外文文献和中文翻译.internetbasedcommunications
互联网网络营销外文文献翻译
互联网网络营销外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Peter Kenzelmann. Technical Consultancy in Internationalization[J]. International Marketing Review, 2006, 4(3):20-29. 英文原文The technical basis of network marketingPeter KenzelmannNetwork marketing is based on the technology infrastructure of computer network technology, as represented by information technology. Computer networks of modern communications technology and computer technology to the product of combining it in different geographic regions and specialized computer equipment for external interconnection lines of communication into a large, powerful networks, thus enabling a large number of computers can easily transmit information to each other, share hardware, software, data and other resources. And network marketing is closely related to the computer network there are three types: the Internet, Extranet and Intranet.The theoretical basis for the network marketingTheoretical foundation of network marketing is direct marketing network theory, network theory of relationship marketing, marketing theory and network software to integrate marketing theory.(A) Direct Response Network Marketing TheoryInternet marketing as an effective direct marketing strategy, network marketing that can be tested and measurable and can be evaluated and controlled. Therefore, the characteristics of the use of network marketing, you can greatly improve the efficiency of marketing and marketing decision-making effectiveness of the implementation.Direct marketing theory is the 20th century, one of the 80's the concept of eye-catching. Direct Marketing Association of the United States for its definition is: "a place to produce any measurable response and (or) use the Stock Exchange reached one or more advertising media marketing system interaction." Directly Marketing the key to the theory that network marketing is that it can be tested, measurable, can be evaluated, which a fundamental solution to evaluate the effect of the traditional difficulties in marketing and marketing for more scientific decision-making possible. (B) the network theory of relationship marketingRelationship Marketing is a great importance since 1990 by the marketing theory, which mainly includes two basic points: First of all, in the macro level will be recognized that the scope of marketing a wide range of areas, including customer market, the labor market, the supply market , the internal market, the market stakeholders, as well as the affected market (government, financial markets); at the micro level, recognizing that the relationship between business and customers areconstantly changing, the core of marketing should be a simple one-time past transactions to a focus on maintaining relations up long-term relationships. Socio-economic system, enterprises are a major subsystem, corporate marketing objectives by many external factors to the impact of marketing activities of enterprises is a consumers, competitors, suppliers, distributors, government agencies and social organizations the process of interaction, the correct understanding of the relationship between the individual and the organization is the core of marketing is also key to business success or failure.The core of relationship marketing is to keep customers, to provide customers with a high degree of satisfaction with the value of products and services, by strengthening the links with customers to provide effective customer service, to maintain long-term relationship with customers. And long-term customer relations based on the marketing activities to achieve the marketing objectives of companies. The implementation of relationship marketing is not to damage the cost of business interests, according to research, for marketing a new customer costs five times the cost of the old customers, so to strengthen relations with customers and build customer loyalty can bring long-term enterprise interests, it is to promote a win-win strategy for businesses and customers. The Internet as an effective two-way channels of communication between businesses and customers can achieve low-cost communication andexchange costs, which companies build long-term relationships with customers to provide effective protection. This is because, first of all, enterprises can use the Internet to receive customer orders directly, customers can make their own personalized needs. Enterprises in accordance with customer demand for personalized use of flexible production technology to meet the customer needs to maximize customers in the consumer products and services to create more value. Enterprise customers can also understand the market demand, market segments and target markets, minimize marketing costs and increase the reaction rate on the market. Secondly, the use of the Internet companies to provide customers with better services and keep in touch with customers. Internet time and space constraints are not the characteristics of the convenience of our customers to maximize communication with the enterprise, customers can make use of the Internet in the shortest possible time in an easy way to access business services. At the same time, trading via the Internet to the entire enterprise can be achieved from the product quality, quality of service, such as transaction services to the entire process of quality control.On the other hand, enterprises can also be via the Internet with business-related companies and organizations build relationships and achieve win-win development. Internet as a channel of communication between the cheapest, it can help lower costs in the supply ofbusiness-to-business yet, distributors such as the establishment of collaborative partnerships. Cases such as in front of the computer company Lenovo, through the establishment of e-business systems and management information systems with the distributors of information sharing, reduce inventory costs and transaction costs, and close cooperation between the two sides. Relating to the application of network theory will be the strategy behind the marketing services network in detail.(C) The network of soft marketing theoryMarketing theory is soft against the industrial economy to the era of mass production for the main features of the "strong sales" of the new theory, the theory suggests that when customers buy products not only meet the basic physiological needs, but also to meet the mental and psychological level demand. Therefore, the soft marketing is one of the main characteristics of the follow netiquette, etiquette on the network through the use of clever marketing to obtain desired results. It emphasizes the marketing activities of enterprises at the same time the need to respect the feelings of consumers and the body read, so that consumers will be able to comfortably take the initiative to receive the marketing activities of enterprises. Traditional marketing activities can best embody the characteristics of a strong marketing promotions are two: the traditional advertising and marketing staff. In traditional advertising,consumers are often forced to passive reception of advertising messages, "bombing", and its goal is to impart information through continuous means the hearts of consumers impressed, as to whether the consumer was not willing to accept the need for need not be taken into account; marketing personnel, the marketing staff does not consider the object is willing to sell and needs, but according to the marketing staff to determine their own marketing activities carried out forcibly.On the Internet, because information exchange is a free, equal, open and interactive, to stress that mutual respect and communication, on-line users pay more attention to the protection and privacy of personal experience. Therefore, using the traditional means of marketing a strong start in the Internet marketing activities are bound to backfire, such as the American company AOL has forced their users to send E-mail advertising, the results lead to the unanimous opposition of users, many users agreed to AOL at the same time the company server E-mail to retaliate, with the result that AOL's E-mail mail server in a paralyzed state, and finally had to apologize to quell public indignation. Network marketing is just soft from the consumer's experience and needs and take pull-type strategy to attract consumers concerned about the marketing effectiveness of enterprises to achieve. Network on the Internet to carry out marketing activities, in particular promotional activities must follow certain rules of network formation of virtual communities, some also known as"netiquette (Netiquette)". Network marketing is soft netiquette rules to follow based on the clever use of marketing to achieve a subtle effect. Marketing theory on network application software in the network marketing sales strategy specific details.