新托福TPO13阅读原文及译文(一)
托福阅读笔记之TPO13 Biological Clocks
托福阅读笔记之TPO13 Biological Clocks说到托福阅读备考，TPO是必不可少的备考神器，通过TPO练习来更好的适应阅读考试的节奏。
本文小编带来的托福阅读笔记是TPO13 Biological Clocks的内容，希望能够与正在备考的大家一起进步。
TPO13 Biological Clocks文章题材：生命学科——生物钟常见词汇：determined[di'tə:mind]adj. 坚毅的，下定决心的wheel[wi:l]n. 轮子，车轮，方向盘，周期，旋转measured['meʒəd]adj. 量过的，慎重的，基于标准的，有韵律的range[reindʒ]n. 范围，行列，射程，山脉，一系列approximately[ə'prɔksimitli]adv. 近似地，大约factor['fæktə]n. 因素，因子tend[tend]v. 趋向，易于，照料，护理duration[dju'reiʃən]n. 持续时间，期间sustain[səs'tein]vt. 承受，支持，经受，维持，认可stable['steibl]adj. 稳定的，安定的，可靠的易错题解析：Paragraph 2: Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly.5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○Stability, a feature of the biological clock's period, depends on changeable factors such as temperature.○A major feature of the biological clock is that its period does not change despit e significant changes in the environment.○A factor such as temperature is an important feature in the establishment of the biological clock's period.○Biological activity is not strongly affected by changes in temperature.题型：句子简化题。
托福TPO1-34阅读原文翻译
智课网TOEFL备考资料托福TPO1-34阅读原文翻译摘要：本版内容包括34篇托福真题阅读原文翻译，大家可以做一下对照，平时可以看一下，也可以当做美文来欣赏，不仅能提高大家的英语阅读水平，也能把握阅读命题的大概方向，大家快来下载吧~托福 TPO1-34阅读原文翻译适用人群：1、备考托福的考生：使用这份资料不仅可以帮助大家了解托福阅读的常考题材，难度以及每篇文章的篇幅等，还能帮助大家通过阅读来提升自己的阅读速度。
2、学习英语的每一个小伙伴：俗话说“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，没有一定的知识储备，就不可能在托福考试中取得满意的成绩。
托福TPO1-34阅读原文翻译:TPO-3-1：ArchitectureArchitecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major ways.Architecture is a three-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, and color. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with a variety of elements. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life. It is the work of architects to create buildings that are not simply constructions but also offer inspiration and delight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrich space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible. The client who pays for the building and defines its function is an important member of the architectural team. The mediocre design of many contemporary buildings can be traced to both clients and architects.In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materials have changed dramatically. The world’s architectural structures have also been devised in relation to the objective limitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of how they deal with downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand the forces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, or a combination of these in different parts of the structure.Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes. Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred years ago.Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body:a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecture—such as igloos and adobe structures—there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one.Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu highin theeastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important structural breakthroughs that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries.译文：TPO-3-1 建筑物建筑是一门出于实用和象征的双重目的，通过组织和利用空间来实现设计结构的艺术和科学。
TPO 13-independent writing
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?The extended family (grandparents, cousins, aunts and uncles) is less important now than it was in the past. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.不同意1. childcare and job hunting2. mental support同意1. people are more financially independent and don’t need extended family for support2. people are more individualistic and mind their own business3. people have friends close by with similar backgrounds and common interestsLong, long time ago, people lived in a clan or a tribe because they relied on each other mostly for food and security. Then with improvement on social prosperity and safety, people became closer only with their families and relatives. Nowadays, people become more individually-independent and some say that they drift apart from grandparents and relatives. However, I am convinced that with the development of the society, people actually become more connected with their extended families for several reasons.First of all, with social prosperity, people nowadays get more dependent on their extended families for childcare and job hunting. Under stiff competition, parents have to work harder than before to earn a better life so they end up leaving their children to the grandparents or relatives. In China alone, NGO has released statistics that over 20 million children under 16 years old stay with their grandparents or relatives at their hometown while their parents are working elsewhere. Therefore, the young generations have established a strong bond with their extended families. Not only that, they can use weak ties from their extended families to get some un-posted jobs. We live in a society where information spread not only through social media but also mouth-to-mouth, and since young generations are usually restrained in their small circles with sparse friends considering their limited time off work, they can actually use those weak ties from their extended family to get key information.Second of all, extended families are also more important before concerning mental support. Thankfully, with technological improvement and increase of social wealth, most people do not suffer from famine or hunger and thus seemingly not being attached to their extended families as much. However, it is an irrevocable truth that human beings have complex emotions and most people cannot survive or suffer a lot without the mental support from others. In times of crisis like serious illness, layoff, bankruptcy, peopleneed their families and extended families for support.Why is it that there are so many people who need psychological counseling? And that number is surging nowadays. This is one side effect that social prosperity bring to people. I do not think most families can afford counseling fee, especially people in the developing countries and extended families can be great help in giving people comfort and reassurance and that is why more families reach out to their extended families nowadays.Although one might say that peoplehave friends who live close by to give them support, there are common cases that people get betrayed or deserted by their so-called friends, or they might have to be separated for marriage or for job posts. On the other hand, families and extended families are more trustworthy, reliable and consistent. From what has been stated above, I am confident to reiterate that extended families are more important than before.。
