科技英语阅读翻译
科技英语阅读与翻译
科技英语阅读与翻译【牙齿仙女】Primitive peoples believe that hair， nail clippings， and lost teeth remain magically linked to the owner even after they have been disconnected from his body. As any voodoo artist will tell you， if you want to grind someone into powder， you don't need to touch him at all. It's quite enough to stamp on a missing molar and let ;contagious magic; do the rest. This is why peoples all over the world traditionally hide lost body parts， lest they fall into the wrong hands.远古时期的人们认为毛发、剪下的指甲和脱落的牙齿即使离开了人的身体，仍与其主人保持着神秘的联系。
正如任何一个伏都教大师都会告诉你的，假如你想置某人于死地，根本用不着去碰他，只需用脚踩碎那人脱落的一颗臼齿就够了，剩下的事就交给无边的法力去办。
这就是为什么全世界各个民族都习惯于把身体上脱落的东西藏起来，以免落入恶人之手。
American children's ritual of hiding lost teeth under their pillows probably derives distantly from this practice. But there is an obvious difference， for when Suzie conceals her baby milk-tooth， she fully expects it to be found， and by a good magician， not an evil one. Moreover， she expects to be paid for having surrendered it， and at the going rate. Nothing mare clearly suggests the blithe commercial gusto of our culture than this transformation of a fearful superstition into a cheery business transaction。
科技英语阅读翻译
（1）He is best known for coining the term fractal to describe phenomena (such as coastlines, snowflakes, mountains and trees) whose patterns repeat themselves at smaller and smaller scales.(2) To explain these puzzling findings, some scientists have revived an old idea of Einstein’s that had been discarded as false: that the vacuum of space has energy in it that acts repulsively and accelerates the expansion of the universe.(3) New language that seemed to assert Facebook’s “irrevocable”right to retain and use a member’s personal information, even after the member had closed his or her Facebook account, deserved a little more editing.(4) The tenor of our time appears to regard history as having ended, with pronouncements from many techno-pundits claiming that the Internet is revolutionary and changes everything.(5) As a by-product of an industry that exists all over the world-the stalks that remain after grain has been harvested-straw also helpfully soaks up carbon from the atmosphere and locks it in, so long as it is not allowed to decompose.（1）The problem in the paradox, he reasoned, is that we are confusing a description of sets of numbers with a description of sets of sets of numbers.（2）Now the cosmological constant is one of the leading theories of why the universe is blowing up like a balloon at ever-increasing speed.（3）That’s not because Facebook is hell-bent on stripping away privacy protections, but because the popularity of Facebook and other social networking sites has promoted the sharing of all things personal, dissolving the line that separates the private from the public.（4）Although it’s unclear if the capacity for remote operation will justify the QB’s US$15,000 price tag, Anybots believes its technology will appeal to a new generation of workers who expect to be in contact at all times and in all places.（5）As a by-product of an industry that exists all over the world-the stalks that remain after grain has been harvested-straw also helpfully soaks up carbon from the atmosphere and locks it in, so long as it is not allowed to decompose.（1）But Russell ( and independently, Ernst Zermelo ) noticed that x = {a: a is not in a} leads to a contradiction in the same way as the description of the collection of barbers.（2）An analogy is the siren of an ambulance that changes pitch as it moves toward you, then passes you and heads the other way — its waves are first compressed, then stretched.（3）It’s the older members — those who could join only after it opened membership in 2006 to workplace networks, then to anyone — who are adjusting to a new value system that prizes self-expression over reticence. （4）Although it’s unclear if the capacity for remote operation will justify the QB’s US$15,000 price tag, Anybots believes its technology will appeal to a new generation of workers who expect to be in contact at all times and in all places.