中式英语的特点与演变
中式英语的表现形式和例句分析

中式英语的表现形式和例句分析一、什么是中式英语中式英语是指中国人在英语学习,日常交际和写作中因受汉语思维和文化的影响,硬套汉语规则和习惯,在英语交际中出现的不合规范英语或不合英语文化习惯的畸形英语。
从上述定义中我们不难看出,中式英语是具有中国特征的英语,是不能被以英语为母语者所接受的。
中式英语是规范英语在中国的误用,是中国英语学习者在使用英语时,受汉语思维和文化影响拼造出的与正规英语语言规则和文化习惯相悖的英语。
这是中国人在学习英语的过程中必然出现的一种语言现象。
二、中式英语的例子中国人长期在汉语环境中学习英语,缺乏真实的英语语言环境,又深受汉语思维、文化背景、表达方式的影响,常直接套用汉语规则和表达习惯。
下面就从几个方面探讨中式英语的表现形式。
(一)语音方面汉语和英语发音规则差异很大。
例如,汉语拼音中没有/θ/这个音,很多学生就借用与之相近的/s/来发/θ/的音。
比如,think和thank you,这是两个最容易出现的中国式发音的典型错误。
(二)词汇方面1.词汇误用英语中的一些词有与之相近的汉语意思,但适用于不同的情况和语境中,常犯的错误是只记住了单词的中文意思,没有考虑单词的具体使用方法和语境,只是机械地对应英汉翻译,因此导致了出现中式英语现象。
例1:I am watching a book.例2:Tomorrow I will look a movie.例1和例2中“watch”和“look”都有看的意思,但他们使用的语境各不相同,规范的英语应该是“reading a book”和“watch a movie”。
与这类错误相似的还有“speak,say,talk”的误用,如“Can you sayChinese?”。
2.词汇冗余汉语表达中经常会使用同义词或近义词来强调所说内容和语气,而英语则尽量避免重复,强调简洁明了。
常犯的错误是按照汉语思维逐字翻译,从而出现中式英语。
例1:His body is healthy.例2:My name is called Peter.例1和例2的两个句子作为中国人来看,不难理解,因为这两句话的表达与汉语思维完全一致,但是作为英语人士来看的话,两个句子都犯了累赘的错误,与英文的表达习惯不相符。
从中式英语谈英汉语言对比

从中式英语谈英汉语言对比英汉语言的基本对比英语与汉语是由两个完全不同的语系所组成,其语言结构和语法也有着很大的不同。
中文有四个声调,而英语则没有声调,因此英文中的音节比中文多很多。
此外,英文中主语必须出现在句子的最前面,而中文则可以将宾语放在句首。
同时,英语中单复数和时态有很多变化,而中文则没有这些变化。
另外,在中文中,用词多采用一些成语和俗语,而在英语中则使用更为具体的单词和句型。
中式英语的特点中式英语指的是在英语表达中,汉语的思维方式和语言习惯被运用其中的一些现象。
最常被人们提到的中式英语包括一些与中文直译相关的现象,例如“没有问题”和“No problem”相对应、“加油”和“Go, go, go!”相对应、以及“多多关照”和“Please take care of me a lot”相对应等等。
除此之外,还有一些英语习惯结构被直接翻译成汉语结构,例如“听你的”和“Listen to you”的相对应、“我已经吃好了”和“I have eaten already”的相对应,等等。
与此一同,中式英语在语法、用词以及句型方面也存在一些问题。
例如,在用词上,中式英语往往使用词语的不恰当用法,例如“My English is very good”中的“very”,而且往往一些句型有歧义,例如“He is not only my teacher, but also my father”中的“not only…but also…”的句型在中式英语中往往不正确使用。
而在语法和句型上,中式英语则往往运用了一些汉语的语言习惯和思维方式,导致有时候表达不清楚或失去语言的流畅感。
例如,句子前面加上“关于…”,或者强调对象后面加上“的事情”,例如“关于这个问题,我有些疑问”以及“这个事情,我捉摸不清楚”。
中式英语与“Chinglish”区别一些人会将中式英语与“Chinglish”混淆起来,实际上它们是有一些不同的。
中式英语及其成因的考察

中式英语及其成因的考察摘要:中式英语是指中国的英语学习者,因受母语的干扰和影响,生搬硬套汉语的规则和习惯,在英语的交际中使用不合英语规范和文化习惯的畸型英语。
由于英汉两种语言分属不同的语系,二者在语法、表达方式、文化背景、思维习惯方面有着明显的差异,因此中式英语对于中国的英语学习者来说是不可避免的。
在学习英语时要注重对中式英语的误用点的理解,从而达到为学习英语服务的目的。
关键词:中式英语、特点、成因一、中式英语的涵义根据皮亚杰发生认识论的基本原理,认为“中式英语”是客观存在的,人类的认识就是同化、顺应、不断交替以保持一种平衡的过程。
“中式英语”自20世纪80年代以来,我国的外语学术界对此有过激烈的讨论,随着经济的全球化,中式英语也随之而成为英语语言中一块特殊区域。
(一)中式英语的定义中式英语又称为中国式英语,是指中国人在学习和使用英语时,把汉语语言的规则运用到英语语言中,受汉语的思维方式和相应的文化背景知识的干扰和影响而说出或写出的不合英语文化习惯的畸形英语。
即中式英语中规范英语在中国的误用,是中国的英语语言学习者受到汉语语言的影响和干扰所形成的。
在我国,由于与英语国家的历史背景、文化、政治经济等方面各不相同,而中国人学英语大多是在掌握母语后开始,这时已具备了母语的语法与表达方式,自然在学习英语时有母语语言思考,这样就造成了大量中式英语的出现。
(二)中式英语的特点在使用英语时,因受汉语思维方式或文化的影响而拼造出不符合英语表达习惯的,具有中国特征的英语。
这是中国人在学习英语过程中出现的,是必然的一种语言现象。
1、产生的必然性由于中西方思维方式、文化传统的不同,中国人习得英语语言时常以母语来翻译学习。
在一部分中国人的英语表达中,照搬照套直译汉语为英语的现象时有发生,这样就使得中式英语出现。
汉语是中国人的母语,而方言又是汉语中的一类,多种语言的差异本就影响语言的学习,而汉语思维又随着语文教学不断加深对中国人的影响,这样,汉语对于英语学习者而言,面临的客观因素,干扰是必然的,自然中式英语就不可避免的出现了。
论从中式英语、中国英语到标准英语

论从中式英语、中国英语到标准英语英语作为一门语言,随着英美两国的崛起而诞生、发展,随着世界全球化,成为国际上使用最广泛的交流工具。
正因为语言的可变性和包容性,随着时间的推移,英语的变体还会源源不断的产生,英语也将会有继续发展的空间,这其中也势必融入在泱泱大国——中国所孕育的具有中国特色的英语变体。
一、中国英语人们通常认为中国英语(Chinese English)是一种使用型英语变体,主要用于中国人与非本国人之间的交流和交往。
它具有以标准英语为核心并带有中国特色的双重性质。
“以标准英语为核心”保证了中国英语作为信息媒介所体现出来的可理解性和可接受性,而“带有中国特色”则弥补了标准英语在涉及中国人固有的思维模式和中国特有文化传统方面的相对欠缺。
自葛传槼先生1983年首次提出“中国英语”这一概念之后,国内的学者纷纷从不同的角度对中国英语进行论证。
概括而言,中国英语应具备以下普遍特征:1.适宜性(Appropriateness)。
随着以语言在不同社会条件下运用、变异为中心的社会语言学的发展,“标准不标准”的问题已逐渐被“适宜与不适宜”所取代。
中国英语虽然表现的是中国特有事物,但在表达上仍应确保其被英语国家人士所理解和接受。
中国英语主要包含两大类:一类诸如一国两制(one country two systems)、中草药(Chinese herbal medicine)、一箭双雕(one arrow, two hawks)等,这种通过借译或语义再生的手段生成的,虽然在标准英语中没有出现过,但英语国家人士还是能从字面的表述中大体明白其所含之意;另一类如麻将(mahjong)、功夫(gongfu)、汤圆(tangyuan)、风水(fengshui)、广东人(Cantonese)等,这类通过普通话或粤、闽地区的发音直接转化而成,且附有必要注解的,能够让英语国家人士了解中国特有的文化,也填补了英语语言表达中的空白。