托福阅读真题第13套
第13套Early Modern IndustrializationParagraph1：Industrial output increased smartly across nearly all of Europe between1450and 1575.Although trade with the Americas had something to do with this,the main (determinants)of this industrial advance lay within Europe itself.1..The word determinants in the passage is closest in meaning to○origins○long-term benefits○causes○effectsParagraph2：Population grew from61million in1500to78million a century later,and the proportion of Europeans living in cities of10,000or more and thus dependent on the market for what they consumed expanded from less than6percent to nearly8percent during the same period.More important than sheer numbers,many Europeans' incomes rose.This was especially true among more fully employed urban groups, farmers who benefited from higher prices and the intensifying commercialization and specialization in agriculture(which also led them to shed much non-agricultural production in favor of purchased goods),and landlords and other property owners who collected mounting ernment activities to build and strengthen the state were a stimulus to numerous industries,notably shipbuilding,textiles,and metallurgy. To cite just one example,France(hastened)to develop its own iron industry when the Hapsburgs the family that governed much of Europe,and whom France fought repeatedly in the sixteenth century came to dominate the manufacture of weapons in Germany and the cities of Li¨¨ge and Milan,which boasted Europe's most advanced technology.2..The word hastened in the passage is closest in meaning to○needed○rushed○decided○attempted3..According to paragraph2,the fact that more people lived in European cities meant that○more people had to purchase food and other basic necessities rather than producing these things themselves○industrial output increased because more people were available for employment in manufacturing○fewer people were available for agricultural work and thus farmers were forced to pay higher wages○more people competed for full-time urban employment,driving wages down4..Which of the following is discussed in paragraph2as contributing to the growth in the market for manufactured goods that occurred in Europe after1500○Lower costs for food and housing○Advancements in manufacturing technology○Higher incomes○Increased property ownership by farmersParagraph3：The supply of goods was also significantly modified.■Migration had long been critical for the(diffusion)of knowledge that spawned new trades or revived others. Now thousands of workers,and sizeable amounts of capital,moved from one region to another.■At the same time,new commodities appeared on the market,often broadening and deepening demand.■Most were inexpensive items destined for individual consumers.■Knitted stockings,ribbon and lace,buttons,starch,soap, vinegar brewed from beer,knives and tools,pots and ovens,and many more goods, formerly made only for local sale,now entered into channels of national or international trade.The best-known and most widely adopted new industry was printing with movable type,which spread swiftly throughout Europe after Johannes Gutenberg(perfected)his innovation in1453.Despite isolated cases of resistance the scribes'guild(an association of book copiers)delayed printing's introduction into Paris for twenty years,for example more than380working presses had sprung up by 1480,and1,000(in nearly250towns)by1500.Between1453and1500,all the presses of Europe together turned out some40,000editions(known as incunabula), but from1501to1600,that same quantity was produced in Lyon and Paris alone.5..The word diffusion in the passage is closest in meaning to○creation○spread○explosion○application6..The word perfected in the passage is closest in meaning to○marketed○completed○announced○exhibited7..Paragraph3suggests that one reason for the change in the supply of goods available to European consumers was○the development of the new industry of printing with movable type○a decrease in the demand for European goods in areas outside Europe○an increase in the wider European market for goods that before had been intended only for local markets○the overturning of rules preventing workers from moving from one region to another8..According to paragraph3,which of the following was true about the new technology for printing with movable type○It met with opposition wherever attempts were made to introduce it.○It spread with increasing rapidity throughout Europe after1453.○It rapidly turned printing into the most important industry in Paris.○It was controlled in most places by the local scribes'guild.Paragraph4：In metals and mining,technical improvements were available that saved substantially on raw materials and fuel,causing prices to drop.The construction of ever-larger furnaces capable of higher temperatures culminated in the blast furnace,which used cheaper ores and economized on scarce and expensive wood,cutting costs per ton by 20percent while boosting output substantially.A new technique for separating silver from copper allowed formerly worthless ores to be exploited.Better drainage channels,pumps,and other devices made it possible to tunnel more deeply into the earth as surface deposits began to be exhausted.【In most established industries, however,technological change played little role;as in the past,new customers were sought by developing novel products based on existing technologies,such as a new type of woolen cloth with the texture of silk.】9..Which of the following is NOT identified in paragraph4as an improvement made possible by technological developments○The mining of ores that had previously been too deep to reach○The use of previously worthless ores○A reduction in the cost of expensive wood○The construction of furnaces that cost less to operate10..Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○Although most established industries continued operating with existing technologies, some novel products required the development of new technologies.