(D) Network Integrated MarketingIn the current post-industrial society, the tertiary industry in the development of the service sector is the major economic growth point, the traditional manufacturing-based to being service-oriented development, new service industries such as finance, communications, transportation and other industries the sun at high noon. Post-industrial society requires the development of enterprises must be based on service-oriented, it is necessary to customers as the center, to provide customers with timely and appropriate manner, as appropriate services, the maximum extent possible to meet customer demand. Internet time and space as a cross-transmission of "superconductive" media, can provide timely customer service is located at the same time interactivity of the Internet can understand customer needs and provide targeted response, so the Internet era can be said to be the most consumers an attractive marketing tool.Network of integrated marketing theory include the following key points:Network marketing requires, first of all the consumers into the entiremarketing process to the needs of their entire marketing process from the beginning.Network marketing distribution system for the enterprise as well as stakeholders to be more closely together.Corporate interests and the interests of customers to integrate together.Internet on the role of marketing, you can through the 4Ps (product / service, pricing, distribution, promotion) play an important role in binding. The use of the Internet traditional 4Ps marketing mix can be better with the customer as the center of the 4Cs (customer, cost, convenience, communication) to combine.1. Products and services to customers as the centerAs the Internet has a very good interaction and guiding the user through the Internet under the guidance of the enterprise to choose the product or service or specific requirements of enterprise customers to choose based on the timely production and requirements and provide timely service, making Customer inter-temporal and spatial requirements are met by the products and services; On the other hand, enterprises can also keep abreast of customer needs and customer requirements in accordance with the timely production and marketing organizations to provide the production efficiency and marketing effectiveness. Such as the United States PC sales company Dell Inc., or a loss in 1995, but in1996, their sales via the Internet to computers, the performance of 100 percent growth, due to customers via the Internet, you can design in the company's home page to choose and combination of computers, the company's production department immediately upon request, production, and sent through the postal service company, so companies can achieve zero inventory production, especially in the sharp decline in prices of computer components of the era, inventory will not only reduce the inventory costs can be avoided also because of losses brought about by high-priced stock.2. Customer acceptable cost pricingThe cost of traditional production-based pricing in the market-oriented marketing is to be discarded. The price of new customers should be based on acceptable cost pricing, and based on the cost to organize the production and marketing. Customer-centric enterprise pricing, customers must be the determination of market demand and the price accepted standards, otherwise the cost to the customer to accept the pricing is a castle in the air. Business on the Internet can be very easy to implement, the customer can be made via the Internet acceptable cost, the cost of business in accordance with customers to provide flexible product design and production program for the user to choose until after the customer agrees to confirm the production and marketing organizations, all All these are clients of the server program in the company under theguidance and does not require specialized services and, therefore, extremely low cost. At present, the United States, General Motors Corp. to allow customers on the Internet through the company's own guidance system of the design and assembly of motor vehicles to meet their needs, users first determine the criteria for acceptable price, and then according to the price limit system to meet the requirements of style show vehicle, the user can also be used for appropriate changes, the company producing the final product just to meet the customer requirements of price and performance.3. Products to facilitate the distribution of customer-orientedNetwork marketing is one-to-one distribution channels, cross-selling of space-time, customers can order anytime, anywhere using the Internet and purchase products. Iron and steel manufacturers in France still a Luolin Zinox for example, the company was founded in 8 years ago, because of the introduction of e-mail and the world order system, so that processing time from 15 days to 24 hours. At present, the company is using the Internet to provide better than the opponent and more efficient services. The company's internal network and vehicle manufacturers to establish contact so that they could demand the other party promptly after the production of steel to each other online.4. Repressively turn promotions to strengthen communication and contacts with customersIs the promotion of traditional enterprises, through certain media or tools of oppression customers to strengthen the company's customers and product acceptance and loyalty, customers are passive and accept the lack of communication with customers and contacts at the same time The high cost of the company's sales. Internet marketing is a one-on-one and interactive, and customers can participate in the company's marketing activities in the past, so the Internet can strengthen communication with customers and contacts and a better understanding of customer needs, attracted more customers agree . The U.S. company Yahoo's new star (Yahoo!) Company to develop a network in Internet information retrieval tools for classification, as the products are highly interactive, the user can think it is important for their classification information to Yahoo Yahoo The company immediately joined the classification of information products for the use of other users, so no need for advertising their products on well known, and in a short span of two years the company's stock market value of billions of dollars, an increase of as much as several hundred times.中文译文网络营销的技术基础彼得·肯泽尔曼网络营销基于以信息技术为代表的计算机网络技术的技术基础。
参考文献中文的英文对照
参考文献中文的英文对照在学术论文中，参考文献是非常重要的一部分，它可以为论文的可信度和学术性增添分数，其中包括中文和英文文献。
以下是一些常见的参考文献中文和英文对照：1. 书籍 Book中文：王小明. 计算机网络技术. 北京：清华大学出版社，2018.英文：Wang, X. Computer Network Technology. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2018.2. 学术期刊 Article in Academic Journal中文：张婷婷，李伟. 基于深度学习的影像分割方法. 计算机科学与探索，2019，13(1)：61-67.英文：Zhang, T. T., Li, W. Image Segmentation Method Based on Deep Learning. Computer Science and Exploration, 2019, 13(1): 61-67.3. 会议论文 Conference Paper中文：王维，李丽. 基于云计算的智慧物流管理系统设计. 2019年国际物流与采购会议论文集，2019：112-117.英文：Wang, W., Li, L. Design of Smart Logistics Management System Based on Cloud Computing. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Logistics and Procurement, 2019: 112-117.4. 学位论文 Thesis/Dissertation中文：李晓华. 基于模糊神经网络的水质评价模型研究. 博士学位论文，长春：吉林大学，2018.英文：Li, X. H. Research on Water Quality Evaluation Model Based on Fuzzy Neural Network. Doctoral Dissertation, Changchun: Jilin University, 2018.5. 报告 Report中文：国家统计局. 2019年国民经济和社会发展统计公报. 北京：中国统计出版社，2019.英文：National Bureau of Statistics. Statistical Communique of the People's Republic of China on the 2019 National Economic and Social Development. Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2019.以上是一些常见的参考文献中文和英文对照，希望对大家写作有所帮助。
计算机网络中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料外文翻译计算机网络计算机网络，通常简单的被称作是一种网络，是一家集电脑和设备为一体的沟通渠道，便于用户之间的沟通交流和资源共享。
网络可以根据其多种特点来分类。
计算机网络允许资源和信息在互联设备中共享。
一．历史早期的计算机网络通信始于20世纪50年代末，包括军事雷达系统、半自动地面防空系统及其相关的商业航空订票系统、半自动商业研究环境。
1957年俄罗斯向太空发射人造卫星。
十八个月后，美国开始设立高级研究计划局(ARPA)并第一次发射人造卫星。
然后用阿帕网上的另外一台计算机分享了这个信息。
这一切的负责者是美国博士莱德里尔克。
阿帕网于来于自印度，1969年印度将其名字改为因特网。
上世纪60年代，高级研究计划局(ARPA)开始为美国国防部资助并设计高级研究计划局网(阿帕网)。
因特网的发展始于1969年，20世纪60年代起开始在此基础上设计开发，由此，阿帕网演变成现代互联网。
二．目的计算机网络可以被用于各种用途:为通信提供便利:使用网络，人们很容易通过电子邮件、即时信息、聊天室、电话、视频电话和视频会议来进行沟通和交流。
共享硬件:在网络环境下，每台计算机可以获取和使用网络硬件资源，例如打印一份文件可以通过网络打印机。
共享文件：数据和信息: 在网络环境中，授权用户可以访问存储在其他计算机上的网络数据和信息。
提供进入数据和信息共享存储设备的能力是许多网络的一个重要特征。
共享软件:用户可以连接到远程计算机的网络应用程序。
信息保存。
安全保证。
三．网络分类下面的列表显示用于网络分类：3．1连接方式计算机网络可以据硬件和软件技术分为用来连接个人设备的网络，如：光纤、局域网、无线局域网、家用网络设备、电缆通讯和G.hn（有线家庭网络标准）等等。
以太网的定义，它是由IEEE 802标准，并利用各种媒介，使设备之间进行通信的网络。
经常部署的设备包括网络集线器、交换机、网桥、路由器。
无线局域网技术是使用无线设备进行连接的。
通信技术类英文文献
