Scotl‎a nd. The capit‎a l is Belfa‎s t, the large‎s t city in North‎e rn Irela‎n d both in popul‎a tion‎and in area. It is the cente‎r for gover‎n ment‎,econo‎m ic, arts, highe‎r educa‎t ion, busin‎e ss, law of North‎e rn Irela‎n d. Addit‎i onal‎l y, it is the birth‎p lace‎of Titan‎i c, and voted‎one of the world‎’s‎top‎desti‎n atio‎n s.2. Clima‎t eThe overa‎l l clima‎t e in the UK is tempe‎r ate marit‎i me, which‎means‎that it is mild with tempe‎r atur‎e s neith‎e r much lower‎than 0℃ in winte‎r nor much highe‎r 32℃ in summe‎r. Gener‎a lly, the UK has warm summe‎r s and cool winte‎r s, with July and Augus‎t as the warme‎s t month‎, and Janua‎r y and Febru‎a ry as the colde‎s t. Howev‎e r, due to the influ‎e nce of Gulf Strea‎m3, the summe‎r s are coole‎r than those‎in conti‎n ent while‎the winte‎r s are milde‎r. Norma‎l ly, the tempe‎r atur‎e in summe‎r is aroun‎d20℃，with the high rarel‎y going‎above‎30℃. The avera‎g e tempe‎r atur‎e in winte‎r is aroun‎d 0℃ and seldo‎m go below‎-10℃ even in the most north‎e rn part of the count‎r y.Meanw‎h ile, since‎Brita‎i n is an islan‎d count‎r y and surro‎u nded‎by the sea, the clima‎t e is consi‎d erab‎l y chang‎e able‎compa‎r ed with other‎count‎r ies. Since‎the varia‎b le clima‎t e chang‎i ng day to day, it is hard for peopl‎e to predi‎c t what the weath‎e r will be like the next day. Addit‎i onal‎l y, the uniqu‎e geogr‎a phic‎a l posit‎i on is also the reaso‎n for the dampn‎e ss of the clima‎t e. The rainf‎a ll is fairl‎y distr‎i bute‎d throu‎g hout‎the year. Altho‎u gh it does not rain every‎day, it is alway‎s advis‎a ble for peopl‎e to bring‎an umbre‎l la or water‎p roof‎cloth‎i ng every‎day.II. Histo‎r y1. The Found‎i ng of the Natio‎nThe recor‎d ed histo‎r y of the UK begin‎s with the Roman‎invas‎i on in 55BC. In 55 and 54BC, Brita‎i n was twice‎invad‎e d by Juliu‎s Caesa‎r and his Roman‎troop‎s. Howev‎e r, it was not until‎43AD that the Roman‎led by Claud‎i us I final‎l y succe‎s sful‎l y invad‎e d and Brita‎i n becam‎e part of the Roman‎Empir‎e. The nativ‎e Celti‎c were drive‎n to the mount‎a in regio‎n s of Scotl‎a nd and Wales‎, which‎remai‎n ed uncon‎q uere‎d by the Roman‎s.The Roman‎s have great‎impac‎t on many aspec‎t s of the Briti‎s h cultu‎r e. The Roman‎civil‎i zati‎o n was intro‎d uced‎to the Brita‎i n durin‎g this perio‎d. For examp‎l e, Roman‎style‎baths‎and templ‎e s were built‎, citie‎s like Londo‎n and towns‎were const‎r ucte‎d, and the syste‎m of gover‎n ment‎was also intro‎d uced‎. With the decli‎n e of the Roman‎Empir‎e, when the Germa‎n ic troop‎s attac‎k ed Rome in 410 A.D., the Roman‎s had to withd‎r aw in order‎to prote‎c t their‎own natio‎n, which‎led to the end of Roman‎occup‎a tion‎.After‎the leave‎of the Roman‎s, three‎group‎s of Germa‎n ic tribe‎s calle‎d the Jutes‎, the Angle‎s and the Saxon‎s came to Brita‎i n from the Europ‎e an conti‎n ent in the mid-4th centu‎r y. They conqu‎e red diffe‎r ent regio‎n s of Brita‎i n:1Scott‎i sh Highl‎a nds：苏格兰高地‎，是对苏格兰‎高地边界断‎层以西和以‎北的山地的‎称，被认为是欧‎洲风景最优‎美的地区。

英语国家概况资料之The Rise and Fall of the British Empire

Chapter 5The Rise and Fall of: the British Empire （1688-1990）1. Whigs and ToriesThese two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution（1688）. Both were known by nicknames: Whigs was a derogatory name for cattle drivers, Tories an Irish word meaning thugs. Loosely speaking, the Whigs were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Noncon formists. First Earl of Shaftsbury (1621-83) was considered to be the first leader of the Whig Party. The Tories were those who sup ported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings.The Whigs were to form a coalition with dissident Tonies in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party, which still bears the nick-name today.By the beginning of the 19th century the Whigs had no particular programme and were not even a united party in the modem sense.They did not yet have an organized party structure, without party funds for example. Whigs stood for (1) :a reduction in Crown pa tronage (the power to appoint people to important positions and offices.(2) :sympathy towards Nonconformists (Methodists and other Protestant sects who had broken away from the Church of England), and (3) care for the interests of merchants and bankers. Most Whigs were in favor also of some kind of Parlia mentary reform, but could not agree how far this reform should go. (e.g. Should the merchants now be allowed to vote, or should all men get the vote?)Tories were traditionalists- who wanted to preserve the powers of the monarchy and the Church of England. They disliked the Non conformists and considered them a threat to Church of England's in fluence on the people; they wanted strict maintenance of law and order and were afraid of mob riot, and they did not always agree to all reforms. They might agree to some humanitarian reforms, but were certainly against Parliamentary reforms. There was another brand of opinion, but with much smaller support in the Parliament. They were the Radicals who wanted funda mental reforms to get to the root of problems. Only a handful of Parliamentary members were Radicals, but in the late 18th and ear ly 19th centuries Radicals were active in Parliament spreading radical ideas. Their one common aim was thorough reform of the Parlia mentary system. They were greatly influenced by Jeremy Bentham's ideals known as Utilitarianism. He suggested that government's function should be to achieve the greatest happiness of the greatest number. This should be done in two ways accord ing to him: (1) government and administration should be made as efficient as possible. Anything which was not efficient and useful (e. g. educational system, prison system, Parliament) should be modernized; and (2) government should interfere as little as possible with lives of the people as individuals. They advocated lai&w2 faire, a radical idea of free trade, because they believed that the import and export duties interfered with the natural flow of trade.Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th CenturyFarming was an important occupation in England in the 18th cen tury. Village and agriculture were the backbone of the nation.Changes in farming methods therefore would affect lives of millions.Agricultural changes in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were indeed so great that they merit the term revolution''. Traditional farming involved the open field village, a system that dated back to the 5th century. Villages were surrounded by 3 great hedgeless fields which centred all the arable land. These fields were divided into stripsshared out among the villagers. Each family's land was scattered about, so good land was fairly distributed. Much was done on a community basis. One great field left fallow each year (i.e.unused/unsown after ploughing) so that its soil recovered its richness after two years' cultivation. This meant only 2/3 of the land was cultivated at any time. In addition to the fields there were commons and wastelands used by all villagers to graze livestock. This system was an ideal basis for the simple community life of the countryside and subsistence farming before the modern industrial age. There were of course drawbacks: (1) it wasted land because of fallow fields and land for paths; (2) it was wasteful of labour and time; (3) livestock farming was difficult and diseases spread quickly on commons. Winter feed was rarely enough, so animals were usually killed in aufunin and their meat was salted, and (4) the open field system was a barrier-to experiments.In the mid-18th century the population in England increased rapidly, and most of this increase was in the towns, depending on the countryside, for food. Greater productivity meant handsome profits, so landowners wanted to replace the synall farms cultivated on the open-field system by larger, economically more efficient farms with hedge-divided fields. During the late 18th and early19th centuries the open-field system ended when the Enclosure Acts enabled wealthier landowners to seize any land to which tenants could prove no legal title and to divide it into enclosed fields. A sys tem of crop rotation was introduced. This meant land could be fully used while the cuffivation of fodder crops enabled livestock to be kept through the winter months. Artificial fertilizer and new agri cultural machinery, such as the seed drill invented by Jethro Tull (1674-1741), also made arable farming more efficient and more profitable. The 18th century also saw selective breeding of cattle,sheep and horses by Robert Bakewell (1725-95). Animals by 1800were 2 to 3 times heavier than ever before. The idea of encouraging tenants to introduce changes was associated with Thomas Coke (1754-1842) of Norfolk in Southern England and even George was so enthusiastic about changes at Windsor that he got the nick-named “Famer George”Enclosure became more frequent after 1740 and climaxed during the turn of the century when war against France meant high food prices war was an incentive to landlords to enclose land.Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results (1)Farms became-bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small; (2) more vegetables, more milk, more diary produce were consumed, and diet became more varied; (3) enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures.These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns, which rapidly became hopelessly overcrowded. Riots erupted in many areas but they could not prevent the march of progress. In Ireland and the Scottish Highlands -land enclosure led to mass emi gration, particularly to the New World; and (4) a new class hos tility was introduced into rural relationships. Concentration of land in fewer hands increased the price of land and dashed the labourers' hopes of ever owning his own land. Loss of the common land for his animals added insult to injury, and meant many had to leave the land to survive. Others became wage labourers, earning rates which were very low in spite of agriculture's new prosperity.M-The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)The Industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19thcenturies. Britain was the first country to. industrialize because of the following factors:(1) Britain was, well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade; (2) Britain had a peaceful society, which after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. In ternational trade brought weAth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had'-done well out of new farming. methods pro vided capital in large quantities for industrialization. (3) The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy. (4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports,or from rivers, which could distribute their products; (5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources. (6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.