○In the past,technological change had been unimportant in most established industries because the products that customers wanted could be produced using existing technologies.○In most established industries,technological change played a role only when it made possible the production of novel products that attracted new customers.○Most established industries attracted new customers by developing new productsbased on existing technologies rather than by applying new technologies. Paragraph5：Sharply declining transaction costs(the direct and indirect expenses associated with transporting,distributing,and marketing goods and services)were more influential. On a general level,the decrease was due to greater security thanks to the lessening of wartime disruptions and to the achieved when selling to large,concentrated urban populations.More specifically,it can be traced to transport innovations such as the carrack,a large ship that reduced rates for ocean borne freight by up to25percent, and big four-wheeled Hesse carts for overland routes.The spread of efficient organizational forms further contributed to declining costs,as did falling interest rates, which dropped from20percent or25percent in the mid-fifteenth century to10 percent100years later.11..According to paragraph5,what was one reason for the increase in security○Reductions in transaction costs○Improvements to overland routes○Less war○More sophisticated techniques for distributing goods12..In paragraph5,the author mentions the transport innovations of the carrack and Hesse carts in order to○provide examples of wartime inventions that were adapted for use in industry○explain how knowledge of more efficient organizational forms was spread○provide reasons for the decline in transaction costs○identify innovations that led to falling interest rates13..Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.For example,during this period,international investment in Switzerland rapidly expanded after the country was flooded by skilled workers fleeing religious persecution in Italy and France.Where would the sentence best fit Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.Paragraph3：The supply of goods was also significantly modified.■Migration had long been critical for the(diffusion)of knowledge that spawned new trades or revived others.Now thousands of workers,and sizeable amounts of capital,moved from one region to another.■At the same time,new commodities appeared on the market, often broadening and deepening demand.■Most were inexpensive items destined for individual consumers.■Knitted stockings,ribbon and lace,buttons,starch,soap, vinegar brewed from beer,knives and tools,pots and ovens,and many more goods, formerly made only for local sale,now entered into channels of national or international trade.The best-known and most widely adopted new industry was printing with movable type,which spread swiftly throughout Europe after JohannesGutenberg(perfected)his innovation in1453.Despite isolated cases of resistance the scribes'guild(an association of book copiers)delayed printing's introduction into Paris for twenty years,for example more than380working presses had sprung up by 1480,and1,000(in nearly250towns)by1500.Between1453and1500,all the presses of Europe together turned out some40,000editions(known as incunabula), but from1501to1600,that same quantity was produced in Lyon and Paris alone.14..Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong.To review the passage,click on View Text.Answer Choices○Industrial development was stimulated by rising incomes and growing populations especially in market-dependent urban centers and by government support for certain industries.○With increased mobility of labor and capital,more and more goods especially inexpensive consumer goods were produced for wide distribution rather than being limited to local markets.○Numerous technological innovations that could be applied to the manufacture of consumer goods grew out of the weapons industry that had developed in Germany, Li¨¨ge,and Milan.○Industrial development was limited in some areas due to the high costs of transportation,labor,and rents,and because of the localized nature of industrial knowledge.○New industries that manufactured goods for individual consumers were able to keep prices low in large part because of new technologies designed to accommodate economies of scale.○Lower prices for manufactured goods were the result of lower interest rates;of improvements in transportation,security,and organization;and of innovations in metal-making,mining,and printing.Mesopotamian and Egyptian Settlement Patterns（17年3月考过，4月又考过）Paragraph1：On the basis of available evidence,there existed in ancient state-level societies a variety of urban types.These have been classified under a number of different headings,ranging from city-states to territorial-or village-states. Mesopotamia and Egypt,for example,traditionally represent the two opposing extremes along a spectrum of possible settlement distributions and types.1..According to paragraph1,which of the following best describes how ancient societies were organized○Ancient societies were classified as either city-states or village-states.○Most ancient societies started out as city-states and then became territorial-or village-states.○With the exception of Mesopotamia and Egypt,ancient societies were generally not urbanized.○Ancient societies likely followed a number of different urban settlement patterns.Paragraph2：【Mesopotamian city-state systems were made up of densely populated urban areas that shared a common language,status symbols,and economic systems, but their elites tended to compete with each other,often militarily,to control territory, trade routes,and other resources.】Each city-state controlled a relatively small territory,often only a few hundred square kilometers,and had its own capital city, which in many cases was enclosed by a wall.In addition to its capital,a city-state might govern a number of smaller centers,as well as numerous farming villages and hamlets.Ancient Sumer is a classic example of such a system.2..Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○Although composed of very similar societies,Mesopotamian city-states were also characterized by conflicts among elites over trade,territory,and resources.