（5）No matter how stylishly modern and environmentally friendly straw-bale house may look, however, you still want to know that it won’t get sopping wet in a thunderstorm or go up in a whoosh of flames if you knock over a candle.（1）For example, we can describe the collection of numbers 4, 5 and 6 by saying that x is the collection of integers, represented by n, which are greater than 3 and less than 7.（2）Dark energy is the name given to an unexplained force that is drawing galaxies away from each other, against the pull of gravity, at an accelerated pace.（3）Among members, a Law of Amiable Inclusiveness seems to be revealing itself: over time, many are deciding that the easiest path is to routinely accept “friend requests”, completing a sequence begun when one member seeks to designate another as a Facebook friend.（4）The area between the QB’s head and base consists of a length of telescoping plastic that can be adjusted to let the QB stand as tall as 175 centimeters or as short as 81 centimeters.（5）After waiting another 45 minutes and finding that the panel still hadn’t failed, the team gave up and stopped the experiment, secure in the knowledge that the material had performed beyond the requirements of building regulations.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese (20%) 1. This system served as vehicle for the first formalizations of the foundations of mathematics; it is still used in some philosophical investigations and in branches of computer science.2. That’s not because Facebook is hell-bent on stripping awayprivacy protections, but because the popularity of Facebook and other social networking sites has promoted the sharing of all things personal, dissolving the line that separates theprivate from the public.3. No matter how stylishly modern and environmentally friendlystraw-bale house may look, however, you still want to know that it won't get sopping wet in a thunderstorm or go up in a whoosh of flames if you knock over a candle.4. The premise on which the technology is based is that geneticinformation[1], encoded by DNA and arranged in the form of genes, is a resource that can be manipulated in various ways to achieve certain goals in both pure and applied science and medicine.5. Many people are working towards trying to make cities more sustainable. A sustainable city offers a good quality of life tocurrent residents but doesn’t reduce the opportunities for future residents to enjoy.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese (20%)1. This system served as vehicle for the first formalizations of the foundations of mathematics; it is still used in some philosophical investigations and in branches of computer science.2. Dark energy is the name given to an unexplained force that is drawing galaxies[1] away from each other, against the pull of gravity, at an accelerated pace.3. When the distinction blurs between one’s few close friends and the many who are not, it seems pointless to distinguish between private and public.4. No matter how stylishly modern and environmentally friendly straw-bale house may look, however, you still want to know that it won't get sopping wet in a thunderstorm or go up in a whoosh of flames if you knock over a candle.5. Engineers in the future will work at the extremes of very large and very small systems that require greater knowledge andcoordination of multidisciplinary and multi-scale engineering across greater distances and timeframesPart III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）1. To explain the puzzling findings, some scientists have received an old idea of Einstein’s that had been discarded as false: that the vacuum of space has energy in it that acts repulsively and accelerates the expansion of the universe.2. Telecommuting workers and traveling executives