从中式英语谈英汉语言对比

从中式英语谈英汉语言对比1. 引言1.1 中式英语的定义中式英语是指汉语和英语的混合使用,其中包含了许多汉语语法和表达习惯。
在中国大陆,中式英语通常是由非英语母语的人士使用的,他们可能会受到汉语语法结构的影响,导致英语表达不够规范和准确。
中式英语也可以被理解为一种英语的方言,其特点是在句子结构、词汇选择、语音语调等方面受到汉语的影响。
中式英语的出现主要是因为英语不是中国人的母语,所以在学习和使用英语时会受到汉语的干扰和影响。
在日常生活中,人们可能会在说英语时意识不到中式英语的使用,但在专业场合或正式场合,中式英语可能会被视为错误或不规范的表达方式。
中式英语是一种融合了汉语和英语特点的语言形式,是跨文化交流中常见的语言现象。
1.2 中式英语的特点1. 语法简化:中式英语在语法上往往简化了很多英语的复杂结构,例如省略了冠词、时态、单复数等,使句子更加简洁明了。
2. 词汇取舍:中式英语会选择性地使用中文词汇来替代英语词汇,或者直接将中文词汇直译成英语,造成一些独特的表达方式。
3. 语音特色:中式英语的发音往往受到汉语语音的影响,例如发音模糊、音调不准确等,使得听起来有一定的口音。
4. 文化特征:中式英语中常常会融入中国文化的元素,如习惯用语、成语等,反映出说话者的文化背景。
5. 表达习惯:中式英语在表达习惯上也有一定特点,例如句型的组织方式、逻辑的排列顺序等,与传统的英语表达方式有所不同。
2. 正文2.1 词汇词汇是语言的基本组成部分,也是英汉语言对比中一个重要的方面。
在中式英语中,词汇的使用常常受到汉语语法结构的影响,导致一些表达方式与英语原本的习惯用法有所不同。
在词汇方面,中式英语常常出现直译、错译等现象。
“小心翼翼”直译成“careful careful”而不是“carefully”,“五颜六色”直译成“five colors six colors”而不是“colorful”。
这种直译的现象在中式英语中比较常见,颇有一种“中国味”。
中式英语的语言特征

中式英语的语言特征【摘要】本文作者阐述了对中式英语定义的理解,进一步从语音、词汇、句式和语篇四个层面描述和分析中国英语的特征。
【关键词】中式英语;语言特征一、中式英语的定义和实质许多学者对中式英语的概念给出了不同的理解。
葛传梁(1980)认为,英语是英国人的语言,外国人应该遵循英国人的习惯方式。
也有学者认为,中国人使用英语是基于标准英语形式和中国本土特色。
中式英语是以规范英语为核心,但带有中国特色的词汇、语法和话语,通过音译、借用和语义再生来表达中国特有的事物。
贾冠杰和相名尤(1997)进一步指出:中式英语是一种基于标准英语和中国特色而被中国人广泛使用的一种英语。
罗云志(1998)提出了一个简单的定义:中式英语是一种具有中国特色的一种英语语种。
从以上学者对中式英语的理解中,我们不难看出,“中式英语”在国际功能语言和维护民族特色上达到一种平衡,但本质上它属于英语,远非其他语言。
中式英语作为多样化英语语言的一种形式,源于中西文化的碰撞融合,它的存在符合时代发展的要求。
在中国社会文化的大环境下,中式英语是对英语语言和文化的一种革新,使之符合中国人的语言逻辑思维方式,不仅反映出英语本土化和国际化融合的特点,更加体现了中国人的价值观和文化意识。
二、中式英语的语言特征1、语音特点由于发音方式的不同,中文和英文有着不同的声音特质。
英语母语者从嘴的后面发声,而中国人从嘴的前面发音。
当中国人说英语的时候,发音会受到肌肉张弛的影响,因此会或多或少的带有中国味。
杜云清和张亚军(2001)认为“中式英语展示了超音段音位。
”一些中国语言特性在中式英语发音中是很难改变的,因为这早已对中国人的语音产生了根深蒂固的影响。
例如,中国人很难以正确的方式在英语发音中使用重读式、弱读式、语音同化和连音。
2、词汇特点因为中国文化和英国文化存在显著的差异,所以人们采用不同的技巧来翻译汉语单词和短语,这也就体现了英汉词汇方面的语言差异。
借词能够有效地传达中国文化的独特特征,地道英语替代词的缺乏是语言借用产生的一个重要因素。
中式英语的特点与演变10页word

中式英语的特点与演变中式英语的出现由来已久,但中式英语的研究仅有70年左右的历史,国内学者一般认为始于英语语言史专家Serjeantson的论著《英语中的外来词历史》(1935)。
随着中国国力日益强大,中外交流日趋频繁,大众传媒飞速发展,汉语对英语渗透的步伐不断加快,大量中式英语逐步为英语国家所理解和接受。
以英语原版图书为例,20世纪30年代Serjeantson 的《英语中的外来词历史》仅收录27个汉语借词,但时至80年代,英语正规词典及其他出版物中实际上涵盖厂1189个中式英语条目(Cannon 1988:4)。
有媒体最新透露,根据“全球语言监督”(Global Language Monitor)的统计,自1994年以来,中式英语对国际英语词汇的贡献为5%到20%,中文成为英语新词最大来源。
20世纪英语新词中外语借词约占5%(Ayto 2002:XIII),可见中式英语的发展态势迅猛。
由于近年来中国政府汉语文化向世界推广的力度加大,孔子学院在世界各国纷纷建立,中式英语必然对英语发展产生更大的影响。
本文结合有关英语中汉语借词的两篇重要论文“Chinese Borrowings in English”和“英语词汇中汉语借词的来源”,探讨中式英语的特点及演变,希望有助于英语中外来词语的教学与研究。
一、定义由于英语已成为国际性的通用语言,世界各地都在使用,而且各有各的特点,不再是铁板一块,不少语言学家谈到英语,不再用English一词,而是用Englishes。
中式英语就是国际英语家族中的一个成员或变体,与印度英语、新加坡英语等处于同等地位。
“中式英语”在英语中一般叫Sinicized English或Chinglish。
本文所说的中式英语,不包括所有母语为汉语的人所用的英语,例如作为笑料的“好好学习,天天向上”的英语译文good good study,day day up,而主要指已不同程度地进入普通英语的汉语词汇,见于英语国家媒体或正式出版物的具有汉语特色的英语,或称英语中的汉语借词。
中式英语特点及发展趋势

摘要本文首先探讨了中外学者对中式英语的不同定义,指出中式英语是一种有中国特色的英语变体;然后将中式英语和中国英语进行了对比分析,总结出中国英语是由中式英语发展而来,并已自然而然地被外国人所接受;其次,阐述了中式英语的四个特点,即语音特点、词汇特点、语法特点,和语用特点,并从母语干扰、不同的思维方式、不同的文化背景这三方面分析了产生中式英语的原因;最后讨论了中式英语发展的趋势,对其发展的必然性和合理性进行了阐释。