(7) The inventors were respected.They solved practical problems;(8) probably laissez faire and Protestant work ethic helped. (9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union af ter 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population,labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.While the movement to enclose the land and use new agricultural methods was at its height, similar things took place in manufac ture. Before the 18th century most industries were done in the home in villages and small towns, using very simple hand operated machines. Now new techniques and water powered machines ulted in organization of industries on a large scale. At this time popula tion became increasingly concentrated in towns, especially in Mid lands, North of England, Southern Wales and Central Scotland. Changes -occurred earliest and quickest in textiles, especially cotton and silk and in other trades like hardware, pottery and chemicals.Production of woolen cloth was traditional and some of the skilled tasks had already started to be done in workshops rather than in the home even before the 18th century. Spinning and weaving, howev er, were done at home. Spinning was a part-time job for wives. Weaving was a full-time male occupation. Often the retailers rented looms to weavers. New textile trades like silk and cotton,, however, were first to adopt factory methods of production. By 1760 the silk industry was well established, but small and no competition for the French and Italians. The real revolution in textiles was in1770 when power-driven machinery was introduced. Cotton had been slow to develop because cotton was imported from West Indies and America. Spinning pure cotton was difficult. For a long time it was mixed with wool (or linen) to make it stronger. Cotton was already associated with Southern Lancastrians. Southern Lancashire had a damp climate ideal for the threads, and was close to rivers and coal fields, and to the great port of Liverpool. At first technology aided weavers. John Kay's flying shuttle (1733) speeded up hand weaving, creating demand for faster yarn spinning. Then spinning was revolutionized by James Hargreaves' spinning jenny (1766), which enabled one hand labourer to spin many threads at a time; and by Richard Arkwright's waterframe ( 1769 ) and Samuel Crompton's mule (1779), which replaced hand labour altogether,and required power to drive them: first water-power, then steam.Edmund Cartwright's power loom (1784) eventually enabled weav ing to catch up with spinning. British cotton now rivaled the best calicoe and muslin of the East. The first steam engine was devised by Thomas Newcomer at the end of the 17th century, and the Scot tish inventor James Watt (1736-1819) modified and improved the design in 1765 and produced a very efficient steam engine with ro tary motion that could be applied to textile and other machinery.Perhaps the most important element in speeding industrialization was the breakthrough which came when Abraham Darby succeeded in smelting iron with coke instead of charcoal in 1709. This hugely increased the production of iron which was used for machinery, rail ways and shipping. Similar developments occurred in the forging side of the iron industry when improvement such as Henry Court's puddling and rolling processes ( 1784 ) enabled vastly increased quantities of high-quality iron to replace wood and stone in many sectors of the economy. Improved transportation (e. g. road and canal construction) ran parallel with production. By the early 19th century, Britain had a road network of some 125, 000 miles (200, 000 km)As a result of the industrial revolution, Britain was by 1830 the workshop of the world''; no other country was yet ready to compete with her in industrial production. Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation's wealth. The north of England, un til the 18th century a backward region, was now the most advanced in Britain; mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it. The working men worked and lived in ap palling conditions (e. g. the workers in factories were treated badly, working 15 hour days in poor light and deafening noise. Lud dites supposedly led by Ned Ludd attempted to destroy the hated machines, but were severely punished by the government. The Industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the prole tariat, and it later led to trade unionism.The two events which most alarmed the British ruling chimes in the closing decades of the 18th century were the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. In the American War of Independence the colonists proved themselves willing to fight for e quality, national identity and political representation. Their wor cry no tax without representation was just as valid for the British middle class and working class when Parliaments still represented sent only aristocrats.In the French revolution, people were pre pared to remove the heads of the aristocracy and anyone else who de nied them liberty, equality and fraternity.IV. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)Political change in England did not come through revolution but through gradual reform. "At the general election of 1830, the Whigs under Lord Grey were returned to power after more than half a century in opposition and turned their minds to the problem of par liamentary reform. Why should par liament be reformed, there were several reasons: (1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats. In the 18th and 19th centuries the Lords had far more, influence than it has today and the Commons were also really" gentry '' on edge of aristocracy. Most important ministers were peers (aristocrats and bishops of Church). The Commons were elected only by a very small proportion of the population. The vote was a privilege for a small number of male citizens. No females were allowed to vote in national elections before 1918. Members of Parliament were not paid. (2) Representation of town and country, and North and South was unfair. Today the country is split intoequal sized units for voting C e.each returns 1 member of Parliament) - In the 19th century there were county and borough seats (' e. rural and urban). In counties all with property worth 40 shillings per annurn could vote and 2members of Parliament were elected. Borough voting rights varied.The system had not changed since it began, yet location of most population had.Big new cities like Manchester had no seats. Some deserted Southern villages still had two each. The Southwest con tributed a quarter of all members of Parliament. It was over represented. (3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.Rotten boroughs had been busy market towns, and now were deserted, but they could still elect Members of Parliament. In pocket boroughs,elections were not won by political views but by influ ence.At that time, there was no secret ballot. Votes were recorded in poll-books for all to see. Candidates could buy off or bully voters. So some voters were already so intimidated by the great local landowner that even before the election the seat was already in his pocket.Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed. The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the ''Greater Charter of 1832'') abolished rotten boroughs, and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing towns. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenants, based on the value of their property.Then the New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. There was dissatisfaction also with the fail ure of attempts to develop trade unionism. Some radicals and militant-workers saw the 1832 Great Reform Act as a great betrayal by the middle class of the working classes and were determined to re new the working class fight for political equality. In 1936 a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Work ing Men's Association.It aimed to seek by every legal means to place all classes of society in possession of equal political and social rights. Its leader was William Lovett, a skilled worker. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People's Charter) in1838, with the intention of printing it to Parliament. It had six points: (1) the vote for all adult males, (2) voting by secret bal lot, (3) equal electoral districts, (4) abolition of property qualifi cations for members of Parliament, (5) payment of members of Parliament; (6) annual Parliaments with a General Election every June.Support for the six demands was loudly voiced at meetings held both by day and night all over the country. Other working men formed Chartist groups throughout the country. At a great 1838 meeting in Birmingham the movement was officially launched, with the aim of pressing Parliament to accept the 6 points.The Chartists could be roughly divided into two groups:the Moral Force Chartists and the Physical Force Chartists. The former headed by William Lovett wanted to realize their aims by peaceful means (politics of persuasion). The latter headed by Feargus O'Connor, wanted to achieve their purpose by violence.The Birmingham radical MP, Attwood, was responsible for holding a National Convention in London in February 1839 and for presenting a petition to the House of Commonsin July, 1840. The Convention revealed conflicts (disagreements) within the move ment and great differences between the Northerners (who were fun damentally anti-industrialists) and the men from the Midlands and London. Chartist riots occurred in Birmingham, Sheffield and Newport where 24 Chartists were killed in a full-scale rising (November 3,1839). Between 1840 and 1842 the Chartist move ment was widely split, but a second petition was presented in May, 1842 and was rejected. A proposed great Chartist Demonstration in1848 considerably alarmed the Government. But there were fewer demonstrators than expected and, in the face of the police, the meeting ended quietly with a third petition being conveyed to Parliament.Chartism failed because of its weak -and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-umomsm. The working class was still immpture, without the leadership of a political party arined with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.V. Trade Unions and the Labour PartyAs the new working class became established in the industrial towns in the late 18th century, they became aware of the power which they could po if they acted together instead of separately. So various working class organizations such as friendly societies and mutual insurance companies were formed to bring about improve ments in their standards of living. However, the movements were regarded with suspicion by the government as possible centers of'revolution, especially after the French Revolution of 1789-93. Consequently Parliament passed the Combination