alike could use QB( so named because it is the next in line after the company’s prototype QA bot ) as a virtual extension of themselves, allowing them to attend meetings, tour facilities or perform walk-throughs of real estate properties, all while controlling the robot from a computer keyboard.3. Research had developed to the point where progress was being hampered by technical constraints, as the elegant experiments that had helped to decipher the genetic code could not be extended to investigate the gene in more detail.4. The ideas that the state of the universe at one time determines the state at all other times, has been a central tenet of science, ever since Laplace’s time.5. Nuclear power’s prominence as a major ene rgy source will continue over the next several decades, according to new projections made by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which has just published a new report, Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power for the period up to 2030.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）1. For a smallish two-bed roomed house with one largeopen-plan kitchen/dinner, that doesn’t particularly cheapgiven that straw is supposed to be inexpensive, and you’dstill have to buy the plot and dig the foundations.2. Combined with advances in CAD systems, it will be possible formechanical engineers to collaborate in immersive interactive environments where they can design collaboratively, testhypotheses, run models and simulations and observe theircreations in three dimensions much as an engineer canobserve a car being built with their colleagues on the shopfloor.3. Although it is unclear if the capacity for remote operation willjustify the QB’s US$15,000 price tag, Anybots believes itstechnology will appeal to a new generation of workers whoexpect to be in contact at all times and in all places,4. That’s not because Facebook is hell-bent on stripping awayprivacy protections, but because the popularity of Facebook and other social networking sites has promoted the sharing of all things personal, dissolving the line that separates theprivate from the public.5. Because gravity draws mass together, most experts expected to find that gravity had slowed down the universe’s rate of ballooning, or perhaps that the rate was staying about the same.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）1. Dark energy is the name given to an unexplained force that is drawing galaxies away from each other, against the pull of gravity, at an accelerated pace. Dark energy is a bit likeanti-gravity. Where gravity pulls things together at the more local level, dark energy tugs them apart on the grander scale. 2. The growth of membership and of individual networks seems impervious to gaffes at the company during its brief, five-year history. One of those instances was in February, when it fiddled with its terms of service. New language that seemed to assert Facebook’s “irrevocable” right to retain and use a member’s personal information, even after the member had closed his or her Facebook account, deserved a little more editing.3. Along with the wheels, a self-balancing system and a motor with a top speed of five kilometers per hour make the robot mobile. The two-wheel—as opposed to a tricycle or quad—design makes it more maneuverable in tight spaces and helps keep its weight down to about 16 kilograms. The area between the QB's head and base consists of a length of telescoping plastic that can be adjusted to let the QB stand as tall as 175 centimeters or as short as 81 centimeters.4. Social and demographic changes are leading to a greater demand for housing. People are living longer, and choosing to marry later, and in recent years there has been a rise in thenumber of single-parent families. Added to this, the UK is experiencing immigration from other countries, e.g. from Poland[1]which has recently joined the EU. The result is an ever-larger number of smaller households, all requiring accommodation.