通信技术类英文文献IntroductionIn today’s digital age, communication technology plays a crucial role in connecting people, businesses, and devices. From traditional landline telephones to modern smartphones and internet-based communication platforms, the field of communication technology has witnessed significant advancements. This article aims to explore various aspects of communication technology, including its history, types, applications, and future trends.History of Communication Technology1.Early forms of communication technology–Smoke signals–Carrier pigeons–Semaphore telegraphs2.Invention of the telegraph–Samuel Morse and Morse code–Telegraph lines and the expansion of communication networks 3.Telephone revolution–Alexander Graham Bell and the invention of the telephone–Introduction of telephone exchanges and switchboards4.Birth of wireless communication–Guglielmo Marconi and radio transmission–Wireless telegraphy and its impact on long-distancecommunicationTypes of Communication Technology1.Wired communication technology–Traditional landline telephones–Ethernet cables for internet connectivity–Fiber optic cables for high-speed data transmission2.Wireless communication technology–Radio communication–Cellular networks (2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G)–Satellite communication3.Internet-based communication technology–Email and instant messaging–Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)–Video conferencing and online collaboration toolsApplications of Communication Technology1.Personal communication–Mobile phones and smartphones–Social media platforms–Messaging apps2.Business communication–Teleconferencing and virtual meetings–Cloud-based collaboration tools–Customer relationship management (CRM) systems3.Healthcare communication–Telemedicine and remote patient monitoring–Electronic health records (EHR)–Communication systems in hospitals and healthcare facilities munication in education–Online learning platforms–Virtual classrooms and webinars–Educational apps and softwareFuture Trends in Communication Technology1.Internet of Things (IoT)–Interconnected devices and sensors–Smart homes and cities2.5G and beyond–Faster data speeds and lower latency–Enhanced connectivity for autonomous vehicles and IoT devices3.Artificial Intelligence (AI) in communication–Chatbots and virtual assistants–Natural language processing for improved communication4.Blockchain technology in communication–Secure and transparent data exchange–Decentralized communication networksConclusionCommunication technology has evolved significantly over the years, revolutionizing the way we connect and interact. From the early forms of communication to the advent of wireless and internet-based technologies, communication has become faster, more efficient, and accessible to a wider audience. As we look towards the future, emerging trends such as IoT, 5G, AI, and blockchain promise to further transform the field of communication technology, opening up new possibilities and opportunities for individuals, businesses, and society as a whole.。
本科毕业论文中英文翻译--Wireless-Communications无线通信
Wireless Communications*byJoshua S. Gans, Stephen P。
King and Julian Wright1。
IntroductionIn 1895, Guglielmo Marconi opened the way for modern wireless communications by transmitting the three—dot Morse code for the letter ‘S' over a distance of th ree kilometers using electromagnetic waves。
From this beginning，wireless communications has developed into a key element of modern society. From satellite transmission, radio and television broadcasting to the now ubiquitous mobile telephone，wireless communications has revolutionized the way societies function.This chapter surveys the economics literature on wireless communications。
Wireless communications and the economic goods and services that utilise it have some special characteristics that have motivated specialised studies. First，wireless communications relies on a scarce resource –namely，radio spectrum –the property rights for which were traditionally vested with the state。
通信工程外文文献翻译
毕业设计（论文）的外文文献翻译原始资料的题目/来源：Fundamentals of wireless communications by David Tse翻译后的中文题目：无线通信基础专业通信工程学生王晓宇学号110240318班号1102403指导教师杨洪娟翻译日期2015年6月15日外文文献的中文翻译7．mimo：空间多路复用与信道建模本书我们已经看到多天线在无线通信中的几种不同应用。
在第3章中，多天线用于提供分集增益，增益无线链路的可靠性，并同时研究了接受分解和发射分解，而且，接受天线还能提供功率增益。
在第5章中，我们看到了如果发射机已知信道，那么多采用多幅发射天线通过发射波束成形还可以提供功率增益。
在第6章中，多副发射天线用于生产信道波动，满足机会通信技术的需要，改方案可以解释为机会波束成形，同时也能够提供功率增益。
章以及接下来的几章将研究一种利用多天线的新方法。
我们将会看到在合适的信道衰落条件下，同时采用多幅发射天线和多幅接收天线可以提供用于通信的额外的空间维数并产生自由度增益，利用这些额外的自由度可以将若干数据流在空间上多路复用至MIMO信道中，从而带来容量的增加：采用n副发射天线和接受天线的这类MIMO 信道的容量正比于n。
过去一度认为在基站采用多幅天线的多址接入系统允许若干个用户同时与基站通信，多幅天线可以实现不同用户信号的空间隔离。
20世纪90年代中期，研究人员发现采用多幅发射天线和接收天线的点对点信道也会出现类似的效应，即使当发射天线相距不远时也是如此。
只要散射环境足够丰富，使得接受天线能够将来自不同发射天线的信号分离开，该结论就成立。
我们已经了解到了机会通信技术如何利用信道衰落，本章还会看到信道衰落对通信有益的另一例子。
将机会通信与MIMO技术提供的性能增益的本质进行比较和对比是非常的有远见的。
机会通信技术主要提供功率增益，改功率增益在功率受限系统的低信噪比情况下相当明显，但在宽带受限系统的高信噪比情况下则很不明显。
计算机外文翻译（完整）
计算机外⽂翻译（完整）毕业设计(论⽂)外⽂资料翻译专业：计算机科学与技术姓名：王成明学号：06120186外⽂出处：The History of the Internet附件： 1.外⽂原⽂ 2.外⽂资料翻译译⽂；附件1：外⽂原⽂The History of the InternetThe Beginning - ARPAnetThe Internet started as a project by the US government. The object of the project was to create a means of communications between long distance points, in the event of a nation wide emergency or, more specifically, nuclear war. The project was called ARPAnet, and it is what the Internet started as. Funded specifically for military communication, the engineers responsible for ARPANet had no idea of the possibilities of an "Internet."By definition, an 'Internet' is four or more computers connected by a network.ARPAnet achieved its network by using a protocol called TCP/IP. The basics around this protocol was that if information sent over a network failed to get through on one route, it would find another route to work with, as well as establishing a means for one computer to "talk" to another computer, regardless of whether it was a PC or a Macintosh.By the 80's ARPAnet, just years away from becoming the more well known Internet, had 200 computers. The Defense Department, satisfied with ARPAnets results, decided to fully adopt it into service, and connected many military computers and resources into the network. ARPAnet then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its network.In 1986 ARPAnet (supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000 computers. It shut down due to a failied link up with NSF, who wanted to connect its 5 countywide super computers into ARPAnet.With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully installed at line speeds of 56k (a normal modem nowadays) through telephone lines in 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers on the (by then decided) Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were290,000.Another network was built to support the incredible number of people joining. It was constructed in 1992.Today - The InternetToday, the Internet has become one of the most important technological advancements in the history of humanity. Everyone wants to get 'on line' to experience the wealth of information of the Internet. Millions of people now use the Internet, and it's predicted that by the year 2003 every single person on the planet will have Internet access. The Internet has truly become a way of life in our time and era, and is evolving so quickly its hard to determine where it will go next, as computer and network technology improve every day.HOW IT WORKS:It's a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games,conversing in virtual Internet environments.The Internet is not a 'thing' itself. The Internet cannot just "crash." It functions the same way as the telephone system, only there is no Internet company that runs the Internet.The Internet is a collection of millioins of computers that are all connected to each other, or have the means to connect to each other. The Internet is just like an office network, only it has millions of computers connected to it.The main thing about how the Internet works is communication. How does a computer in Houston know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a webpage?Internet communication, communication among computers connected to the Internet, is based on a language. This language is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP establishes a language for a computer to access and transmit data over the Internet system.But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical connecetion between onecomputer and another. This is not usually the case. There would have to be a network wire that went to every computer connected to the Internet, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.The physical connection that is requireed is established by way of modems,phonelines, and other modem cable connections (like cable modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and transmit data over established lines,which could be phonelines or data lines. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.A router is a computer that serves as a traffic controller for information.To explain this better, let's look at how a standard computer might viewa webpage.1. The user's computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be connected to another ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backbone.2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and types in an internet location to go to.3. Here's where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about it's data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software. The collection of routers in the world make what is called a "backbone," on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed of several gigabytes per-second. Such a speed compared to a normal modem is like comparing the heat of the sun to the heat of an ice-cube.Routers handle data that is going back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where it's going, and overall where the user wants to go.4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eventually leadingto the target computer. It's like whisper down the lane (only the information remains intact).5. When the information reaches the target web server, the webserver then begins to send the web page back. A webserver is the computer where the webpage is stored that is running a program that handles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user can view the webpage once it is assembled.The packets which contain the data also contain special information that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.With millions of web pages, and millions of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a beginning user, especially for someone who is not entirely comfortale with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Internet.Before you access webpages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the webpages. Most Internet Access Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they usually give to customers; you. The fact that you are viewing this page means that you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Netscape can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html and MSIE can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html /ie.The fact that you're reading this right now means that you have a web browser.Next you must be familiar with actually using webpages. A webpage is a collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia. To "navigate" a webpage, simply click the links it provides or follow it's own instructions (like if it has a form you need to use, it will probably instruct you how to use it). Basically, everything about a webpage is made to be self-explanetory. That is the nature of a webpage, to be easily navigatable."Oh no! a 404 error! 'Cannot find web page?'" is a common remark made by new web-users.Sometimes websites have errors. But an error on a website is not the user's fault, of course.A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being constructed and the page hasn't been created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. There's nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-mailing the site administrator (of the page you wanted to go to) an telling him/her about the error.A Javascript error is the result of a programming error in the Javascript code of a website. Not all websites utilize Javascript, but many do. Javascript is different from Java, and most browsers now support Javascript. If you are using an old version of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get Javascript errors because sites utilize Javascript versions that your browser does not support. So, you can try getting a newer version of your web browser.E-mail stands for Electronic Mail, and that's what it is. E-mail enables people to send letters, and even files and pictures to each other.To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail client, which is just like a personal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail. Secondly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail account(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.After configuring your e-mail client with your POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that information), you are ready to receive mail.An attachment is a file sent in a letter. If someone sends you an attachment and you don't know who it is, don't run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of nasty programs. You can't get a virus justby reading e-mail, you'll have to physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.A signature is a feature of many e-mail programs. A signature is added to the end of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your business information, anything you want.Imagine that a computer on the Internet is an island in the sea. The sea is filled with millions of islands. This is the Internet. Imagine an island communicates with other island by sending ships to other islands and receiving ships. The island has ports to accept and send out ships.A computer on the Internet has access nodes called ports. A port is just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a network (or the Internet). This method is similar to the island/ocean symbolism above.Telnet refers to accessing ports on a server directly with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages,"chatting," and e-mailing is done over a Telnet connection.Telnetting requires a Telnet client. A telnet program comes with the Windows system, so Windows users can access telnet by typing in "telnet" (without the "'s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the command line; telnet. A popular telnet program for Macintosh is NCSA telnet.Any server software (web page daemon, chat daemon) can be accessed via telnet, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For instance, it is possible to connect directly to a mail server and check your mail by interfacing with the e-mail server software, but it's easier to use an e-mail client (of course).There are millions of WebPages that come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page you want is?Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that allows you to search it's own database of websites. For instance, if you wanted to find a website on dogs, you'd search for "dog" or "dogs" or "dog information." Here are a few search-engines.1. Altavista (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed2. Yahoo (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed Collection3. Excite (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed4. Lycos (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed5. Metasearch (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Multiple searchA web spider is a program used by search engines that goes from page to page, following any link it can possibly find. This means that a search engine can literally map out as much of the Internet as it's own time and speed allows for.An indexed collection uses hand-added links. For instance, on Yahoo's site. You can click on Computers & the Internet. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sections, there are sites available which relate to what section you're in.Metasearch searches many search engines at the same time, finding the top choices from about 10 search engines, making searching a lot more effective.Once you are able to use search engines, you can effectively find the pages you want.With the arrival of networking and multi user systems, security has always been on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the dawn of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have been known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of breaking into systems. It used to not be that big of a problem, since networking was limited to big corporate companies or government computers who could afford the necessary computer security.The biggest problem now-a-days is personal information. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Let's look at how the internet works, quickly.The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As the user submits the information, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backbone.The information is in little chunks, in packages called packets. Here's the problem: While the information is being transferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a "hacker" from intercepting this data stream at one of the backbone points?Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of potential threats while transmitting private information. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protection, an most importantly, encryption.Encryption means scrambling data into a code that can only be unscrambled on the "other end." Browser's like Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-line transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advanced encryption system is called DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to 'crack' that they considered it a security risk if it would fall into another countries hands.A DES uses a single key of information to unlock an entire document. The problem is, there are 75 trillion possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One document was cracked and decoded, but it was a combined effort of14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers don't have that many resources available.附件2：外⽂资料翻译译⽂Internet的历史起源——ARPAnetInternet是被美国政府作为⼀项⼯程进⾏开发的。