○City-states that shared a common language,status symbols,and economic systems were more likely to compete militarily than were other city-states.○Most military conflicts among Mesopotamian city-states were about economic issues,such as territory or trade routes,but some were over the status symbols of elites.○Despite the military control of elites,Mesopotamian city-states tended to compete with each other.3..The author mentions Ancient Sumer as an example of○an unusual settlement that differed from the classic city-state○a small farming village under the control of a large city○a city-state consisting of a capital and outlying settlements○a city-state that was particularly small in size for MesopotamiaParagraph3：In ancient Mesopotamia,urban centers tended to be relatively large,with populations ranging from less than1,000to more than100,000inhabitants,depending on the ability of a particular city-state to control and collect payments from its neighbors.Often,a considerable number of farmers lived in these centers to secure greater protection for themselves and their possessions.It is estimated that in southern Mesopotamia(circa2900¨C2350BC)more than80percent of the total population lived in cities.4..According to paragraph3,what determined the size of an urban center in ancient Mesopotamia○The number of people defending it○The amount of available space between the city and its nearest neighbor○The extent of its political and economic enforcement power over its neighbors○The number of farmers and the amount of food they producedParagraph4：These cities also supported craft production,which sought to satisfy the demands of the urban elite and society as a whole.The development of craft specialization and commercial exchanges between town and countryside as well as between neighboring urban centers encouraged the growth of public markets. Although the evidence for actual marketplaces is less than clear for southern Mesopotamia,the(remnants)of shop-lined streets indicate vigorous commercial activity involving large numbers of people.This activity in turn promoted competition among city-states to obtain supplies of(exotic)raw materials.As a result of widespread access to goods produced by full-time specialists and the development of more intensive agriculture close to urban centers,Mesopotamian city-states were able to support numerous nonfood producers,possibly as high a proportion as20percent of the total population.5..The word remnants in the passage is closest in meaning to○remains○locations○number○existence6..According to paragraph4,which of the following is NOT true of commercial activity in ancient Mesopotamia○Perhaps20percent of the population was involved in commercial activity rather than food production.○Commercial exchanges took place not only between urban and rural areas,but also between cities.○Although most urban centers had marketplaces,the largest ones were located in southern Mesopotamia.○Goods were plentiful and widely available to inhabitants of Mesopotamian cities. 7..The word exotic in the passage is closest in meaning to○high-quality○popular○diverse○foreignParagraph5：In contrast to Mesopotamia,ancient Egypt's population has traditionally been perceived as more evenly dispersed across the landscape,a characteristic of village-states.Topography and the formation of the early state were the major factors contributing to this dispersal.Unlike Mesopotamia,Egypt had relatively secure and defined borders,allowing a single state to(dominate)the area.Additionally,the villages and towns of Egypt,all of which were situated near the Nile on the river's narrow flood plain,had approximately equal access to the river and did not have to compete among themselves for water as their contemporaries in Mesopotamia wereforced to do.As the main highway through Egypt,the Nile offered innumerable harbors for shipping and trading,so there was no strong locational advantage to be gained in one area as opposed to another;hence the Egyptian population generally remained dispersed throughout the valley and delta in low densities.Trade specialists apparently were evenly spread throughout Egypt,supported by both independent workshops in small towns and royal patronage in the territorial capitals.In contrast to the defensive walls of Mesopotamian city-states,the walls of Egyptian towns primarily defined and delineated sections of the town(for example,a temple precinct from a residential area).8..The word dominate in the passage is closest in meaning to○enclose○control○protect○acquire9..In paragraph5,why does the author provide the information that all Egyptian villages and towns were located near the Nile and had equal access to the river○To explain why flooding was a frequent problem for the Egyptian people○To identify a contributing cause of the dispersal of Egypt's population○To support the claim that Egypt had well-defined borders○To demonstrate the similarity between Egyptian and Mesopotamian settlement patterns10..According to paragraph5,the primary purpose of city walls in ancient Egypt was to○distinguish territorial capitals from other urban areas○prevent the city's population from becoming too spread out○protect the city from outside attack○separate parts of the city designated for different usesParagraph6：Egypt,however,was not without urban centers.At points where goods entered the Nile valley via maritime routes or overland routes from the Red Sea via wadis(stream beds that remain dry except during the rainy season),the right circumstances existed for the growth of larger cities.Egyptian cities and towns shared certain characteristics with other(contemporary societies)but also displayed unique traits influenced by the culture and environment of the Nile valley.Thus,the geopolitical system that evolved in ancient Egypt was different from that of Mesopotamia;Egypt developed a village or territorial state characterized by dispersed settlements of varying size,a form of urbanism that gave Egypt its distinctive identity.11..Paragraph6suggests that Egypt's urban centers were located near stream beds called wadis because these areas○had the most fertile soil○provided opportunities for trade○had increased their water supplies○could easily be protected from invaders12..The phrase contemporary societies in the passage means societies that○existed at the same time○were located in the same region○were the same size○had the same resources13..Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.For example,Egypt's capital,Memphis,was located at a strategic point near the mouth of the Nile and grew to be one of the largest settlements of its time.Where would the sentence best fit Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.Paragraph6：Egypt,however,was not without urban centers.■At points where goods entered the Nile valley via maritime routes or overland routes from the Red Sea via wadis(stream beds that remain dry except during the rainy season),the right circumstances existed for the growth of larger cities.■Egyptian cities and towns shared certain characteristics with other(contemporary societies)but also displayed unique traits influenced by the culture and environment of the Nile valley.■Thus,the geopolitical system that evolved in ancient Egypt was different from that of Mesopotamia;Egypt developed a village or territorial state characterized by dispersed settlements of varying size,a form of urbanism that gave Egypt its distinctive identity.■14..Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong.To review the passage,click on View Text.Answer Choices○Mesopotamia was characterized by large,densely-populated urban centers,while the population of Egypt was more evenly distributed across the Nile valley.○Unlike Mesopotamian city-states,which were culturally and economically distinct, Egyptian villages and towns shared a common language and economy.○While defense was crucial in Mesopotamian cities due to competition for territory, trade routes,and raw materials,it was less important in Egypt.○Once they realized that craft production was more profitable than crop production, many Mesopotamians moved from rural to urban areas.○Differences in settlement patterns help to explain why the Egyptian central government survived and the Mesopotamian city-states did not.○Trade specialists were evenly spread throughout Egypt,while Mesopotamia's vibrant commercial trade was concentrated in its large urban centers.Extinctions at the End of the CretaceousParagragh1:It has long been recognized that the dinosaurs disappeared from the fossil record at the end of the Cretaceous period(65million years ago),and as more knowledge has been gained,we have learned that many other organisms disappeared at about the same time.The microscopic plankton(free-floating plants and animals) with calcareous shells suffered massively.The foundation of the major marine food chain that led from the minute plankton to shelled animals to large marine reptiles had collapsed.1..The word recognized in the passage is closest in meaning to○suspected○argued○assumed○accepted2..According to paragraph1,which of the following was true of small planktonic organisms at the end of the Cretaceous○They lost their main sources of food.○They developed calcareous shells.○They decreased greatly in number as did many other types of organisms.○They replaced other minute organisms as a food source in the major marine food chain.Paragraph2:On land it was not only the large animals that became extinct.The mammals,most of which were small,lost some35percent of their species worldwide. Plants were also affected.For example,in North America79percent did not survive, and it has been noted that the survivors were often deciduous they could lose their leaves and shut down while others could survive as seeds.As in the sea,it seems that on the land one key food chain collapsed:the one with leaves as its basic raw material. These leaves were the food of some of the mammals and of the herbivorous dinosaurs, which in turn were fed on by the carnivorous dinosaurs.Furthermore,it is most likely that these large dinosaurs had slow rates of reproduction,which always increases the risk of extinction.Crocodiles,tortoises,birds,and insects seem to have been little affected.The two first named are known to be able to survive for long periods without food,and both can be scavengers(feed on dead material).Indeed,with the deaths of so many other animals and with much dead plant material,the food chain based on detritus would have been well-supplied.Many insects feed on dead material; furthermore,most have at least one resting stage in which they are very resistant to damage.In unfavorable conditions some may take a long time to develop:there is a record of a beetle larva living in dead wood for over40years before becoming an adult.Some birds were scavengers,but the survival of many lineages is a puzzle. 3..Which of the following statements is NOT supported by the information provided in paragraph2about extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous○About35percent of mammal species were lost.○79percent of North American plants disappeared.○Most birds,tortoises,and crocodiles escaped extinction.○Deciduous trees were especially likely to go extinct.4..According to paragraph2,which of the following factors probably contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs○The length of time it took dinosaurs to reproduce○Large quantities of dead material disturbing their habitats○Increased competition for food from scavengers○An increase in carnivore populations5..In paragraph2,why does the author provide the information that there is a record of a beetle larva living in dead wood for over40years before becoming an adult○To help explain why insects were less likely to go extinct than other species○To show that not all species that relied on trees disappeared during the late Cretaceous○To suggest that insects that lived long ago had much longer life spans than those living today○To support the claim that conditions at the end of the Cretaceous were highly unfavorableParagragh3:What happened in the biological story just after these extinctions？What is found in and just above the boundary layer between the deposits of the Cretaceous and those of the Tertiary(65¨C2.6million years ago),termed the K/T boundary？■For a very short period the dominant microorganisms in marine deposits were usually diatoms and dinoflagellates(both single-celled types of plankton).