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）1. Dark energy is the name given to an unexplained force that is drawing galaxies away from each other, against the pull of gravity, at an accelerated pace. Dark energy is a bit likeanti-gravity. Where gravity pulls things together at the more local level, dark energy tugs them apart on the grander scale. 2. The growth of membership and of individual networks seems impervious to gaffes at the company during its brief, five-year history. One of those instances was in February, when it fiddled with its terms of service. New language that seemed to assert Facebook’s “irrevocable” right to retain and use a member’s personal information, even after the member had closed his or her Facebook account, deserved a little more editing.3. Along with the wheels, a self-balancing system and a motorwith a top speed of five kilometers per hour make the robotmobile. The two-wheel—as opposed to a tricycle orquad—design makes it more maneuverable in tight spaces and helps keep its weight down to about 16 kilograms. The areabetween the QB's head and base consists of a length oftelescoping plastic that can be adjusted to let the QB stand astall as 175 centimeters or as short as 81 centimeters.4. Social and demographic changes are leading to a greaterdemand for housing. People are living longer, and choosing to marry later, and in recent years there has been a rise in the number of single-parent families. Added to this, the UK is experiencing immigration from other countries, e.g. from Poland[1]which has recently joined the EU. The result is an ever-larger number of smaller households, all requiring accommodation.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese (20%)1. The problem in the paradox, he reasoned, is that we are confusinga description of sets of numbers with a description of sets of setsof numbers.2. That’s not becaus e Facebook is hell-bent on stripping awayprivacy protections, but because the popularity of Facebook and other social networking sites has promoted the sharing of allthings personal, dissolving the line that separates the privatefrom the public.3. The two-wheel—as opposed to a tricycle or quad—design makesit more maneuverable in tight spaces and helps keep its weight down to about 16 kilograms.4. The straw bales, it turns out, are all packed tightly inside a series ofprefabricated rectangular wooden wall frames, which are thenlime-rendered, dried and finally slotted together like giant Lego pieces, called ModCell panels.5. Although the UK is an urban society, more and more peopleare choosing to live on the edge of urban areas - with many relocating to the countryside. This is called counter-urbanisation.。
研究生科技英语阅读课文翻译
Genetically modified foods -- Feed the World?If you want to spark a heated debate at a dinner party, bring up the topic of genetically modified foods. For many people, the concept of genetically altered, high-tech crop production raises all kinds of environmental, health, safety and ethical questions. Particularly in countries with long agrarian traditions -- and vocal green lobbies -- the idea seems against nature.如果你想在某次晚宴上挑起一场激烈的争论，那就提出转基因食品的话题吧。
对许多人来说，高科技的转基因作物生产的概念会带来诸如环境、健康、安全和伦理等方面的各种问题。
特别是在有悠久的农业生产传统和主张环保的游说集团的国家里，转基因食品的主意似乎有悖自然。
In fact, genetically modified foods are already very much a part of our lives. A third of the corn and more than half the soybeans and cotton grown in the US last year were the product of biotechnology, according to the Department of Agriculture. More than 65 million acres of genetically modified crops will be planted in the US this year. The genetic is out of the bottle. 事实上，转基因食品已经成为我们生活重要的一部分。
研究生科技英语阅读课文翻译4