关键词:中式英语;特点;原因;趋势ABSTRACTThis paper first explores different definitions of Chinglish given by the scholars home and abroad and points out that Chinglish is a kind of English variety with Chinese flavor. It then compares Chinglish with China English and concludes that China English is derived from Chinglish and is accepted by native speakers naturally. In addition, it elaborates the four characteristics of Chinglish: characteristics of pronunciation, characteristics of vocabulary, characteristics of grammar, and characteristics of pragmatics, and analyzes the causes of Chinglish from three aspects, namely mother tongue interference, different thinking patterns, different cultural background. It finally discusses the development trend of Chinglish and elaborates its inevitability of development and rationality of development.Key words:Chinglish; characteristics; causes; trendContents1. Introduction (50)2. What is Chinglish (51)2.1 Definition of Chinglish (51)2.2 Differences between Chinglish and China English (52)3. Characteristics of Chinglish (54)3.1 Characteristics of pronunciation (54)3.1.1 V oice substitution (54)3.1.2 Mixture of allophone (55)3.1.3 Confusion of voiced and voiceless sounds (55)3.2 Characteristics of vocabulary (55)3.2.1 Verbosity (55)3.2.2 Catachresis (56)3.2.3 Neglect of word order (57)3.2.4 Unsuitable match (57)3.3 Characteristics of grammar (57)3.3.1 Confusion of article (57)3.3.2 Omission of predicate (58)3.3.3 Inconformity between modifier and subject (58)3.4 Pragmatic characteristics (58)3.4.1 Mechanical use of Chinese structure (59)3.4.2 Simplified transfer of concept (59)4. The Causes of Chinglish (60)4.1 Mother tongue interference (61)4.2 Different thinking patterns (62)4.3 Different cultural background (64)4.3.1 Linguistic knowledge (64)4.3.2 Values (65)4.3.3 Customs (65)5. Trend of the Development of Chinglish (66)5.1 Inevitability of the development of Chinglish (66)5.2 Rationality of the development of Chinglish (66)6. Conclusion (68)Acknowledgements (69)References (70)1. IntroductionAs we know, English is the most widely spoken language in the world and has been a multinational, multicultural and multifunctional language. With more and more communication between Chinese and English speakers in the fields of business and education, English is playing an important role among Chinese and has become a necessary tool in today’s competitive world. However, with an impressive command of English vocabulary and good master of grammar as well as phonetics, which, to some extent, are beyond the native speakers’capacity, they are confronted with quite a few problems when they are talking or writing in English. Their gestures, either shrug or shake their heads, usually make the foreigners confused and at the same time make themselves trapped in an embarrassed situation. What has happened to the Chinese speakers? Why does the language they use sound alien to the foreigners? Retracing the cause, I find most of the Chinese learners’mistakes are not made due to their lack of grammar or vocabulary but due to an odd language they use, namely Chinglish, an excrescence of standard English, which is defined as a portmanteau of the two words Chinese and English and refers to spoken or written English which is influenced by Chinese. In order to make English learners convey their views more efficiently both in speech and writing, I attempt to illustrate the characteristics and causes of Chinglish in detail and predict the trend of the development of Chinglish so as to help people make proper use of Chinglish when they communicate with native speakers of English.2. What is ChinglishChinglish appears in many aspects. This thesis will especially focus on the Chinglish appearing in the writing and speech of college students. In