网络在线学习外文文献翻译中英文
网络在线学习外文翻译中英文英文Online learning: Adoption, continuance, and learning outcome—A review ofliteratureRitanjali Panigrahi, Praveen Srivastava, Dheeraj Sharma AbstractThe use of Technology to facilitate better learning and training is gaining momentum worldwide, reducing the temporal and spatial problems associated with traditional learning. Despite its several benefits, retaining students in online platforms is challenging. Through a literature review of the factors affecting adoption, the continuation of technology use, and learning outcomes, this paper discusses an integration of online learning with virtual communities to foster student engagement for obtaining better learning outcomes. Future directions have been discussed, the feedback mechanism which i s an antecedent of students’ continuation intention has a lot of scopes to be studied in the virtual community context. The use of Apps in m-learning and the use of cloud services can boost the ease and access of online learning to users and organizations.Keywords: Online learning, Virtual community, Technology adoption, Technology continuation, Learning outcomeIntroductionOnline learning and training are gaining popularity worldwide, reducing the temporal and spatial problems associated with the traditional form of education. The primary factors behind using online learning are not only to improve access to education and training, and quality of learning, but also to reduce the cost and improve the cost-effectiveness of education (Bates, 1997). Online learning is mainly provided in two ways—in synchronous and asynchronous environments (Jolliffe, Ritter, & Stevens, 2012). The time lag attributes of asynchronous learning unlike synchronous learning in online platforms take the advantage of accessing materials anytime and anywhere, ability to reach a greater mass at the same time, and uniformity of content. Online learning along with face-to-face learning is successfullyused in industry as well as academia with positive outcomes (Chang, 2016). The geographically distributed team in an organization can get their skill training through online platforms at the same time, gaining a greater level of competitiveness. Online learning is also beneficial for students as they can learn at their own pace with the availability of online materials. The e-learning market is becoming popular and widely adopted by the education sector and industry. The growth of the e-learning market can be demonstrated by the fact that the global e-learning market is expected to reach 65.41 billion dollars by 2023 growing at a cumulative average growth rate of 7.07% (Research and Markets, 2018a). In addition to this, the global learning management system (LMS) is expected to increase from 5.05 billion USD in 2016 to 18.44 billion USD by 2025 growing at a rate of 15.52% (Research and Markets, 2018b).Despite several advantages of online learning such as improving access to education and training, improving the quality of learning, reducing the cost and improving the cost-effectiveness of education, retaining students in such platforms is a key challenge with a high attrition rate (Perna et al., 2014). Several strategies such as briefing, buddying, and providing feedback on the platform are proposed to retain and engage students (Nazir, Davis, & Harris, 2015). It is also noted that more self-discipline is required by students in online education, unlike traditional classroom education (Allen & Seaman, 2007). Keeping users enrolled and engaged is a challenging job as a personal touch by the instructor is missing or limited. The learning engagement which is an important antecedent for learning outcome is lower for technology-mediated learning than face-to-face learning (Hu & Hui, 2012). As a higher amount of money is spent on infrastructure, staff training, etc., organizations seek to take maximum benefit from online learning which requires an understanding of the factors that drive the adoption, continuation intention, and learning outcome of users on online learning platforms. Therefore, the primary focus of research remains on how to retain online learning users, and increase the efficiency of the online learning.Users may learn inside and outside the classroom; inside classroom learning isthrough instructors either from face-to-face, pure online or blended learning (combination of face-to-face and pure online learning) whereas outside classroom learning is conducted by users anytime and anywhere after the class. The exponential growth of the Internet has enabled individuals to share information, participate, and collaborate to learn from virtual communities (VC) anytime and anywhere (Rennie & Morrison, 2013). In a virtual community, people do everything that they do in real life but leaving their bodies behind (Rheingold, 2000). Virtual communities keep its users engaged based on familiarity, perceived similarity, and trust by creating a sense of belongingness (Zhao, Lu, Wang, Chau, & Zhang, 2012). It is essential to assess the role of a less constrained informal mode of learning (Davis & Fullerton, 2016) like virtual communities in the formal learning to engage and retain students.DiscussionGetting a new idea adopted even when it has obvious advantages is often very difficult (Rogers, 2003). Consistent with the previous statement, despite the advantages of online learning such as improving accessibility, quality, and reducing cost, it has a long way to go to be adopted and used by organizations because of the resistance at different levels (Hanley, 2018). The reasons for resistances offered by the employees in an organizations include perceived poor focus of the e-learning initiative, lack of time to learn new way of working, too much effort to change, lack of awareness, and resistance to change (Ali et al., 2016; Hanley, 2018). It is crucial from an institutional point of view to overcome the resistance to adopt and implement the online learning systems successfully.Understanding the factors of online learning adoption, continuation use intention, and learning outcomes are vital for an e-learning platform providing organization because the success of the platform depends on the successful adoption, continuation use, and finally achieving the desired outcomes. From the literature, it is found that the national culture affects the adoption and moderates the relationship between variables of adoption and use. Therefore, the results of adoption and use of technology might differ in different counties with different cultural dimensions. At a broader level, the perceived characteristics of innovation (of online learning) such as relativeadvantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability play a significant role in adoption. At an individual level, the primary factors of adoption are the individual expectancies such as the perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, perceived enjoyment, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, etc., and the external influences such as subjective norm, social norms, surrounding conditions, national culture, social network characteristic, etc. On the other hand, the primary factors of continuation of technology use are the experiences of the individuals in the technology such as satisfaction, confirmation, self-efficacy, flow, trust, we-intention, sense of belongingness, immersion, IS qualities, etc. The perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are found to be vital for both the technology adoption and continuation use. This implies that the usefulness of the technology and how easy the technology to use determines the adoption and continuation of technology. Apart from these technology enablers, the platform providers should consider the technology inhibitors which negatively impact the acceptance of the technology. The factors of the learning outcomes such as self-efficacy, virtual competence, engagement, design interventions, etc. should be considered before designing and delivering the content in the online learning platform to achieve optimum learning outcomes. The learners’ intention to use full e-learning in developing countries depends on the lea rners’ characteristics, and learners’ adoption of blended learning (Al-Busaidi, 