1 Hello. My name is Stephen Hawking. Physicist, cosmologist and something of a dreamer. Although I cannot move and I have to speak through a computer, in my mind I am free. Free to explore the universe and ask the big questions, such as: is time travel possible? Can we open a portal to the past or find a shortcut to the future? Can we ultimately use the laws of nature to become masters of time itself?大家好，我是斯蒂芬-霍金，是物理学家、宇宙学家及梦想家，尽管身体不能活动，只能通过电脑与大家交流，但从内心中我是自由的，自由地探索宇宙，思考以下重大问题：时间旅行是否可行？能否打开一个回到过去的通道，或找到通向未来的捷径？我们最终能否利用自然规律成为掌控时间的主人？2 To see how this might be possible, we need to look at time as physicists do - at the fourth dimension. It's not as hard as it sounds. Every attentive schoolchild knows that all physical objects, even me in my chair, exist in three dimensions. Everything has a width and a height and a length.为了让这一切从虚幻变成现实，我们应以物理学家的角度来重新审视时间——即第四维。
科技英语阅读翻译
1all elements are composed of scattered units called atoms,which are the smallest particles than show the characteristics of the element. atoms are tiny units of matter composed of positively charged protons, negatively charged elements ,and electrically neutral neutrons. protons and neutrons, which have almost the same mass,are clustered in the nucleus in the middle of the atom. electrons,which are tiny in comparison to the other units, move around the nucleus at high speed. atoms that have the same number of electrons and protons are electrically neutral. those that have got or lost electrons,and therefor are positively or negatively charged, are called ions.所有的元素都称为原子的散射单元，这是比显示的元件的特性的最小的颗粒组成。
原子是微小单位的物质组成的带正电的质子，带负电荷的元件和电中性的中子。
质子和中子，它们具有几乎相同的质量，聚集在细胞核内的原子在中间。
的电子，这在其他单位相比是微小的，围绕原子核高速移动。
具有相同的电子和质子数的原子是电中性的。
section2 1-4科技英语阅读与翻译
1 Monograph专著1. The general definition of a monographScientific treatises of book length but otherwise variable format prepared by acknowledged experts onspecialized topics for the benefit of others who have specialized in. or who wish to obtain a specialist'sappreciation of, these topics.2. The value of monographs for scientific researchesThe value of monographs lies in the coherence and comprehensiveness of the information and knowledge theycontain, which is important to the specialized researchers to whom they are directed and, therefore, to theadvancement of science and engineering generally.3. The qualities of the authors of monographsThe authors of monographs should have exceptional breadth and depth of knowledge, and must be able tocollect, collate, analyze, integrate, and synthesize all relevant contributions to the archival literature of thescientific and engineering journals and to add original material as required.4. The differences between monographs and books of conference proceedingsMonographs generally are written by specialists for the benefit of other specialists. Textbooks are pedagogicalworks which, even if written on fairly narrow subjects, are designed to serve broader and more juniorreaderships than specialized research communities.5. The differences between monographs and books of conference proceedingsConference papers commonly take the form of premature announcements of new scientific discoveries.Conference proceedings generally have a short shelf life.6. The main components of a monographThe author, title and subtitle, date of publication, dust cover or blurb, content pages, bibliography and index,illustrations, preface and introduction.7. An indication of the book’s successThe number of editions is an indic ation of the book’s success.8. The function of the blurbIt gives the reader a rapid overview of the contents and approach. It might also say what the book contains andfor whom it is written.2 Academic Journal学术期刊1. The general definition of an academic journalAn academic journal is a peer-reviewed periodical in which scholarship relating to a particular academicdiscipline is published.2. The significance of peer-review processThe peer-review process is considered critical to establishing a reliable body of research and knowledge.3. The definition of review articlesReview articles, also called “reviews of progress”, are checks on the research