order to let readers have a thorough comprehension of Chinglish, definitions of Chinglish will be a first important part to be studied. From the various definitions of Chinglish, we get to know what Chinglish really is. Of course, Chinglish can hardly be understood fully without being studied in connection with the characteristics of Chinglish. According to a variety of studies, I believe we will get a better understanding of the development trend of Chinglish.2.1 Definition of ChinglishIn early and mid-20th century, Chinglish was derogatorily called“pidgin”in Chinese. Pidgin English is another term for Chinglish: A simplified form of speech that is usually a mixture of two or more languages, has a rudimentary grammar and vocabulary, is used for communication between groups speaking different languages, and is not spoken as a first or native language (Definition from the American Heritage dictionary). Thus, expressions like “People mountain, people sea”are taken as “Pidgin English”. Pidgin English occurred when Chinese began to trade with the native speakers of English. In China, Chinglish has been profoundly discussed since 1980’s. It is Professor Ge Chuangui who first puts forward the difference between Chinglish and China English in 1980’s. He pointed out that some peculiar language, such as 科举(imperial examination)、五四运动(May Fourth Movement)can not be taken as Chinglish, but can be taken as China English [1]5.Many teachers and scholars home and abroad have noticed this language phenomenon and studies on Chinglish are scattered in books and articles in the field of English teaching and learning. Nevertheless, due to the unsystematic and unsteady nature of Chinglish, people do not always resonate a clear and unanimous voice on what Chinglish is and hereby present diverse and incomplete definitions from different angles in light with their ownunderstanding. The famous professor Pinkham defines it is a misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as “English with Chinese characteristics”[2]4; Deng Yanchang and Liu Runqing view it as speech or writing that shows the interference of Chinese [1]9. They believe Chinglish may be grammatically correct, but the choice of words or phrases and the manner of expression do not conform to Standard English usage. Although its understanding may not be a problem, Chinglish is unacceptable; Li Wenzhong considers it as abnormal or deformed English that is produced by Chinese English learners or users when they are influenced by Chinese language rules [1]9; He Mingzhu regards it as an awkward mixture in which ideas conceived in Chinese are ungrammatically or unidiomatically expressed in English[1]9; Li Guowen thinks Chinglish is misshapen English which is produced by Chinese learners who draw upon Chinese rules and structures mechanically as a result of mother tongue interference [1]9. From the above, we can conclude that the main cause of Chinglish is the interference of language learners’ mother tongue and their Chinese thinking.To sum up, Chinglish is defined differently by different scholars. It can be believed that to some extent, Chinglish has a very strong “Chinese flavor” in it. Chinglish is usually found in written form in which the choice of words or phrases and the manner of expression do not conform to standard English usage.2.2 Differences between Chinglish and China EnglishThe