2013). Studies for example by Verbert et al. (2014) have shown that blended learning yields the best outcome in terms of grade when students learn in online collaborative learning with teacher’s initiation and feedback. On the contrary, some studies have shown that contents such as business games do not need the interaction with the instructor; in fact, they are negatively related to perceived learning (Proserpio & Magni, 2012). MOOC (Massive Open Online Course) users have organized face-to-face meetings to fulfill their belongingness or social connectedness as a part of their learning activity (Bulger, Bright, & Cobo, 2015). This indicates that not everyone is good with a digitized form of learning, and hence both face-to-face and online components should be integrated for better outcomes.Lack of human connection is one of the limitations of online learning (Graham,2006) which may reduce the satisfaction level. To address this limitation, personalization functions of e-learning systems began. The satisfaction level, perceived and actual performance, self-efficacy scores increase in personalized online learning where learning materials are provided according to the cognitive capability and style of each individual (Xu, Huang, Wang, & Heales, 2014). Although personalization of e-learning systems is beneficial, they are socially and ethically harmful, and special attention should be given to issues such as privacy compromisation, lack of control, the commodification of education, and reduced individual capability (Ashman et al., 2014). Personal e-learning systems collect user information to understand the users’ interests and requirements for the learning which violates the privacy of individuals. The system utilizes the user information to show the personal content where the individuals do not have control over the learning content. Hence they are limited to certain personal contents which reduce their individual capabilities.Studies, for example, Zhao et al. (2012) have shown that VCs create a sense of belongingness and keeps the members engaged which results in improving the learning outcome, and users with same age groups are less likely to attrite (Freitas et al., 2015). Studies have shown that engagement is promoted when criteria such as problem-centric learning with clear expositions, peer interaction, active learning, instructor accessibility and passion, and using helpful course resources are met (Hew, 2015). Social interactions through social networking produce an intangible asset known as social capital (Coleman, 1988) in terms of the trust, collective action, and communication. Social capital is positively related to online learning satisfaction in group interactions, class interactions, learner-instructor interactions, as well as increasing students’ e-learning performance in groups (Lu, Yang, & Yu, 2013).The continuous development of mobile technology has expanded the opportunity to learn from mobile devices anywhere, anytime. M-Learning is much more beneficial for accessing education in remote areas and developing countries. The success of M-learning in organizations depends on organizational, people, and pedagogical factors apart from technological factors (Krotov, 2015). A range of mobiletechnologies such as laptops, smartphones, and tablets are embraced by students to support informal learning (Murphy, Farley, Lane, Hafeez-Baig, & Carter, 2014). Learning through mobile devices poses both opportunities as well as challenges; it provides flexibility in learning, on the other hand, it is a limitation for those who do not have connectivity and access to these devices. In student-centered learning especially collaborative and project-based learning, the use of mobile devices can be promoted by the mobile apps (Leinonen, Keune, Veermans, & Toikkanen, 2014). The use of mobile apps along with guidance from teachers integrates reflection in the classroom learning (Leinonen et al., 2014).Cloud computing provides organizations with a way to enhance their IT capabilities without a huge investment in infrastructure or software. The benefits of cloud computing are low cost, scalability, centralized data storage, no maintenance from user side (no software needed), easy monitoring, availability and recovery, and the challenges include it requires fast and reliable internet access, and privacy and security issues (El Mhouti, Erradi, & Nasseh, 2018). The primary factors for adoption of cloud computing in e-learning are ease of use, usefulness, and security (Kayali, Safie, & Mukhtar, 2016). Private cloud inside educational institutes can acquire the additional benefits in non-compromising the security and data privacy concerns associated with cloud computing (Mousannif, Khalil, & Kotsis, 2013). Cloud computing provides support to the online learning platforms to store and process the enormous amount of data generated. The problem of managing the increasing growth of online users, contents, and resources can be resolved by using cloud computing services (Fernandez, Peralta, Herrera, & Benitez, 2012).Future directionsFuture directions of research in online learning are as follows: First, the feedback mechanism used in online learning in institutions has not been used to measure the continuation intention in VCs. Feedback enables learners to define goals and track their progress through dashboard applications to promote awareness, reflection, and sense-making (Verbert et al., 2014). The students who received teachers’ feedback along with online learning achieved better grades than those who did not receivefeedback (Tsai, 2013) and students positively perceive the feedback systems more than the educators (Debuse & Lawley, 2016). Although immediate feedback is one of the dimensions of the flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014), the factor has not been studied in a VC context. It is vital for managers to check if feedback on a community post fosters the members’ continuation intention, and they should design user interfaces which encourage providing feedback. Second, it is high time to develop an integrated model for formal learning (online and blended) with VCs for students’ engagement. Informal learning as itself, not limited to the body of knowledge, rather, is the result of the interaction of people via communities of practice, networks, other forms, etc. (Rennie & Mason, 2004). The networked communities build intimacy and support which helps in self-directed learning (Rennie & Mason, 2004) which is an important parameter for online learning. Community commitment (Bateman et al., 2011), immersion (Shin et al., 2013), we-intentions (Tsai & Bagozzi, 2014), sense of belongingness (Zhao et al., 2012), etc. from the VC would help students to continue the engagement for a better learning outcome. Moreover, it is found that collaborative chat participation in MOOCs slows down the rate of attrition over time (Ferschke, Yang, Tomar, & Rosé, 2015). It is of great importance to check if learning outcome improves when the virtual community is integrated or embedded in the learning environment (online and blended). The educators and managers should encourage their students and employees to participate in VCs. Third, the growth of the adoption of mobile devices has expanded the arena of e-learning platforms. Integrating the virtual communities via a mobile platform with online learning can foster the student engagement resulting in higher learning outcome. Fourth, cloud computing has great potential in dealing with the scalability issues arising from the rise in numbers of users, content, and resources in online learning. Furthermore, it can provide tremendous benefits to organizations as well as users in terms of ease of access, flexibility, and lower cost. Although a few studies cover cloud computing infrastructure in education and pedagogic processes, the empirical research on the cloud computing for education is very shallow (Baldassarre, Caivano, Dimauro, Gentile, & Visaggio, 2018). As the mobile devices are often limited by storage space,future researchers are invited to carry out effective research on the integration of cloud computing and mobile learning to understand the factors affecting learning outcome.ConclusionUnderstanding the antecedents of e-learning adoption, continuance, and learning outcomes in online platforms are essential in ensuring the successful implementation of technology in learning and achieving the maximum benefits. This study shows factors such as PU, PEoU, PE, culture, attitude, subjective norms, system and information inhibitors, etc. contribute to the adoption of technology. Factors such as satisfaction, confirmation, user involvement, system quality, information quality, feedback, self-efficacy, social identity, perceived benefits, etc. determine the continuation of technology use. This implies factors for adoption, and continuation intentions vary; the attitude and usefulness of a system are essential for adoption while the experience and satisfaction in the environment lead to continuation intention. It is also found from the literature that the learning outcomes depend on the self-efficacy, collaborative learning, team cohesion, technology fit, learning engagement, self-regulation, interest, etc.The contribution of the paper can be summarized as: understanding the factors that are studied for adoption, continuance, learning outcomes in an online environment, and the provision of future research directions for educators and managers for successful implementation of technology in online platforms to achieve maximum benefits.中文在线学习的采用，持续性和学习成果:文献综述摘要在全世界范围内，使用技术促进更好的学习和培训的势头正在增强，减少了与传统学习相关的时空问题。