published in journals.4. One difference between original research articles and review articlesUnlike original research articles, review articles tend to be solicited submissions, sometimes planned years inadvance.5. The places where science journals are authoritatively rankedNatural science journals are categorized and ranked in the Science Citation Index, and social science journalsin the Social Science Citation Index.6. The possible quantitative factors to reflect an academic journal’s prestigeThe number of later articles citing articles already published in the journal, the overall number of citations,how quickly articles are cited, and the average “half-life” of articles.7. The financial resources of humanities and social science academic journalsSubsidies by universities or professional organizations and advertising fees by advertisers.8. The role of internet in the production of, and access to, academic journalsThe Internet has revolutionized the production of, and access to, academic journals, with their contentsavailable online via services subscribed to by academic libraries or even in a way of open access. 33 Organization of a Scientific Paper科技论文的篇章结构1. In most scientific journals, scientific papers include the following sectionsSummary or Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, Acknowledgments.2. The content of Summary or AbstractIt gives a brief background to the topic, describes concisely the major findings of the paper, and relates thesefindings to the field of study.3. The Introduction section deals with the following two pointsIt describes first the accepted state of knowledge in a specialized field; then it focuses more specifically on aparticular aspect, usually describing a finding or set of findings that led directly to the work described in thepaper.4. The purpose of Materials and MethodsIts purpose is to describe the materials used in the experiments and the methods by which the experimentswere carried out.5. The two ways of organizing ResultsIn some papers, the results are presented without extensive discussion, which is reserved for thefollowingsection. In other papers, results are given, and then they are interpreted, perhaps taken together with otherfindings not in the paper, so as to give the logical basis for later experiments.6. The purposes of the Discussion sectionThe data in the paper are interpreted; the findings of the paper are related to other findings in the field; thisserves to show how the findings contribute to knowledge, or correct the errors of previous work; some of thelogical arguments are often provided when it is necessary to clarify why later experiments were earned out.7. The reason for combining the Results and DiscussionBecause the data need extensive discussion to allow the reader to follow the train of logic developed in thecourse of the research.8. The difference between the abstracts in Science and those in NatureIn Science, the abstract is self-contained; in Nature, the abstract also serves as a brief introduction to the paper.4 Reading a Scientific Paper科技论文的阅读方法1. The order to understand the major points of the work, you should first readThe Abstract.2. Reading the Title and the Abstract serves three purposesFirst, it clarifies whether you in fact know enough background to appreciate the paper. Second, it refreshesyour memory about the topic. Third, it helps you integrate the new information into your previous knowledgeabout the topic.3. When reading in a familiar field, you can skim or even skipThe Introduction.4. The three typical codewordsData not shown, unpublished data, preliminary data.5. The poorly written papers are often related to three types of writersThose who are poor writers; those who do not enjoy writing, and do not take the time or effort to ensure thatthe prose is dear and logical; those who are so familiar with the material that it is difficult to step back and seeit from the point