differences between Chinglish and China English have been a focus for a long time in the field of linguistics. Preliminary to the detailed discussion of Chinglish, it is necessary to draw a clear discrepancy between these two concepts.The concept of China English was first put forward by Ge Chuangui in the early 1980s [3]6. It has experienced three periods: the period of Pidgin English, the period of Chinese English (or Chinglish or Sinicized English), and the period of China English, which is the well-developed period. A Pidgin is a lingua franca that arises in order to facilitate communication between speakers of different languages who are in sustained contact with each other, e.g in trade or plantation situations (William, 1992:224). Although it is not anyone’s nativelanguage, a pidgin usually involves mixture or compromise between the native languages of its users. In comparison with these, it is restricted in social roles, and simplified or reduced in linguistic resources. As to China English, I think it is derived from Chinglish. Professor Ge said: “English is the language of th e English people. The other people who speak English should certainly follow the idiomatic ways of the English people. However, each nation has its own peculiarities. So far as China is concerned, there are some phenomena unique to Chinese political, economic, cultural and social fields that need to be expressed in written or oral English [4]8.”So, in his view, China English is created to translate or depict things and concepts typical of China. It exists objectively and contains four implications: China English is used only by Chinese people in China; China English takes normative English as its nucleus English and completely conform to international normative English grammar; China English has its own characteristics to carry forward China’s civilization; China English can realize the function of language communication. But the first implication doesn’t correspond to practice nowadays, because some words are used not only by Chinese people but also by western people [4]15. Chinglish is a kind of defective and arbitrary English. On the ground of influence of Chinese thinking and superficial understanding of words, Chinese English learners usually directly put Chinese meaning or usage into English, which easily leads to Chinglish. Furthermore, for lack of certain cultural background of English-speaking countries, English learners get into habit of applying English mechanically, especially in the translation of idioms. On these circumstances, Chinglish comes out naturally and causes misunderstanding among native speakers.Therefore, we can conclude that the main difference between China English and Chinglish lies in the communicative effect depending on the recognition of Normative English speakers. Say further, China English is better and widely accepted among communicators home and abroad, rather than Chinglish. However, I want to point out that the development of China English, to some extent, inevitably experiences the period of Chinglish.3. Characteristics of Chinglish3.1 Characteristics of pronunciationPronunciation of Chinglish influenced by Chinese is non-standard. It has a negative effect on fluent communication for English learners. Based on their mother tongue Pu Tong Hua, Chinese English learners easily make a mistake in voice substitution, mixture