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Internet-based CommunicationsIf you use the Internet, then you probably use Internet-based communications to contact family, friends or co-workers. From sending an instant message to a friend, to e-mailing co-workers, to placing phone calls, to conducting video conferences, the Internet offers a number of ways to communicate.The advantages of Internet-based communications are many. Since you're already paying for an Internet account (or your employer is), you can save money on phone calls by sending someone an instant message or by using V oIP instead of standard local telephone services. Of course, no technology is without a downside and Internet-based communications has plenty, such as viruses, privacy issues and spam. Like all technologies (and especially technology tied to the Internet), the way we can communicate online is constantly evolving . In this week's "Did You Know...?" article we'll take a look at some of the most popular forms of Internet-based communications.Instant MessagingOne of the fastest-growing forms of Internet communications is instant messaging, or IM. Think of IM as a text-based computer conference between two or more people. An IM communications service enables you to create a kind of private chat room with another individual in order to communicate in real-time over the Internet. Typically, the IM system alerts you whenever somebody on your buddy or contact list is online. You can then initiate a chat session with that particular individual.One reason that IM has become so popular is its real-time nature. Unlike e-mail, where you will wait for the recipient to check his or her e-mail and send a reply, if a person you want to reach is online and available in your IM contact list, your message appears instantly in a window on their screen.While IM is used by millions of Internet users to contact family and friends, it's also growing in popularity in the business world. Employees of a company can have instant access to managers and co-workers in different offices and can eliminate the need to place phone calls when information is required immediately. Overall, IM can save time for employees and help decrease the amount of money a business spends on communications.Key Terms To Understanding Internet-based Communications.SIPShort for Session Initiated Protocol, or Session Initiation Protocol, an application-layer control protocol; a signaling protocol for Internet Telephony. SIP can establish sessions for features such as audio/videoconferencing, interactive gaming, and call forwarding to be deployed over IP networks.WAPShort for the Wireless Application Protocol, a secure specification that allows users to access information instantly via handheld wireless devices such as mobile phones,pagers, two-way radios, smartphones and communicators.More Internet-based Communications TermsE-mailInstant MessagingV oIPV oWiFiInternet FaxMobile IPIP AddressWhile different IM clients offer slightly different features and benefits, the look and feel of an IM client is basically the same. Public IM clients and services available include ICQ, AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Microsoft MSN Messenger, and Yahoo! Messenger. For businesses and enterprises looking for a more secure method of IM, there are enterprise IM packages available such as Microsoft Live Communication Server 2005 and IBM Lotus Instant Messaging. Third-party software is available to help businesses make using public IM services in the workplace more secure.Some problems and issues associated with IM include spim and virus propagation. Spim is the IM equivalent of spam and is perpetuated by bots that harvest IM screen names off of the Internet and simulate a human user by sending spim to the screen names via an instant message. The spim typically contains a link to a Web site that the spimmer is trying to market. Spim is a bit more intrusive than spam due to the nature of IM itself. These advertisements and junk messages will pop-up in your IM window and you need to deal with the messages immediately, where with e-mail you can usually filter a lot of it out and deal with it later. Additionally, viruses and Trojans can be spread through IM channels. These malicious programs are usually spread when an IM user receives a message that links to a Web site where the malicious code is downloaded. The message will appear to be from a known IM contact, which is why recipients re more likely to click the hyperlink and download the file. Using safe chat rules (such as never clicking the link) and keeping an updated anti-virus program on your system will help reduce the chances of becoming infected by malicious programs being spread through instant messaging.Internet Telephony & VoIPInternet telephony consists of a combination of hardware and software that enables you to use the Internet as the transmission medium for telephone calls. For users who have free, or fixed-price Internet access, Internet telephony software essentially provides free telephone calls anywhere in the world. In its simplest form, PC-to-PC Internet telephony can be as easy as hooking up a microphone to your computer and sending your voice through a cable modem to a person who has Internet telephony software that is compatible with yours. This basic form of Internet telephony is not without its problems, however. Connecting this way is slower than using a traditional telephone, and the quality of the voice transmissions is also not near the quality you would get when placing a regular phone call.Many Internet telephony applications are available. Some, such as CoolTalk andNetMeeting, come bundled with popular Web browsers. Others are stand-alone products. Internet telephony products are sometimes called IP telephony, V oice over the Internet (VOI) or V oice over IP (V oIP) products.V oIP is another Internet-based communications method which is growing in popularity. V oIP hardware and software work together to use the Internet to transmit telephone calls by sending voice data in packets using IP rather than by traditional circuit transmissions, called PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network). The voice traffic is converted into data packets then routed over the Internet, or any IP network, just as normal data packets would be transmitted. When the data packets reach their destination, they are converted back to voice data again for the recipient. Your telephone is connected to a V oIP phone adapter (considered the hardware aspect). This adapter is connected to your broadband Internet connection. The call is routed through the Internet to a regular phone jack, which is connected to the receiver's phone. Special hardware (the phone adapter) is required only for the sender.Much like finding an Internet service provider (ISP) for your Internet connection, you will need to use a V oIP provider. Some service providers may offer plans that include free calls to other subscribers on their network and charge flat rates for other V oIP calls based on a fixed number of calling minutes. You most likely will pay additional fees when you call long distance using V oIP. While this sounds a lot like regular telephone service, it is less expensive than traditional voice communications, starting with the fact that you will no longer need to pay for extras on your monthly phone bill.E-mailShort for electronic mail, e-mail is the transmission of messages over communications networks. The messages can be notes entered from the keyboard or electronic files stored on disk. Most mainframes, minicomputers and computer networks have an e-mail system. Some e-mail systems are confined to a single computer system or network, but others have gateways to other computer systems, enabling you to send electronic mail anywhere in the world.Using an e-mail client (software such as Microsoft Outlook or Eudora), you can compose an e-mail message and send it to another person anywhere, as long as you know the recipient e-mail