of view of a reader not familiar with the topic.6. The three characteristics of “bad writing”First, the logical connections are often left out. Second, papers are often cluttered with a great deal of jargon.Third, the authors often do not provide a clear roadmap through the paper.7. In better writing, the side issues are dealt with in the following waysThey are relegated to Figure legends or Materials and Methods or clearly identified as side issues, so as not todistract the reader.8. Another problem faced by the readers is that when they seek to understand just the experiment was,they may findThe authors refer back to previous papers; these refer in turn to previous papers m a long chain.。
科技英语阅读与翻译全文
科技英语阅读与翻译全文Humanitarian Aid in SpaceSpace exploration technology will benefit developing countries in a variety of ways. Whether it's information about climate change or communication technologies that give remote areas access to the world outside, space science can come to the aid of vulnerable people in many countries.For the past two decades, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has been sending humanitarian aid dispatched from its space platform. This ambitious project has proved successful, and it’s been praised for its achievements in various aspects.The two strategic areas set forth for JAXA’s humanitarian aid effort are science and education. JAXA’s donations of books and puzzle sets are enabling elementary and junior high school kids in India to study science and math. There are plans to utilize remote sensing data to map out natural resources in Nepalese countryside and expand education related to environmental issues in Vietnam. In addition the agency is sending educational videos to the island nation of Palau tobetter understand their own local wildlife.JAXA is considered to be a pioneer in this area since the launch of their humanitarian aid initiative in 1997. The organization strives to make use of space applications for social welfare and reduce disparities in the world through a number of practical endeavors. The effort currently has a global reach, with projects taking place in seven continent, from Latin America to Africa.JAXA’s humanitarian aid programs will continue to grow with better technology and increased resources. The ongoing work reinforces the concept that space science and technology have the potential to contribute to enhancing the lives of people on Earth.人道主义援助在太空太空探索技术将在各个方面受益于发展中国家。
科技英语阅读(李健版)翻译U5
正在消失的计算机到2010年，我们将被计算机包围吗？是的，但我们却觉察不出来。
—比尔•盖茨（微软公司总裁和首席软件设计师）几年后，普通家庭娱乐系统可能与现在并没有太大的区别，但它很可能具有网络连接功能，用来下载和播放数字音乐和视频，在电视上显示艺术作品集和歌曲的名字，甚至收到重要邮件时打断正在播放的内容来提示你。
它将拥有一个中央处理器、磁盘存储器、制图硬件和某种直观的计算机用户界面。
如果再在加上一个无线鼠标和键盘，这个家庭娱乐系统看起来便很像是一台个人电脑。
人们会大量购买和使用这些系统吗？当然会。
他们会认为这种系统就是电脑吗？也许不会。
根据格特纳信息咨询公司（一家美国研究公司）的统计，世界计算机业在2002年销售了第10亿台个人电脑，而还有10亿台电脑预计在此后的6年中生产出来。
第一批的10亿台电脑几乎都是传统的台式机和笔记本电脑，但第二批的10亿台电脑将会明显不同，人们对它们进行了尽可能的完善，使它们能更好的按照人们的期望运作，例如便签大小的电脑，开会时我们可以用它来做笔记，或是躺在床上阅读电子邮件；娱乐型电脑，用来在客厅电视上播放音乐和电影；袖珍型电脑，用它无论在哪都能与他人保持联系。
除此之外，还有各种数量庞大的嵌入式计算机（如在手机、加油站和零售终端设备中使用的计算机），在功能和复杂性方面正迅速赶上台式电脑。
据估计，有意无意美国人每天会接触到大约150个嵌入式计算机系统。
这些系统使用了现在生产的90% ％的微处理器，它们将不可避免地呈现出更多个人电脑的特点，而且能够与传统PC机进行无缝对接。
这一系统将无处不在。
根据半导体工业协会的调查，在2001年，世界芯片业为地球上的每位个男士人，女士妇女和儿童生产了大约6千万个晶体管，这一数字到2010年将上升为10亿。
与此同时，今天的多功能PC机将继续在大多数人的生活中发挥重要（而且是越来越重要）的作用，但其中心地位将体现在今天大部分人不认为是“电脑”的各类智能设备中。
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目录Unit 1 (2)Unit2 (4)Unit3 (7)Unit4 (10)Unit5 (13)Unit6 (17)UNIT7 (20)Unit8 (23)UNIT9 (25)在此我们感谢杨运涛的付出！Unit 1罗素悖论的提出是基于这样的一个事例：设想有这样一群理发师，他们只给不给自己理发的人理发。
假设其中一个理发师符合上述的条件，不给自己理发；然而按照要求，他必须要给自己理发。
但是在这个集合中没有人会给自己理发。
（如果这样的话，这个理发师必定是给别人理发还要给自己理发）1901 年，伯特兰·罗素悖论的发现打击了他其中的一个数学家同事。
在 19 世纪后期，弗雷格尝试发展一个基本原理以便数学上能使用符号逻辑。
他确立了形式表达式（如：x =2）和数学特性（如偶数）之间的联系。
按照弗雷格理论的发展，我们能自由的用一个特性去定义更多更深远的特性。
1903 年，发表在《数学原理》上的罗素悖论从根本上揭示了弗雷格这种集合系统的局限性。
就现在而言，这种类型的集合系统能很好的用俗称集的结构式来描述。
例如，我们可以用 x 代表整数，通过 n 来表示并且 n 大于3 小于 7，来表示 4，5,6 这样一个集合。
这种集合的书写形势就是：x={n：n 是整数，3<n<7}。
集合中的对象并不一定是数字。