of allophone, confusion of voiced sound and voiceless sound and the like. Most of mistakes are produced owing to the limitation of the rules of Chinese pronunciation. Another cause is for lack of full understanding of English pronunciation. I explain these mistakes above in more detail.3.1.1 Voice substitutionV oice substitution means Chinese English learners always use some sounds of their mother language to replace some sounds of English. It is a common mistake and often creates ambiguity. For example, value [v ae lju] is replaced by [w ae lju], three[θri:] is replaced by [sri:], this[ðis] is replaced by [dis]. In addition, English learners replace the pronunciation “-er” in words, such as later, player, summer, with Chinese “儿”.3.1.2 Mixture of allophoneUnder the influence of the rules of Chinese pronunciation, many Chinese English learners believe each letter should conform to its own pronunciation. For example, speak [spi:k] is pronounced /spik/ in Chinese phonetic alphabet. They neglect allophones. In the same syllable, the pronunciations of /p,t,k/ in the front of /s/ are different from those when they are after /s/. Take / p/ for an example. There is a rule in English: if /p/ is after /s/, aspiration will not occur. In other cases, aspiration occurs. Accroding to the rule, speak should be pronounced [sp=i:k], span should be pronounced [sp=ae n].3.1.3 Confusion of voiced and voiceless soundsConfusion of voiced and voiceless sounds is another aspect of pronunciation of Chinglish. In the pronunciation of English, the letter “s” as a symbol of plural words, which is behind voiceless consonants, except [s, tʃ, ʃ], should be pronounced [s]. The letter “s”, which is behind vowels and voiced consonants, except [z, d] should be pronounced [z]. Chinese English learners always pronounce “s” as [s] no matter what letter is in the front of it.3.2 Characteristics of vocabularyThe characteristics of Chinglish are also reflected in vocabulary. According to the study of writing and translation from English major students and non-English major students, there are four types in the vocabulary of Chinglish, which is verbosity, catachresis, neglect of word order, and unsuitable match.3.2.1 VerbosityJoan Pinkham pointed out that there are unnecessary words appearing in the translation and writing, which do not conform to the need of the conciseness of an English sentence. Let’s look at this sentence:There have been good harvests in agriculture.Analysis: In English, harvests include the meaning of agriculture.Therefore, we can omit “in agriculture” to achieve conciseness.More examples come from students’ language use.1) We will share the information resources together(“Share”implies having something with somebody together, so “together” should be deleted.)2) My mother has gone to the shops to buy things.(The notion of “go to shop”implies buying things, so “to buy things”should be deleted.)3) Fish must stay in water. If they don’t, they die.(Repeated reference to the same thing is another type of verbosity in Chinglish. The notion of “if they don’t”can be replaced by “or”to compound the sentence.)3.2.2 CatachresisTo many English learners, catachresis is often seen in practice. The main reason to cause it is that English learners believe that there is absolute equivalence between Chinese and English. But in fact, there is not. Take some sentences as examples:1)Later, many people found that the beggars were using their sympathy.