■The important feature for the survival of both these groups was the ability to form protective cysts(sacs around organisms)that rested on the sea floor. Above these,in the later deposits,are the remains of other minute plankton,but the types are quite different from those of the Late Cretaceous.■In terrestrial deposits a sudden and dramatic increase in fern plant spores marks the boundary in many parts of the world;ferns are early colonizers of barren landscapes.The fern spike(sudden increase),as it is termed,has been found also in some marine deposits(such was the abundance of fern spores blown around the world),and it occurs in exactly the same layer of deposit where the plankton disappear.We can conclude that the major marine and terrestrial events occurred simultaneously.■6..The word simultaneously in the passage is closest in meaning to○rapidly○repeatedly○at the same time○for different reasons7..According to paragraph3,which of the following is true of plankton after the extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous○Diatoms and dinoflagellates suddenly became very rare.○Single-celled types of plankton were replaced by more complicated microorganisms.○The plankton found in later deposits are closely related to single-celled Late Cretaceous microorganisms.○The only types of Late Cretaceous plankton to survive extinction were those protected by cysts.8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.【The fern spike(sudden increase),as it is termed,has been found also in some marine deposits(such was the abundance of fern spores blown around the world),and it occurs in exactly the same layer of deposit where the plankton disappear.】The fern spike is the term given to this sudden increase in the abundance of fern spores blown into the oceans around the world.The sudden increase in fern spores occurred in exactly the same parts of the world where the plankton was disappearing.Fern spores have even been found in some marine deposits from exactly the same layer as that showing the disappearance of the plankton.Most marine deposits from around the world contain either plankton or a lot of fern spores but not both together in the same layer.Paragragh4:Many theories have been put forward for the extinction of the dinosaurs, but most of them can be dismissed.Since1980there have been more focused,but still controversy-ridden,investigations.In that year Louis and Walter Alvarez and colleagues from the University of California published their research on the amounts of various metals in the boundary between Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks(K/T boundary)in Italy,Denmark,and New Zealand.They had found,accidentally,that a rare metal,iridium,suddenly became very abundant exactly at the boundary and then slowly fell away.This phenomenon,known as the iridium spike,has now been identified in K/T boundary deposits in over a hundred other sites in the world.Iridium occurs in meteorites and volcanic material,but in the latter case it is accompanied by elevated levels of nickel and chromium.These other metals are not especially abundant at the K/T boundary.The Alvarezes concluded that the iridium spike was due to a large asteroid that struck Earth65million years ago.9.The word dismissed in the passage is closest in meaning to○further explored○rejected○completely revised○replaced。
托福TPO13综合写作阅读+听力原文+满分范文【雷哥托福】
托福TPO13综合写作阅读+听力原文+满分范文【雷哥托福整理】在备考托福写作的过程中，总是将托福的独立作文放在了第一位，但是实际上，综合作文也是占到了作文总分30分里面的50%的分值，不要等到分数出来了，才发现其实是综合作文的limited或者fair极大的影响了自己的分数。
考过的同学会发现托福综合作文分数不高，很大程度上是受我们听力实力的影响，我们很多托福考生的听力分数只有16分上下的时候，对于托福综合作文的听力妥妥的是束手无策，而且很多托福考生还感觉自己都听懂了，那也只能说明你听懂了大意，但是听力里面要的是每一个细节！请注意，是每一个细节！雷哥托福小托君给大家分享TPO1-33综合作文部分的阅读和听力文本全集与综合作文的满分作文，以及满分作文的解析。
如果自己的托福综合作文分数如果可以很给力的话，就已经搞定了15分的分数，可极大地缓解托福独立作文的压力。
文末教你如何使用这个材料。
TPO13 综合写作听力+阅读原文ReadingPrivate collectors have been selling and buying fossils, the petrified remains of ancient organisms, ever since the eighteenth century. In recent years, however, the sale of fossils, particularly of dinosaurs and other large vertebrates, has grown into a big business. Rare and important fossils are now being sold to private ownership for millions of dollars. This is an unfortunate development for both scientists and the general public.The public suffers because fossils that would otherwise be donated to museums where everyone can see them are sold to private collectors who do not allow the public to view their collections. Making it harder for the public to see fossils can lead to a decline in public interest in fossils, which would be a pity.More importantly, scientists are likely to lose access to some of the most important fossils and thereby miss out on potentially crucial discoveries about extinct life forms. Wealthy fossil buyers with a desire to own the rarest and most important fossils can spend virtually limitless amounts of money to acquire them. Scientists and the museums and universities they work for often cannot compete successfully for fossils against millionaire fossil buyers.Moreover, commercial fossil collectors often destroy valuable scientific evidence associated with the fossils they unearth. Most commercial fossil collectors are untrained or uninterested in carrying out the careful field work and documentation that reveal the most about animal life in the past. For example, scientists have learned about the biology of nest-building dinosaurs called oviraptors by carefully observing the exact position of oviraptor fossils in the ground and the presence of other fossils in the immediate surroundings. Commercial fossil collectors typically pay no attention to how fossils lie in the ground or to the smaller fossils that may surround bigger ones.ListeningProfessor: Of course there are some negative consequences of selling fossils in the commercial market, but they have been greatly exaggerated. The benefits of commercial fossil trade greatly outweigh the disadvantages.First of all, the public is likely to have greater exposure to fossils as a result of commercial fossil trade, not less exposure. Commercial fossil hunting makes a lot of fossils available for purchase, and as a result, even low-level public institutions like public schools and libraries can now routinely buy interesting fossils and display them for the public.As for the idea that scientists will lose access to really important fossils, that's not realistic either.Before anyone