新托福OG阅读原文翻译
OG15阅读中英对照
1A recent study has provided clues to predator-prey dynamics in the late Pleistocene era.Researchers compared the number of tooth fractures in carnivores that lived 36,000to10,000years ago and that were preserved in the Rancho La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles.The breakage frequencies in the extinct species were strikingly higher than those in the present-day species.In considering possible explanations for this finding,the researchers dismissed demographic bias because older individuals were not overrepresented in the fossil samples.They rejected preservational bias because a total absence of breakage in two extinct species demonstrated that the fractures were not the result of abrasion within the pits.They ruled out local bias because breakage data obtained from other Pleistocene sites were similar to the La Brea data.The explanation they consider most plausible is behavioral differences between extinct and present-day carnivores—in particular,more contact between the teeth of predators and the bones of prey due to more thorough consumption of carcasses by the extinct species.Such thorough carcass consumption implies to the researchers either that prey availability was low,at least seasonally,or that there was intense competition over kills and a high rate of carcass theft due to relatively high predator densities.近期的一项研究为更新世后期食肉动物的捕食动态提供了线索。
托福阅读真题OG Artisans and Industrialization答案与解析
Artisans and Industrialization1.核心词汇总结steady 稳定的，不变的intense 强烈的，紧张的alternate 交替，轮流manufacturing 制造业impart 给予，传授apprentice 学徒journeyman 学徒capitalist 资本家give way to 让位于credit 贷款stimulate 刺激shift 变化，转变accustomed to 习惯于artisan 工匠supervise 监督finished 精湛的elegant 高雅的regimented 严格管制的constant 持续的discard 丢弃alert 警觉的dependable 可靠的self-disciplined 自律的obedience 服从carpenter 木匠momentum 动力depression 萧条collapse 衰弱spearhead 带头agitation 鼓动resent 愤恨2.长难句总结(1)After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers.(2)Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior.(3)With the loss of personal freedom also came the loss of standing in the community.(4)Unlike artisan workshops in which apprentices worked closely with the masters supervising them, factories sharply separated workers from management.(5)Few workers rose through the ranks to supervisory positions, and even fewer could achieve the artisan's dream of setting up one's own business.(6)Workers were united in resenting the industrial system and their loss of status, but they were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender, conflicting religious perspectives, occupational differences, political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics.P1: introduction: ways of manufacturing before 1815 & after 1815Before 1815 manufacturing(制造业) in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. As master craft workers, they imparted(给予，传授) the knowledge of their trades to apprentices(学徒) and journeymen(学徒). In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists(资本家). After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to(让位于) factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit(贷款) all stimulated(刺激) the shift(变化，转变) to factory production.P2: ways of manufacturing before 1815The creation of a labor force that was accustomed to(习惯于) working in factories did not occur easily. Before the rise of the factory, artisans(工匠) had worked within the home. Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising(监督) their moral behavior. Journeymen knew that if they perfected their skill, they could become respected master artisans with their own shops. Also, skilled artisans did not work by the clock, at a steady(稳定的，不变的) pace, but rather in bursts of intense(强烈的，紧张的) labor alternating(交替，轮流) with more leisurely time.P3: ways of manufacturing after 1815The factory changed that. Goods produced by factories were not as finished(精湛的) or elegant (高雅的)as those done by hand, and pride in craftsmanship gave way to the pressure to increase rates of productivity. The new methods of doing business involved a new and stricter sense of time. Factory life necessitated a more regimented(严格管制的) schedule, where work began at the sound of a bell and workers kept machines going at a constant(持续的) pace. At the same time, workers were required to discard(丢弃) old habits, for industrialism demanded a worker who was alert(警觉的), dependable(可靠地), and self-disciplined(自律的). Absenteeism and lateness hurt productivity and, since work was specialized, disrupted the regular factory routine. Industrialization not only produced a fundamental change in the way work was organized; it transformed the very nature of work.P4: workers were hard to accustomed to new systemThe first generation to experience these changes did not adopt the new attitudes easily. Thefactory clock became the symbol of the new work rules. One mill worker who finally quit complained revealingly about "obedience(服从) to the ding-dong of the bell-just as though we are so many living machines." With the loss of personal freedom also came the loss of standing in the community. Unlike artisan workshops in which apprentices worked closely with the masters supervising them, factories sharply separated workers from management. Few workers rose through the ranks to supervisory positions, and even fewer could achieve the artisan's dream of setting up one's own business. Even well-paid workers sensed