(“Use” is usually used to modify something concrete, while sympathyis an abstract noun. So “Sympathy”is suitable to be used with “playon”, instead of “use”. )2) Their hearts become cold and detached.(Cold usually modify one’s attitude or weather. “H eart” can be modified by “chill”.)3) Cut hundreds of buildings down(“Cut down” usually modifies “trees, price, and expense”. “Hundreds of buildings” shouldn’t be modified by “cut down”. We can say “Hundreds of buildings fall down”.)4) You shouldn’t change the law of nature.(“Change should be replaced by “violate”. “Change” means something is totally different from the original one. “Violate” means being against something. “Law of nature” is an objective law and cannot be changed or created. But it canbe violated.)3.2.3 Neglect of word orderIn the Chinese and the English languages, there are many expressions in which the component words are arranged in just the opposite order. The neglect of word order often gives rise to Chinglish. For example:1) Industry and agriculture ( Chinglish )Agriculture and industry ( Normative English )2) Clothing and food ( Chinglish )Food and clothing ( Normative English )3) Forth and back ( Chinglish )Back and forth ( Normative English )3.2.4 Unsuitable matchWord match has become one of the difficult points for Chinese learners of English, and commonly unsuitable match appears in Chinglish, for many English learners ignore the difference of word match between Chinese and English and translate English to Chinese or Chinese to English mechanically. For example, Chinese English learners would say “deep sleep”, “big rain”, “receive the telephone”, instead of “sound sleep”, “heavy rain”, “answer the telephone”. The following are the typical examples of the kind:We can learn a lot of knowledge by reading good books. ( acquire/obtain ) We want the newest information. ( the latest )The demand draws the particular concern of the public. ( arouses )3.3 Characteristics of grammar3.3.1 Confusion of articleConfusion of articles, including omission of articles and redundance of articles is a common mistake made by English learners. For example:1).我们每个人有一套桌椅。
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中式英语的特点与演变Chinglish:Characteristics&EvolutionAbstract:Chinglish is a special variety of English which differs from the common English in spelling,pronunciation,grammar and usage.Many of the early Chinese borrowings in English were derived from Cantonese while nowadays most Chinese borrowings come from putonghua.M any of the early Chinese borrowings were introduced into English by transliteration while the carrenttendencv is meaning borrowing.M ost of the early Chinese borrowings in English were words while their modern and contemporary counterparts are phrases.Key words:Chinglish;borrowing;evolution中式英语的特点与演变[摘要]中式英语是一种独特的英语变体,在拼写、语音、语法和语用上都存在有别于通用英语的特点。
早期英语中的汉语借词不少来自粤语,现在绝大部分来自普通话,用的是汉语拼音。
早期汉语借词不少是音译借词,当代发展趋势是意译借词。
早期借用以单词为主,现当代则出现大量的借用短语。
[关键词]中式英语;借词;演变中式英语的出现由来已久,但中式英语的研究仅有7O年左右的历史,国内学者一般认为始于英语语言史专家Serjeantson的论著《英语中的外来词历史》(1935)。
随着中国国力日益强大,中外交流日趋频繁,大众传媒飞速发展,汉语对英语渗透的步伐不断加快,大量中式英语逐步为英语国家所理解和接受。
以英语原版图书为例,2O世纪3O年代Serjeantson的《英语中的外来词历史》仅收录27个汉语借词,但时至8O年代,英语正规词典及其他出版物中实际上涵盖了1189个中式英语条目(Cannon 1988:4)。
有媒体最新透露,根据“全球语言监督”(Global Language Monitor)的统计,自1994年以来,中式英语对国际英语词汇的贡献为5%到2O%,中文成为英语新词最大来源。