can put a value on a fossil, it needs to be scientifically identified, right? Well, the only people who can identify fossils, who can really tell what a given fossil is or isn't, are scientists, by performing detailed examinations and tests on the fossils themselves. So even if a fossil is destined to go to a private collector, it has to pass through the hands of scientific experts first. This way, the scientific community is not going to miss out on anything important that's out there.Finally, whatever damage commercial fossil collectors sometimes do, if it weren't for them, many fossils would simply go undiscovered because there aren't that many fossil collecting operations that are run by universities and other scientific institutions. Isn't it better for science to at least have more fossils being found even if we don't have all the scientific data we'd like to have about their location and surroundings than it is to have many fossils go completely undiscovered?首先，就是在自己做托福TPO模考之后，可以根据这里面的听力的文本，来检验自己的听力内容是否抓的足够好，尤其是要看写的够不够全！很多时候，我们的综合作文之所以分低，就是因为听力写的不全！第二点，也可以用于在托福考试前来做跟读，有不少托福考生跟小托君说，自己的口语实力不够，那么做跟读，仔细地来模仿ETS官方素材，是一个很好的提高自己口语的方式。
托福TPO13综合写作阅读原文+听力原文+满分范文
为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO13综合写作阅读原文+听力原文+满分范文，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
托福TPO13综合写作阅读原文文本： Private collectors have been selling and buying fossils, the petrified remains of ancient organisms, ever since the eighteenth century. In recent years, however, the sale of fossils, particularly of dinosaurs and other large vertebrates, has grown into a big business. Rare and important fossils are now being sold to private ownership for millions of dollars. This is an unfortunate development for both scientists and the general public. The public suffers because fossils that would otherwise be donated to museums where everyone can see them are sold to private collectors who do not allow the public to view their collections. Making it harder for the public to see fossils can lead to a decline in public interest in fossils, which would be a pity. More importantly, scientists are likely to lose access to some of the most important fossils and thereby miss out on potentially crucial discoveries about extinct life forms. Wealthy fossil buyers with a desire to own the rarest and most important fossils can spend virtually limitless amounts of money to acquire them. Scientists and the museums and universities they work for often cannot compete successfully for fossils against millionaire fossil buyers. Moreover, commercial fossil collectors often destroy valuable scientific evidence associated with the fossils they unearth. Most commercial fossil collectors are untrained or uninterestedin carrying out the careful field work and documentation that reveal the most about animal life in the past. For example, scientists have learned about the biology of nest-building dinosaurs called oviraptors by carefully observing the exact position of oviraptor fossils in the ground and the presence of other fossils in the immediate surroundings. Commercial fossil collectors typically pay no attention to how fossils lie in the ground or to the smaller fossils that may surround bigger ones. 托福TPO13综合写作听力原文文本： Professor：Of course there are some negative consequences of selling fossils in the commercial market, but they have been greatly exaggerated. The benefits of commercial fossil trade greatly outweigh the disadvantages.First of all, the public is likely to have greater exposure to fossils as a result of commercial fossil trade, not less exposure. Commercial fossil hunting makes a lot of fossils available for purchase, and as a result, even low level public institutions like public schools and libraries can now routinely buy interesting fossils and display them for the public.As for the idea that scientists will lose access to really important fossils, that's not realistic either. Before anyone can put a value on a fossil, it needs to be scientifically identified, right? Well, the only people who can identify fossils, who can really tell what a given fossil is or isn't, are scientists, by performing detailed examinations and tests on the fossils themselves. So even if a fossil is destined to go to a private collector, it has to pass through the hands of scientificexperts first. This way, the scientific community is not going to miss out on anything important that's out there.Finally, whatever damage commercial fossil collectors sometimes do, if it weren't for them, many fossils would simply go undiscovered because there aren't that many fossil collecting operations that are run by universities and other scientific institutions. Isn't it better for science to at least have more fossils being found even if we don't have all the scientific data we'd like to have about their location and surroundings than it is to have many fossils go completely undiscovered? 托福TPO13综合写作满分范文： The lecturer rejects the ideas presented in the reading passage about the problems involved with the booming business of commercial fossil trading. In her opinion, the benefits of this new development outweigh its negative consequences. The lecturer does not agree with the first point made in the reading that private collectors will keep their fossil collection away from the public, leading the public to lose interests in fossils. She contends that the commercial trading of fossils actually makes them available to a wider public, because everyone with a budget, such as private schools and libraries, can purchase them for study and exhibition. The lecturer goes on to refute the claim in the reading that fossil trading business prevents scientists and public museums from benefiting from fossil finds, as these parties cannot compete with wealthy private buyers to acquire important fossils for research purpose. On the contrary, she argues, scientists themselves are the first to evaluate any important fossil before it can be sold in the commercial market at a price, so the academic community does not miss any opportunity to study privately traded fossils. Additionally, the lecturer challenges the final downside of fossil trading mentioned in the reading.The lecturer reminds us that the damages, if any, caused by private collectors in their field operations are more than offset by the effort they have made to increase the number of fossils available to the public that would otherwise remain undiscovered. 以上是给大家整理的托福TPO13综合写作阅读原文+听力原文+满分范文，希望对你有所帮助!。