Acts of 1799-1800 to forbid the formation of unions. These laws were repeated in 1824. As a result the 1825 Act allowed workers to form unions but not to obstruct workers and employers. It was now difficult to strike without court action following.Most early trade unions were small and local.It wasn't until after1825 that large unions began to combine workers in different parts of the country. In October, 1833 the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union (GNCTU) was established. This attempt to form a national union came to nothing after the trial and transportation of six Dorsetshire agricultural labourers (To1puddle Martyrs) in1834 on the charge of administering false oaths.For 30 years -industrial relationships remained stormy, but until 1850 working class energies were taken up with other movements such as the C. hartist Movement and the Anti-Corn Law League. A new kind of trade unionism developed among skilled workers, such as the Amalgamated Society of Engineers (ASE). The members of the ASE paid one shilling per week at a time when most earned I than one pound per week. In return the ASE offered benefits simi lar to those of friendly societies (i. e. benefits for sickness, unem ployment or old age). The ASE was the model for other national craft unions formed in the 1850s and 1860s among boilermakers,carpOnters, bricklayers and other skilled building workers. Animportant part of the work of the new unions was restriction of entry to their trades. These new model unions tried to avoid confronta tions with employers as far as possible.The New Unionism was not favoured by all workers. The lower paid were still outside it and re mained largely unorganized. In the 1860s trade unionists began to meet regularly to discuss matters of common interest (e. g regula tion of hours, technical education and conditions of appren ticeship). In 1868 the Trades Union Congress (TUC) was start ed; thus began a new phase in which trade unionism had a national organization capable of coordinating the interests of industrial workers.Trade unions had always lacked legal rights - They bad to fight two strong opponents together-employers and the State. Influenced by the 1867 Royal Commission, the Liberal Government passed two new laws, which gave the movement new legal security.The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the trade unions and gave fi nancial security. It meant that in law there was no difference be tween collecting money for benefit purposes and collecting it to sup port strike action. The Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act of 1876 gave unions the right to exist as corporation, able to own property and to defend their rights corporatively (i.e. not as mere collections of individuals) in courts of law. Two important develop ments followed in the last 20 years of the 19th century; the growth of unions where they were most needed, among unskilled workers; and the formation of a political party, the Labour Party.The Labour Party had its origins in the Independent Labour Party (ILP), which was formed in January, 1893 and led by Keir Hardie, a Scottish miner. The Independent Labour Party was too idealistic and its leaders too individualistic ever to become a mass party. The foundation of an effective party for labour would depend on the trade unions. When in 1899 Hardie and the ILP urged the English and Scottish TUCs to endorse the idea of united political action, the TUCs acted. In 1900, representative of trade unions the ILP, and a number of small socialist societies set up the Labour Representation Committee (LRC). The aim of the LRC was simply to promote in Parliament the interests of labour. The LRC changed its name to the Labour Party in time for the general election which was called for 1906. The Labour Party participated (1915-18) in the war coalition government, became the main op position party (1922), and formed minority governments (1924 and 1929-31) under MacDonald.VI. Colonial ExpansionEnglish colonial expansion began with the colonization of New foundland in 1583. In the early 18th century, settlements were made in North America, while commercial companies were chartered to trade with other lands, notabl the British East India Company in India. Encouraged by Britain's control of the seas, the dis coveries of men like Captain Cook, and especially by the rising tide of emigration, the British colonialists stepped up their expansion in the late 18th century and the early 19th century.1. The growth of dominionsIn the late 18th century Britain acquired vast,under populated territories: Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.After the Seven Years' War (1756-63 ) between Britain and France, Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were guaranteed by the. Quebec Act of 1774. Then the Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada (Pntari o) where theBritish had settled, and Lower Canada (Quebec)populated by the French. Only one serious revolt against British rule took place in 1837-38. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada ,as a dominion. The four founding provinces were Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The others entered later.Australia was first discovered by the Dutch in the early 1600s.Captain James Cook discovered Botany Bay and claimed the east coast region for Britain,naming it New South Wales, (1770). The English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free set tlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent to Australia after1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Aus tralia, and in 1901 the six self-governing colonies were united in one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.New Zealand was settled by Maoris in about the 14th century. New Zealand was sighted by the Dutch seaman Abel Tasman in1642, and named for the Netherlands province of Zeeland. In the1770s Captain James Cook visited New Zealand and claimed it for England. Missionaries became active in the early 19th century, and systematic colonization was begun in 1840 by the New Zealand Com pany. Britain drew up the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) with the Maori chiefs, and made the country a separate colony (1841). It achieved self-government in 1952, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907, and was made completely independent in 1931.2. The Conquest of IndiaThe establishment of the British East India Company in 1600 was a case of economic penetration. The company took control of areas and as a result the British government became directly involved in Indian affairs. The India Act of 1784 set up a “Board of Control”to supervise the Company. Political instability and French interference prompted further intervention. By 1819 the British conquest of India was almost complete. In 1857 the native- troops of the Bengal army of the East India Company mutinied because of (1) resent ment at the reforms of ancient Indian institutions carried out by the British; (2) fear of forcible conversion to Christianity; and (3)the issue of cartridges- greased with cow-fat, which offended Hin dus, or pig-fat, which offended Musl ims . After the mutiny, the control of India passed to the British Crown in 1858, and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.3. The Senunble for- AfricaThe Dutch East India Company established a settlement at Cape Town in 1652. Settlement extended inland to form Cape Colony in the 18th century. Britain took the colony in 1806 to protect its-route to India, an act officially recognized by the Netherlands in1814. Increasing numbers of British settlers arrived in the 1820s, and to escape British dorninatiwi the Boers moved northward in the Great Trek (mass migration, 1835-36) to Natal, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Britain took Natal in 1843 but recognized the independence of the Transvaal in 1852 and the Orange Free State in 1854. Relations between the British colony and the Boer republics became worse, especially when Britain took (1871) Griqualand, an area of the Orange Free State where diamonds had been discovered. An attempt to take the Transvaal (1877) resulted in war between Britain and the Boers (1880-81) in which Britain was defeated, and the Transvaal's independence was recognized.。

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FROM THE BRITISH EMPIRE TO THECOMMONWEALTHI.Introduction.Great Britain, also known as The United Kingdom of Great Britain and North Ireland, had once been the center of world for centuries and made great contributionto human civilization. However, in the late 19th century, with the rise ofother countries, Britain began to fall in the fierce competition among capitalist countries. Afterwards, suffering great loss in the two world wars, Britain became less powerful and thecolonies won independence one after another. The Great Britain Empire gradually transformed itself to a friendly and harmonious Commonwealth. II.Background: The Rise of The British Empire.a)Industrial Revolution and ExpansionThe British Industrial Revolution, which took place in 1700s, resulted in great development of the British society.Hand production methods could no longer meet the need of products.The newly-invented machines simplified the process of production and greatly increased the productivity.And the well-known steam engine provided new source of power, thanks to which, fast development also took place in other important fields such as transportation, steel industry and coal industry.The industrial revolution marked the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind.In 1588, the Spanish Armada was defeated by the Great Britain, which marked Great Britain’s gaining of sea supremacy, and paved the way for the expansion.During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, British citizens were encouraged to trade abroad,or even plunder and colonize through sailing. Weaker countries’ door s were first knocked open with commerce, and it was often followed by occupation and colonization backed withstrong military force.With advanced technology and broad market, bourgeoisie of Britain started their accumulation of capital, and the country started to lead theworld.b)The Sun-never-set EmpireThe British Empire became the “workshop of the world”, and London became the financial center. For over a century, it was the principal naval and imperial power, and almost unchallenged at seaand in territory. In the early 1900s, it ruled a population of over 500 million and occupied more than one fifth of the Earth’s total land ar ea.Because of its expanse around the globe, the sun could shine on at least one of its territories at any time. P eople call it “the empire on which the sun never sets”.III.Transformation to the Commonwealth.a)The Proposal of CommonwealthQueen Elizabeth II once declared that the confederation of Canada