我们也可让 y={x：x 是美国的一个男性居民}。
表面上看，似乎任何一个关于 x 的描述都有一个符合3要求的空间。
但是，罗素（和策梅洛一起）发现 x={a：a不再 a 中}导致一个矛盾，就像对一群理发师的描述一样。
x 它本身是在x 的集合中吗？否定的答案导致了矛盾的出现。
当罗素发现了悖论，弗雷格立即就发现悖论对他的理论有致命的打击。
尽管这样，他还不能解决这个问题,并且上世纪有很多的尝试，去解决这个问题（但没有成功）。
罗素自己对这个悖论的回答促进了类型理论的形成。
他解释说，悖论的问题在于我们混淆了数集和数集的集合。
所以，罗素介绍了对象的分级系统：数、数集、数集的集合等等。
这个系统为形式化数学的形成奠定了基础，至今它还应用于哲学研究和计算机科学分支。
策梅洛对于罗素悖论的解决方法用新的公理：对于任意公式 A （x）和任意集合 b，都会有一个集合满足 y={x：x 既在 b 中又满足 A （x）}取代了以前的公理：对于任意公式 A （x），都会有一个集合满足 y={x：x 满足 A （x）}。
究竟是什么样的努力使数学逻辑基础得以发展？现在数学家认识到这个领域可以用所谓的策梅洛-弗兰克尔集合论来定义。
形式化的语言包含符号，例如 e 表示“其中一个数”，=表示等于，□代表集合中没有任何元素。
那么可以写下一个公式 B （x）：如果如果 y e x，而 y 是空4集。
在集的结构式中我们可以这样书写：y={x：x=□}，或者更简单 y={□}。
罗素悖论就成这样：y={x：x 不在 x 中}，那么 y 是否在 y 中!Unit2暗能量是用来命名一种未能给出解释的,与万有引力的作用相反，以一种极快的速度将各个星系拉开的力量。
暗能量与反重力有些相似。
万有引力在局部的水平上把事物聚集到一起，然而，暗能量以一种更宏大的规模把事物拉开。
它的存在并未被证明，但是暗能量是很多科学家在解释宇宙正在不断加速膨胀时的这一令人费解的观察时的最佳猜想。
专家始终还是不知道是什么在驱动这种力量，但是对于想更多的了解暗能量的这种需求始终是宇宙学家的首要任务。
暗能量如何被发现的故事是科学领域由令人惊讶的预言而演变而来的一个经典案例。
在 20 世纪 90 年代中叶，天文学家开始测算宇宙膨胀的速度。
因为万有引力使质量集中，大多数的专家希望发现万有引力能够减慢宇宙气球般膨胀的速度，或者停留在大约5相同的速率上。
“这个数据并没有显示出我们所期待的结果。
很多人发出了紧张的笑声”，堪培拉的澳洲国立大学的 Brian Schmidt说——他独自领导了一个小组在约翰·霍普金斯大学的天体物理学家 Adam Riess 的帮助下于 1998 年发现了暗能量。
这些证据是建立在对明亮的正在爆炸的恒星——被称作超新星——常被天文学家用于追踪距离的标杆——的测量的基础上的。
通过往更深层次的观察，科学家能够回顾从前，因为这些发自超新星的光要数十亿年才能被肉眼看到。
科学家观察了处于不同距离的很多超新星去确定它们到底正在以多快的速度远离我们。
他们测量出观察对象的红移，或者说是由于多普勒效应导致它们发出的光发生的改变，多普勒效应是当物体靠近我们或者远离我们运动时发生波的压缩或膨胀所产生的一种效应。
一种类比是救护车的汽笛声会改变音高——当它朝你行驶，然后通过你身边接着朝另一个方向去了的时候——他的声波首先是压缩的，接着伸长这些测量给了天文学家一个关于宇宙在不同历史点的膨胀速度的图景。
研究人员还发现宇宙如今正在以前所未有的速度在膨6胀。
“一开始我们不情愿相信我们的结果，”加州大学伯克利分校的劳伦斯伯克利实验室的天体物理学家 Saul Perlmutter 说，他领导的一个竞争性的小组发现了和 Schmidt以及 Riess 相同的结果。
“但是我们越分析它，它越不会改变多少。
”为了解释这些令人迷惑的发现，一些科学家接受了被爱因斯坦所摒弃为错误的旧思想：真空中存在着一种（活动不活跃的）（与万有引力相排斥的）但能加速宇宙膨胀的能量。
爱因斯坦把这个思想叫做宇宙常数，并且把它认作自己的最大的错误。
如今，宇宙常数已经是用于解释为何宇宙在以前所未有的速度像一个气球一般膨胀的主要理论之一。
暗物质暗能量有时候会与同样神秘的暗物质相混淆，尽管它们两是不同的事物。
暗物质是一种假想的物质，它对光不起反应（不反射光），因此它不可见。
天文学家通过它能干扰星体发出的引力推论出它的存在。
把两者加在一起，暗物质和暗能量似乎占据了宇宙的绝大部分质量（由于爱因斯坦的著名的质能公式 E=m*c*c，7物质和能量被视作同一事物的两种形式）。
暗能量被认为构成宇宙的百分之 74，而暗物质占据了另外的百分之 22，而普通的，可见的物质只占次要的百分之 4。
似乎暗能量的发现并不是足够异常，它已经引出一大堆其他的问题。
例如，暗能量为多重宇宙论的支持者火上浇了一把油，我们自身的存在只是无数的常量和条件是不同的世界。
也许存在别的宇宙，在它之中暗能量并不存在，而且它的膨胀是在减速——宇宙学家如是说。
也许这就是我们的宇宙如此独特的原因。
Unit3脸谱有一个重要的私人管理者，但我怀疑它能否在此后的十年继续存在。
这并不是因脸谱不顾一切抛开对个人隐私的保护，而是因为脸谱和其它社交网址的流行提倡分享个人的所有情况，溶解把个人从公众分离的界限。
随着分享个人信息的范围从几个朋友扩大到各种各样在脸谱里被标注为朋友的人，泄露成为规范而隐私变得不合时宜了.8脸谱年轻的成员——高中或大学生以及那些来自脸谱开始在大学里兴起的近期毕业生——愿意分享任何事。
它年长的成员——那些只有在 2006 年脸谱先把它的成员籍公开给工作场所网络，然后是当时任何人都可能加入——正在适应鼓励个人表现超过沉默的新价值体系。
. 脸谱是世界最大社交网络，有 1.75 亿个成员。
但在美国它大多数会员仍然是相对年轻的人。
脸谱为广告客户提供一个有伍仟四百四十万来自各个年龄阶段的狩猎目标。
但是如果广告客户想把它的目标缩小到 25 或更年长的，那么数目会下降到俩仟八百八十万。
缩小到 30 或更年长的，脸谱就只能向俩仟零三十万会员提供。
许多超过 30 岁胡须半白的人已经注册，因此脸谱有一个惊人的发展机会。
每个周，在美国有一个百万新的成员加入，在全球范围有 500 万的新成员加入；它增长最快的群体是三十岁和更年长的人。
成员们也在变得更擅于社交。
在十二月，在全世界范围内，每个成员的“朋友”平均数是 100。
据一个公司发言人所说它现在已跳转到 120。
成员中平易近人的包容象在揭示它本身:随着时间的推移，许多正在认为：当成员寻找其它人作为自己的一个脸谱朋友时完成一序列的事中首先应按常规接受“朋友要请”，这是最简单的路径。
9换句话说，他们把脸谱网中任何一个有意向的人简单地定义为“朋友”。
在公司短暂的五年发展历史中，会籍和个人的网络的发展似乎不受失礼的影响。
其中一个例子是在二月它摆弄它的服务条款。
那个似乎断言脸谱的“不可撤销的”权去保留和使用成员的个人信息即使后来成员已经关闭了他或她的脸谱帐户的新语言值得更多的编辑。
抗议声很大——只有一小部分成员的需要提高他们的语音来制造吵闹—-，脸谱恢复旧语。
几天后，它为公司提供一个关于的原则的草案和另一个批准会籍有关权利和义务的草案。
脸谱为成员提供许多私人的选择。
我认为 43 个设置可能被调整，其中不包括那些可被脸谱朋友安装的应用软件看见的限制信息。
在一定程度上脸谱的默认设置新帐户可以保护用户。
例如，个人协议规范信息被限制于朋友和其它在他学校，工作地，或者地域网络的人。
朋友的朋友是无权访问的。
但脸谱对于第三方软件可以在一个网络的朋友群中看见的默认设置较少的限制。
成员不可能察觉那除非他们改变默认隐私设置，该默认隐私设置是一个由朋友安装的可以清空和存储许多类成员私人信息的应用。
10大卫。
埃文斯，一个弗吉尼亚大学计算机科学副教授，说他愿首先脸谱给那些外面软件开发者可得到的情报设定更好的限制。
对 15 的 19 信息类别，脸谱设置一个“分享”的默认设置，这个意为这些信息可以被退出脸谱并被服务器储存在它的控制下。
这些 15 个类别包括活动，利益，照片与关系地位。
他说：“脸谱可以设置默认错误值保护隐私而不是让你的信息外漏”。
克里斯，脸谱的首席隐私官，捍卫它的当前设置，说它“给用户广泛控制就他们选择接合的应用”。
他也说脸谱已经消除了被“数以千计”成员认为靠不住的应用。
然而，教授埃文斯看来，恶意软件的驱逐来得太晚了:“一旦应用得到了资料，它获得并储存在别人的机器上。
默认十分重要，因为几乎没有用户陷入调整的设置的麻烦中。
被问到有多少成员曾经改变一个隐私定。
KELLY先生说百分之 20。
脸谱让成员创建朋友的自定义的子集。
成员可以选择性限制访问一些项目，例如照片像片簿和视频。
然而通过多次点击为这个或那个定制权限，不符合一个人的快乐时光的理念。
对很多成员来说，现在“朋友”意味不伦不类的真正朋友的，先前的朋友，朋友的朋友，非朋友;越来越年轻亲11戚;同事，即使被一个或贰个爱管闲事的老板咒骂。
所有人都被接受由于每个“朋友”获得同一访问权。
当一个人为数不多的密友和许多非密友之间的区别变得模糊不清时，区分私人和公共似乎无意义。
Unit4远程控制的代理机器人可以为您参加今后的会议它可能看起来像装在一个真空吸尘器落地灯，但实际上它是 Anybots 公司最新的代理机器人的 QB。