2O世纪英语新词中外语借词约占 5 (Ayto 2002:XIII),可见中式英语的发展态势迅猛。
由于近年来中国政府汉语文化向世界推广的力度加大,孔子学院在世界各国纷纷建立,中式英语必然对英语发展产生更大的影响。
本文结合有关英语中汉语借词的两篇重要论文“Chinese Borrowings in English”和“英语词汇中汉语借词的来源”,探讨中式英语的特点及演变,希望有助于英语中外来词语的教学与研究。
一、定义由于英语已成为国际性的通用语言,世界各地都在使用,而且各有各的特点,不再是铁板一块,不少语言学家谈到英语,不再用English一词,而是用Englishes。
中式英语就是国际英语家族中的一个成员或变体,与印度英语、新加坡英语等处于同等地位。
“中式英语”在英语中一般叫Sinicized English或Chinglish。
本文所说的中式英语,不包括所有母语为汉语的人所用的英语,例如作为笑料的“好好学习,天天向上”的英语译文goodgoodstudy,day dayup,而主要指已不同程度地进入普通英语的汉语词汇,见于英语国家媒体或正式出版物的具有汉语特色的英语,或称英语中的汉语借词。
据英语专家估计,这样的汉语借词约有1000个,例如chow mein,ginseng,kung fu,taipan,typhoon等(MeArthur 1998:119)。
二、“Chinese Borrowings in English”评介(--)基本内窖“Chinese Bo rrowings in English”一文发表于1988年,作者Garland Cannon是英语中的汉语借词研究专家。
该文从7个方面讨论汉语借词:借词重复、借词出现的时间、借词标记及其在8部主要案头词典中的分布、借词的来源、借词的语义、借词的形式和语法、借词的分类。
借词重复在1189个汉语借词中,重复的占21O个,该研究剔除了这些重复词语。
其中含Japan一词的有95个,另外115个与词典中的主要词条有拼写差异,如tea的异体词cha/chia/tay/tsia,ginseng的异体词genseg/ginseng/ginshang/ginsing,T’ai Chi 的异体词T’ai Chi Ch’uan,Four Books的异体词SsuShu都从语料库中排除。
借词出现的时间tea和Japan两词生产能力最强。
tea出现于1598年,在含tea的复合词中出现最早的是teaspoon (1686)和tea table(1688);Japan出现于1613年,其复合词出现最晚的是形容词Japlish(1970)。
其它他词语中,出现最早的有galingale(i000),bonze,li,litchi,typhoon(1588)等。
在众多外语借词中,汉语借词数量排名第11。
借词标记及其在8部主要案头词典中的分布yen(“瘾”)等词标记为俚语,Jap标记为贬义,Japanee标记为幽默。
在语料库的979个词条中,出现在1部词典的有168个,i01个见于2部词典,4O个见于3部词典,18个见于4部词典,34个见于5部词典,27个见于6部词典,32个见于7部词典,45个见于8部词典。
累计收录在3部及3部上的词语有196个,占语料库的2O ,这些词语属于通用国际英语。
借词的来源汉语借词主要来自广东话和普通话。
由于英国早期的贸易基地设在广东,所以许多早期借词源于或译自粤语。
该研究的语料库词条大部分来自北京话。
有些借词拼写既有广东话的,又有普通话的,两者相差很大,所以有些案头词典不得不两者兼收。
1986年版《牛津英语辞典》补编收录的46个汉语借词中,仍有8个存在拼写异体现象,如Tachai(Dazhai),tan(dan),Tao Kuang(Daoguang)。
另外,还有通过中介语如日语等辗转进入英语的汉语借词。
借词的语义英语中的汉语借词几乎清一色只有一个意义。
近年出现的3O个借词中只有3个(chiao,Shih Tzu,the ch’i)有两个意义。
当然,进入英语几百年的借词可能产生附加义,例如,tea在1598年表示茶叶,1601年表示喝茶,1663年表示茶树,1738年表示茶点。
汉语借词中有大量专有名词,如地名、人名、民族名、宗教名、朝代名等。
这些借词可大别为19个语义范畴,按数量多少依次为:饮食(含有关器具)、动植物、地理、艺术、宗教哲学、政府政治、民族学、身份职业、度量单位及货币、语言书写、朝代、服装、娱乐、协会、武术、药物、经济、地质、颜色及其他。
借词的形式和语法语料库中名词占83%,形容词占15%,动词仅占1.9%。
可数名词的复数大多是不规则的或零复数。
对借词的形成的分析是一个棘手问题。
979个条目中知道出现时间的只有552个,其中有些还不够准确。
这样就很难说,同一条目存在两种词性的,究竟一个是另一个经过功能变化而来的,还是两者大致同时借入。
语料库中的借词大部分是音译词,只有49个意译词,如barefoot doctor,dragon’S eyes,Gang of Four,Middle Kingdom,paper tiger,running dog,Son of Heaven,winter melon等。
个别词既有音译又有意译,如san-anti--Sanfan,wallposter-- dazibao借词的分类英语中的汉语借词可分为3类。
第一类是保留形式和意义,这些都是经过音译而来的借词。
第二类是保留形式而有所添加,如Canton ginger。
第三类是翻译而来的,如drunken shrimp,long march,Warring States等。
该节特别强调本文所谓的借词必须是在归化前直接或间接来自另一种语言,如果只是表达外语中的某种意义,这样的词不能算借词。
没有源词(etymon)的不叫借词,如Red China(Communist China的同义词语)和Little Red Book(指Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung)。
根据这种三分法,Cannon甚至认为silk一类的词不能称为借词(1inguistic borrowing),但不妨称之为借意(meaning borrowing)。
文章结尾说,有研究表明,对汉语蜻蜓点水或只字不提的英语史是有遗漏的,需要修正。
就对英语新词的贡献而言,日语和西班牙语是第二大来源,汉语位居第11。
(二)简评Cannon对英语中汉语的借词所作的分析,主要依据8部英语案头词典,对借词的形式、意义、来源、分类等进行了细致的阐述,其深度和广度至今鲜有出其右者。
但该文也有明显的缺点,通篇都是静态的描写,对汉语借词的功能和语用不置一词,这不能不说是一大憾事。
另外,文章对汉语借词发展估计不足,说什么汉语对英语新词的贡献不及日语,短期内不能与后者抗衡,这种预言已被事实所粉碎。
正如开篇所说,汉语现已成为英语新词最大的来源。
三、“英语词汇中汉语借词的来源”评介(一)基本内容该文由汪榕培和常骏跃合写,2001年发表。
第一作者汪榕培是我国著名词汇学研究专家,出版了《英语词汇学教程》(1997)和《英语词汇学研究}(2000)等有影响的词汇学著作。
该文开篇对国内外英语中的汉语借词研究作简要综述,正文从三个方面论述了汉语借词问题:汉语词汇进入英语的历史回顾;汉语词汇进入英语的途径;汉语词汇被英语吸收同化的进程。
汉语词汇进入英语的历史回顾首先谈到最早(888年)进入英语的silk一词,这反映了中国丝绸文化对西方的影响。
该词具有很强的构词能力,其衍生词和复合词多达65个。
然后谈到与“中国”和瓷器相关的几个词,包括china,China和Sino。
其中Sino是从中国第一个封建王朝“秦”演变而来,首先进入阿拉伯语,后经希腊语、拉丁语、法语而传入英语,是一个比较活跃的构词成分。
另外还重点谈到tea的产生和发展。
Morrison来华传教、鸦片战争及以后的多次社会变革都在英语中得到反映,产生了新的汉语借词。