托福阅读笔记之TPO13 婴儿的感知能力
托福阅读笔记之TPO13 婴儿的感知能力说到托福阅读备考，TPO是必不可少的备考神器，通过TPO练习来更好的适应阅读考试的节奏。
本文小编带来的托福阅读笔记是TPO13 Methods of Studying Infant Perception的内容，希望能够与正在备考的大家一起进步。
TPO13 Methods of Studying Infant Perception文章题材：生命学科——婴儿的感知能力常见词汇：quantifiableadj. 可以计量的indication[.indi'keiʃən]n. 表示，指示，象征overcome[.əuvə'kʌm]vt. 战胜，克服，(感情等)压倒，使受不了display[di'splei]n. 显示，陈列，炫耀vt. 显示，表现describe[dis'kraib]vt. 描述，画(尤指几何图形)，说成multiple['mʌltipl]adj. 许多，多种多样的n. 倍数，并联respond[ris'pɔnd]v. 回答，答复，反应，反响，响应preference['prefərəns]n. 偏爱，优先，喜爱物measurable['meʒərəbəl]adj. 可测量的technique[tek'ni:k]n. 技术，技巧，技能易错题解析：Paragraph 1: In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between thetwo measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth —have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.1. Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe the○range of motor activity in neonates○frequency and duration of various stimuli○change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulus○range of an infant's visual field题型：推论题。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文TPO13--1 Types of Social Groups
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Types of Social Groups托福阅读原文Life places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoya direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others areforbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them.托福阅读试题1.The word “complex”(Paragraph 1)in the passage is closest in meaning toA.delicateB.elaborateC.privatemon2.According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of a relationship?A. It is a structure of associations with many people.B. It should be studied in the course of a social interaction.C. It places great demands on people.D. It develops gradually overtime.3.The word endowing in the passage（Paragraph 2）is closest in meaning toA.leavingB.exposingC. providingD. understanding4.Which of the following can be inferred about instrumental ties from the author's mention of working with competitors in paragraph 2?A. Instrumental ties can develop even in situations in which people would normally not cooperate.B.Instrumental ties require as much emotional investment as expressive ties.C. Instrumental ties involve security, love, and acceptance.D.Instrumental ties should be expected to be significant.5.According to paragraph 3, what do sociologists see as the main difference between primary and secondary groups?A.Primary groups consist of people working together, while secondary groups exist outside of work settings.B. In primary groups people are seen as means, while in secondary groups people are seen as ends.C. Primary groups involve personal relationships, while secondary groups are mainly practical in purpose.D.Primary groups are generally small, while secondary groups often contain more than two people.6.Which of the following can be inferred from the author's claim in paragraph 3 that primary group relationships sometimes evolve out of secondary group relationships?A.Secondary group relationships begin by being primary group relationships.B.A secondary group relationship that is highly visible quickly becomes a primary group relationship.C.Sociologists believe that only primary group relationships are important to society.D. Even in secondary groups, frequent communication serves to bring people into close relationships.7.The phrase “size up” in the passage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning toA.enlargeB.evaluateC. impressD. accept8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence(Paragraph 5)in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essentialinformation.A.Sociologists think that cultural patterns establish connections between the individual and the larger society.B.Sociologists believe that individuals with a sense of oneness bridge the gap between society and primary groups.C.Sociologists think primary groups contribute to social solidarity because they help maintain a society's cultural patterns.D.Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity arise as bridges from primary groups.9.This passage is developed primarily byA.drawing comparisons between theory and practiceB.presenting two opposing theoriesC.defining important concepts and providing examples of themD.discussing causes and their effects10.The word “deviate” in the passage(Paragraph 7)is closest in meaning toA.detractB.advanceC.selectD.depart11.According to paragraph 7, why would a social group use shunning?A.To enforce practice of the kinds of behavior acceptable to the groupB.To discourage offending individuals from remaining in the groupC.To commend and reward the behavior of the other members of the groupD.To decide which behavioral norms should be passed on to the next generation12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. People who do not live alone, for example, tend to make healthier life choices and develop fewer pathologies than people who live by themselves. Where would the sentence best fit?Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. ■【A】Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. ■【B】Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. ■【C】For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is. ■【D】13.Directions: Complete the table below by selecting three answer choices that are characteristics of primary groups and two answer choices that are characteristics of secondary groups. This question is worth 3points.A.Developing socially acceptable behaviorB. Working together against competitorsC.Experiencing pressure from outside forcesD.Viewing people as a means to an endE.Existing for practical purposesF.Providing meaning for life situationsG.Involving close relationships1 ）Primary GroupsA B C D E F G2 ）Secondary GroupsA B C D E F G托福阅读答案plex复杂的，所以B的elaborate正确。
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新托福TPO13阅读原文(一):Types of Social GroupsTPO13-1：Types of Social GroupsLife places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personalneeds. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whosebehavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them.TPO13-1译文：社会群组的类型我们和他人一起生活在一个复杂的关系网中。