on 1st July 1867 marked “the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations".In 1884, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, described the changing British Empireas some of its colonies became moreindependentas a "Commonwealth of Nations".In 1917, a specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts,at that time a member of the British Imperial War Cabinet, when he brought up the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which concluded the Irish War of Independence, when the term “British Commonwealth of Nations” was substituted for “British Empire” in the wording of the oath taken by the parliament of the Irish Free State.b)Falling EmpireThe two Industrial Revolutions pushed more countries to develop bourgeoisie and look for foreign markets and raw materials.Therefore, the competition became fiercer. Newly-emerging powers, especially Germany, struggled for a repartition of market and land, while the British Empire had to fight to defend the acquired benefits.The First World War broke out in 1914 and lasted about four years, during which nearly every country suffered from it except America.Although Britain was one of the victorious nations and won many new colonies from the Germans, it could n’t afford to the great expenses for maintainingsuch a huge lions of people died, economy suffered, and Britain became a debtor, rather than creditor. At the same time, independence movements in thecolonies were running high.The empire was losing its control of the colonies. The international financial center transferred to New York. All of these deprived the Empire of its hegemonic position.c)TransformationThe Balfour Declaration, issued by the 1926 Imperial Conference, declared that the United Kingdom and the Dominions are...autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. ...The declaration accepted the fact that the dominions were having growing independence in internal and external affairs in the years after World War I, and became the basis of the Statute of Westminster 1931.The Parliament of the United Kingdom passed Statute of Westminster in 1931. It is a statutory embodiment and formalization of the principles of equality and allegiance to the Crown, which were brought up in the Balfour Declaration. Until today, the Statute of Westminster still serves as a basis of the relationship between the Commonwealth realms and the Crown.d)Postwar ChangesAfter World War II, the situation of the world changed profoundly. Europe, a continent that had dominated the whole world for several centuries, was in ruins. The United States and Soviet Union held the super power, while Britain was left bankrupt.In this period, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations.The London Declaration was issued by the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. It is considered a milestone in the history of the modern Commonwealth.The declaration allowed the Commonwealth to admit and retain members that were not Dominions, and it changed the name of the organization from the “British Commonwealth of Nations”to the “Commonwealth of Nations”. The dropping of the word “British” reflects the major changes.After London Declaration, the colonies gained their independence and new members from different continents joined the Commonwealth.Finally, the handover ceremony of Hong Kong in 1997 marked the end of the long decolonization process, as well as the empire.monwealth Today.The Commonwealth of Nations is an voluntary intergovernmental organization of52 independent member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire.Although they acknowledge the British Monarch as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth, they have no obligation to each other and have full autonomy on their own internal and external affairs. They are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law.Commonwealth countries interact with each other outside governmentwith various non-governmental organizations of different fields, such as sport, culture, education, law and charity.The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organization, resourced by Commonwealth governments. It aims to strengthen civil society in theachievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication, people-centered and sustainable development, and to promote arts and culture.The Commonwealth games is the third largest multi-sport event in the world.Being held every four years, the games include sports particularly popular in Commonwealth countries, such as netball and rugby sevens. The games were designed with the goal of promoting relations between Commonwealth countries and celebrating their shared sporting and cultural heritage.V.Conclusion.History witnessed the rise and fall of the British Empire and its transformation to the Commonwealth of Nations.From the history, there’s much we can learn.The rise of the British Empire from the Industrial Revolution can help us realize the importance of science and technology. With advanced technology, a little effort can produce great achievement.The lack of ability and power to control the large area of colonies can remind us that we should pre-estimate the situation, in order that what we wouldn’t cause results that we cannot control.The self-transformation to a loose commonwealth can also enlighten us that we should always follow the historical trend and that being against the trend is not a wise option.。