address. All online services and Internet Service Providers (ISPs) offer e-mail, and support gateways so that you can exchange e-mail with users of other systems. Usually, it takes only a few seconds for an e-mail to arrive at its destination. This is a particularly effective way to communicate with a group because you can broadcast a message or document to everyone in the group at once.One of the biggest black clouds hanging over e-mail is spam. Though definitions vary, spam can be considered any electronic junk mail (generally e-mail advertising for some product) that is sent out to thousands, if not millions, of people. Often spam perpetrates the spread of e-mail Trojans and viruses. For this reason, it's important to use an updated anti-virus program, which will scan your incoming and outgoing e-mail for viruses.For more information on e-mail, see "Deciphering Internet E-mail", a WebopediaQuick Reference.IRCShort for Internet Relay Chat, IRC is a multi-user chat system that allows to people gather on "channels" or "rooms" to talk in groups or privately. IRC is based on a client/server model. That is, to join an IRC discussion, you need an IRC client (such a mIRC) and Internet access. The IRC client is a program that runs on your computer and sends and receives messages to and from an IRC server. The IRC server, in turn, is responsible for making sure that all messages are broadcast to everyone participating in a discussion. There can be many discussions going on at once and each one is assigned a unique channel. Once you have joined an IRC chat room (chatroom discussions are designated by topics), you can type your messages in the public chatroom where all participants will see it, or you can send a private message to a single participant. With many IRC clients you can easily create your own chatroom and invite others to join your channel. You can also password protect your chatroom to allow for a more private discussion with just people whom you invite. Once you become familiar with your IRC client you'll find many options available to help you moderate and take part in a channel. One problem commonly associated with IRC is lag. IRC relies on the connections between the servers, and the connections or the servers can slow down. If you're in a discussion and people do not respond, or you notice that people are responding to things you types several minutes ago, then you can attribute this to lag. If you continue to experience lag, you can try connecting to the IRC network on a different server.VideoconferencingVideoconferencing is a conference between two or more participants at different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. Each participant has a video camera, microphone and speakers connected on his or her computer. As the two participants speak to one another, their voices are carried over the network and delivered to the other's speakers, and whatever images appear in front of the video camera appear in a window on the other participant's monitor.In order for videoconferencing to work, the conference participants must use the same client or compatible software. Many freeware and shareware videoconferencing tools are available online for download, and most Web cameras also come bundled with videoconferencing software. Many newer videoconferencing packages can also be integrated with public IM clients for multipoint conferencing and collaboration.In recent years, videoconferencing has become a popular form of distance communication in classrooms, allowing for a cost efficient way to provide distance learning, guest speakers, and multi-school collaboration projects. Many feel that videoconferencing provides a visual connection and interaction that cannot be achieved with standard IM or e-mail communications.SMS & Wireless CommunicationsShort message service (SMS) is a global wireless service that enables the transmissionof alphanumeric messages between mobile subscribers and external systems such as e-mail, paging and voice-mail systems. Messages can be no longer than 160 alpha-numeric characters and must contain no images or graphics. Once a message is sent, it is received by a Short Message Service Center (SMSC), which must then get it to the appropriate mobile device or system. As wireless services evolved, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced and provided a way to send messages comprising a combination of text, sounds, images and video to MMS capable handsets.Communication on wireless devices such as mobile phones and PDAs is frequently changing. Today you can use your wireless device to not only make phone calls, but to send and receive e-mail and IM. While you can use e-mail, IRC or IM for free if you have an Internet account, you will end up paying fees to you mobile carrier to use these services on a wireless device.网络通讯如果你使用互联网,那么你可能通过因特网与家人朋友或同事通讯联系.网上提供多种沟通方式,如向一位朋友送即时讯息,或发送电子邮件给同事,拨打网络电话,召开视频会议.基于因特网通信优点有很多. 如果你是已付费的网络用户(或者是您的雇主),你就可以利用网络发送即时讯息或者使用网络电话代替标准本地电话服务. 当然,任何技术都是有负面的.基于因特网内的通讯.上有很多沟通,如病毒、垃圾邮件、隐私问题.像所有的技术(特别是因特网技术系)都是在不断演变才使得我们能网上沟通. 这篇文章中我们会介绍一些最流行的基于因特网的通信.即时信息增长最快的网络通讯方式莫过于即时信息,简称IM. IM的思想是基于两台或多台计算机之间的文本传输.通过因特网,IM通讯服务器就能够为你建造一个个性化的私人聊天室,你可以在个人列表中选择他人与你进行实时对话.通常,IM 系统允许你随时与你的联系列表中的某个朋友在线联络.你也可以新加入其它朋友一起,进行多人交谈.IM如此受欢迎的其中一个原因是它本身的实时性.不同于电子邮件,你只能等待接收他或她的电子邮件查阅后并回复.如果一个人要与你在线联系,就必须获得你的IM联系名,你的上线消息就会立即出现在他们的屏幕上的一个窗口中.当千百万网民利用IM与家人和朋友联系的同时,在商业领域也同样成为新宠.在公司中,当员工需要立即与其它办公室的主管或同事索取信息资料时,就无需拨打本地电话了.总而言之,IM既可以为员工节省时间,又有助于降低商务间的通讯开支.关键词在于理解基于因特网的通信.会话发起协议SIP是会话发起协议的简称,或者会话启动协议,是一个应用层控制协议;也是一项互联网技术的信令协议. SIP能创建特色会话,如音频/视频会议、互动游戏、以及部署在IP网络的呼叫转移. 安全规格,使用户能够通过即时信息接入设备.无线应用协议WAP是无线应用协议的简称,是一项准许用户通过无线手持设备获取即时信息的安全规格说明书 ,如用手持无线移动电话、寻呼机、收发两用无线电设备、智能电话与他人沟通.更多基于因特网的通信术语如下:e-mail电子邮件instant messaging即时消息VoIP 网络电话VoWiFi 无限网络电话Internet fax网络传真mobile IP IP电话IP address IP地址不同的IM客户端的特点和优势也不近相同,但基本功能还是大体相近. 大众普遍使用的IM包括ICQ 、AOL的即时通、MSN、雅虎通. 而商业和企业则使用一种更为安全的企业级的即时通讯包,如微软05版生活沟通服务器,IBM莲花即时通. 第三方软件使得商人在工作场合使用大众IM时更为安全有效.伴随IM而来的还有恶意垃圾电子邮件和病毒的繁殖等矛盾性问题. Spim 的意思是即时通讯中的垃圾邮件,更确切说,它是即时讯息成果中永久的蠕虫,它冒充真实的人类使用昵称向用户发送带病毒的即时讯息.恶意垃圾邮件通常包含一个链接网址,它为撰写垃圾邮件者建造了市场.对于即时讯息本身, 恶意垃圾邮件比垃圾邮件更具侵害性. 这些广告和垃圾信息在你的即时通讯工具窗口弹出,你需要立即处理这些信息,通常你都要先过滤掉大量垃圾邮件后再去处理那些你的电子邮件.另外,木马病毒可以通过即时讯息的渠道传播.这些恶意程式的散布通常是当一个即时讯息用户接收一条需要点击一个网址的信息时,就会下载恶意代码. 这个信息将会出现在一个已知的即时通讯中, 这就是为什么更多的接收者如此相似的去点击超级链接并下载文件的原因.利用聊天安全规则(如没点击链接),并保持最新的反病毒程序,将会有帮助于你的系统减少感染机会,并通过即时讯息传染恶意程式.互联网电话及网络电话互联网电话由硬件和软件结合组成,让能够用互联网作为传输介质进行电话呼叫. 用户可以免费或者只需要支付固定上网费用,通过网络电话软件本身所提供的免费电话就可呼叫世界上的任何用户. 这种使用计算机--计算机拨打网络电话的形式,只需要在你的计算机上配置一个麦克风,通过调制解调器,那么和你安装了相同网络电话软件的一方就能听到你透过麦克风向他传话的声音了.然而,这种网络电话的基本形式仍存在一定问题.这种方式相对于使用传统电话来说速度较慢,并且话音的质量也不能保证像付费电话那样清晰.某些网络电话程序是可以获得的,诸如cooltalk和NetMeeting,它们与当前流行的浏览器捆绑.另外的就都自成一体化产品. 互联网电话产品有时称为IP 电话、语音跨越在因特网(VOI)或IP语音产品(VoIP).VoIP是另一个越来越受欢迎基于互联网的通讯方式. VoIP的硬件和软件一起利用互联网进行电话交流,通过IP发送语音数据包,而非传统的电路传输. 称为PSTN(大众网络电话首选).语音转换成数据包然后路由在互联网,或者一些IP 网络,如同正常的数据包一样被传送. 当数据包抵达目的地后,它们又把接收者语音数据返回.您的电话是连接在VoIP电话适配器上(硬件组成方面).这个适配器是让你通过连接宽频上网. 电话是经由当地电话网上定期杰克,连接接收机的电话.就像为你连接网络寻找一个因特网服务供应商(ISP),你需要一个网络电话的供应商. 一些服务供应商推出了各种方案,可能包括提供免费呼叫某些单位的网络, 或者收取基于网络电话拨打固定电话呼叫时间的收费比率.当你使用的VoIP拨打长途电话时,最可能将为此付出额外的费用.尽管听起来不完全和普通电话一样,但它比传统的语音通讯要便宜的多,从此你不再需要在你每月电话单中支付额外费用.电子邮件E-Mail是电子邮件简称,它是通过网络来传递文本信息的.信息可以来自于键盘敲入或储存在磁盘中的电子文档. 很多巨型计算机,微型计算机都有电子邮件系统. 一些电子邮件系统是局限于单一的计算机系统或网络,但是有部分电脑系统等门户,让你在世界任何地方发送电子邮件.利用电子邮件客户端(如微软的Outlook或Eudora软件),你可以谱写一封电子邮件并发送到任何地方的人,只要你知道收件人的电子邮件地址. 所有在线服务和互联网服务供应商(ISPs)提供了电子邮件和支持网关,那么就可以用电子邮件与他们系统的用户交流. 通常,只需几秒钟电子邮件就能到达目的地. 这是一个特别有效的集体交流方式,让你可以一次性与集体每一位发送信息或文档.恶意垃圾邮件像一个巨大无比的黑云把电子邮件所笼罩.. 尽管定义多变,恶意垃圾邮件仍可以被认定为是上千封的电子垃圾信件(通常是一些产品广告), 如果没有数以万计的客户的话. 垃圾邮件照样常常被电子邮件木马、病毒所蔓延.为此,它的重要使用最新的反病毒程序,您将扫描收支电子邮件病毒. 因此,使用最新的反病毒程序尤为重要,它会扫描你发送和接收的电子邮件是否存在病毒.更多关于电子邮件信息,请见"互联网电子邮件破译",这是计算机与网络名词的在线查询字典的参考.因特网中继聊天IRC是因特网中继聊天的简称,IRC是多用户、多频道的群聊系统，许多用户可以在一个被称为“channel”或"房间"的地方就某一话题交谈或私谈.IRC是基于客户端/服务器端的模式.即参加室内讨论.你需要一个IRC的客户软件(如mIRC)和网络.IRC客户端程序运行在你的电脑与IRC服务器端做信息传递.而另一端也就是IRC服务器,它是负责确保所有信息传播给讨论组中的每一个成员.它可以让讨论者同时进行群聊,也可以彼此单独开设了通道.一旦加入一个IRC 聊天室(聊天室讨论主题由对话者决定),你可以在某个公共聊天室的公开讨论并让所有成员看到你信息内容,另外你也可以发送私人讯息给某个参与者.有了IRC 客户端你可以轻易创造自己的聊天室并邀请他人加入你的频道.在你想进行更私人对话时.也可以使用密码保护的方式,只允许你所邀请的人进入聊天室.一旦你熟悉了IRC的顾客,你就会在渠道里找到一些愿意参与并帮助你解决问题的人.与IRC伴随的一个普遍问题是滞后. IRC依赖于彼此相连的主机导致速度变慢.如果你所在的讨论组无人响应,或者你通知的那个人在几分钟以后才答复你,那么可以归结为这是滞后.如果你有多次滞后的经历,那么你可以尝试连接不同的IRC服务器.视频会议视像会议是由两个或多人在不同地点的与会者,利用电脑网络传送语音、录像资料的工具. 每位与会者都要将摄像头,麦克风和听筒与他/她的电脑连接.如果双方会议要给另一方知道,那么他们的声音将透过网络传到给另一个对话者,并且瞄准摄像头的画面也将会呈现在其它会议群的监视者.为了让工作视频会议有序,与会人员必须使用相同客户端或兼容的软件.许多免费软件和共享视频工具提供网上下载,绝大部分的在线影院都捆绑了视频会议的软件.一些新颖的视频会议将大众即时讯息客户端整合成套装,可以用作多方会议和项目.近年来,视频会议已成为一种流行的远程交流的教室,为远程学习,宾客讨论以及多媒体学校合作项目提供了高效的方式. 许多人都认为视频会议提供了一个标准即时信息软件或者电子邮件所不能完成的可视化互动连接.短讯及无线通讯短信服务(SMS)是全球无线服务,使的移动用户与外部系统之间可以传递任何的字母数字信息,如系统电子邮件、传呼、语音邮件系统. 信息可以不再超过160字母数字字符、图象或图形必须包含无. 一旦讯息被发送,就会被对应的移动设备或系统的某个短信服务中心接收.作为无线服务的演变,多媒体信息服务(彩信MMS)被推广,它提供了多种传递讯息方式,包括文字、声音、以手机彩信和视频图象集于一体的能力.无线通讯设备如移动电话、掌上电脑(PDA)等是时常革新的. 如今你所使用的无线设备并不仅限于电话呼叫,还可以收发电子邮件和即时信息. 如果你有一个因特网帐户,那么你使用的电子邮件、网络聊天室或即时讯息是免费的,不过,如果你用无线设备来完成服务,你仍需付费给你的移动运营商.。