their decline in status.P5: workers organized to protect their rights and traditional ways of lifeIn this newly emerging economic order, workers sometimes organized to protect their rights and traditional ways of life. Craft workers such as carpenters(木匠), printers, and tailors formed unions, and in 1834 individual unions came together in the National Trades' Union. The labor movement gathered some momentum(动力) in the decade before the Panic of 1837, but in the depression(萧条) that followed, labor's strength collapsed(衰弱). During hard times, few workers were willing to strike* or engage in collective action. And skilled craft workers, who spearheaded(带头)the union movement, did not feel a particularly strong bond with semiskilled factory workers and unskilled laborers. More than a decade of agitation(鼓动) did finally bring a workday shortened to 10 hours to most industries by the 1850’s, and the courts also recognized workers' right to strike, but these gains had little immediate impact.P6: workers were dividedWorkers were united in resenting(愤恨) the industrial system and their loss of status, but they were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms(敌意), gender, conflicting religious perspectives, occupational differences, political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics. For them, the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunity but reminders of their loss of independence and a measure of control over their lives. As United States society became more specialized and differentiated, greater extremes of wealth began to appear. And as the new markets created fortunes for the few, the factory system lowered the wages of workers by dividing labor into smaller, less skilled tasks.Paragraph 1: Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. As master craft workers, they imparted the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilledcredit all stimulated the shift to factory production.1. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about articles manufactured before 1815?推断题○They were primarily produced by women.○They were generally produced in shops rather than in homes.○They were produced with more concern for quality than for speed of production.○They were produced mostly in large cities with extensive transportation networks.Paragraph 2: The creation of a labor force that was accustomed to working in factories did not occur easily. Before the rise of the factory, artisans had worked within the home. Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior. Journeymen knew that if they perfected their skill, they could become respected master artisans with their own shops. Also, skilled artisans did not work by the clock, at a steady pace, but rather in bursts of intense labor alternating with more leisurely time.2. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. 句子简化题○Masters demanded moral behavior from apprentices but often treated them irresponsibly.○The responsibilities of the master to the apprentice went beyond the teaching of a trade.○Masters preferred to maintain the trade within the family by supervising and educating the younger family members.○Masters who trained members of their own family as apprentices demanded excellence from them.Paragraph 3: The factory changed that. Goods produced by factories were not as finished or elegant as those done by hand, and pride in craftsmanship gave way to the pressure to increase rates of productivity. The new methods of doing business involved a new and stricter sense of time. Factory life necessitated a more regimented schedule, where work began at the sound of a bell and workers kept machines going at a constant pace. At the same time, workers were required to discard old habits, for industrialism demanded a worker who was alert, dependable, and self-disciplined. Absenteeism and lateness hurt productivity and, since work was specialized, disrupted the regular factory routine. Industrialization not only produced a fundamental change in the way work was organized; it transformed the very nature of work.3. The word “disrupted” in the passage is closest in meaning to 词汇题○prolonged○established○followed○upsetParagraph 4: The first generation to experience these changes did not adopt the new attitudes easily. The factory clock became the symbol of the new work rules. One mill worker who finally quit complained revealingly about "obedience to the ding-dong of the bell-just as though we aremasters supervising them, factories sharply separated workers from management. Few workers rose through the ranks to supervisory positions, and even fewer could achieve the artisan'sEven well-paid workers sensed their decline in status.4. In paragraph 4, the author includes the quotation from a mill worker in order to 目的题○support the idea that it was difficult for workers to adjust to working in factories○to show that workers sometimes quit because of the loud noise made by factory machinery○argue that clocks did not have a useful function in factories○emphasize that factories were most successful when workers revealed their complaints5. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as consequences of the new system for workers EXCEPT a loss of 选非题○freedom○status in the community○opportunities for advancement○contact among workers who were not managersParagraph 5: In this newly emerging economic order, workers sometimes organized to protect their rights and traditional ways of life. Craft workers such as carpenters, printers, and tailors formed unions, and in 1834 individual unions came together in the National Trades' Union. The labor movement gathered some momentum in the decade before the Panic of 1837, but in the depression that followed, labor's strength collapsed. During hard times, few workers were willing to strike* or engage in collective action. And skilled craft workers, who spearheaded(带头) the union movement, did not feel a particularly strong bond with semiskilled factory workers and unskilled laborers. More than a decade of agitation did finally bring a workday shortened to 10 hours to most industries by the 1850’s, and the courts also recognized workers' right to strike, but these gains had little immediate impact.means to advance with increasing speed6. The phrase “gathered some momentum” in the passage is closest in meaning to 词汇题○made progress○became active○caused changes○combined forces7. The word “spearheaded” in the passage is closest in meaning to 词汇题○led○accepted○changed○resisted8. Which of the following statements about the labor movement of the 1800's is supported by paragraph 5? 细节题○It was most successful during times of economic crisis.○Its primary purpose was to benefit unskilled laborers.○It was slow to improve conditions for workers.○It helped workers of all skill levels form a strong bond with each other.Paragraph 6: Workers were united in resenting the industrial system and their loss of status, but they were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender, conflicting religious perspectives,For them, the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunity but reminders of their loss of independence and a measure of control over their lives. As United States society became more specialized and differentiated, greater extremes of wealth began to appear. And as the new markets created fortunes for the few, the factory system lowered the wages of workers by dividing labor into smaller, less skilled tasks.9. The author identifies political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics as two of several factors that 目的题○encouraged workers to demand higher wages○created divisions among workers○caused work to become more specialized○increased workers' resentment of the industrial system10. The word “them” in the passage refers to 指代题○workers○political patty loyalties○disagreements over tactics○agents of opportunityParagraph 1: Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. ■As master craft workers, they imparted the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. ■In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. ■After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ■Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production.11.Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. 句子插入题This new form of manufacturing depended on the movement of goods to distant locations and a centralized source of laborers.Where would the sentence best fit?12. Directions: Complete the table below by indicating which of the answer choices describe characteristics of the period before 1815 and which describe characteristics of the 1815-1850 period. This question is worth 3 points. 配对题Before 18151815-1850●● ●●Answer choices○A united, highly successful labor movement took shape.○Workers took pride in their workmanship.○The income gap between the rich and the poor increased greatly.○Transportation networks began to decline.○Emphasis was placed on following schedules.○Workers went through an extensive period of training.○Few workers expected to own their own businesses.Key: C B D A D A A C B A D BF CEG。
新托福TPO3阅读原文(二)Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer及译文
新托福TPO3阅读原文(二):Depletion of the Ogallala AquiferTPO-3-2：Depletion of the Ogallala AquiferThe vast grasslands of the High Plains in the central United States were settled by farmers and ranchers in the 1880s. This region has a semiarid climate, and for 50 years after its settlement, it supported a low-intensity agricultural economy of cattle ranching and wheat farming. In the early twentieth century, however, it was discovered that much of the High Plains was underlain by a huge aquifer (a rock layer containing large quantities of groundwater). This aquifer was named the Ogallala aquifer after the Ogallala Sioux Indians, who once inhabited the region.The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year.The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here.This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate—that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply—has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. The situation is most critical in Texas, where the climate is driest, the greatest amount of water is being pumped, and the aquifer contains the least water. It is projected that the remaining Ogallala water will, by the year 2030, support only 35 to 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in Texas that is supported in 1980.The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Others, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies.In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century.译文：TPO-3-2 奥加拉拉蓄水层的枯竭19世纪80年代，在美国中部北美大平原的广阔草原上定居着农场主们和牧场主们。
SAT OG Part 1 Section 2 阅读翻译
OG 1 2一个Kikongo的俗话说，“一个树不可能没有根基地挺立”。
非常明显，这句话很有道理。
大多有道理的事情都是先人说过的。
我的那些说这话的先人，给我们传递了一个清晰的讯息：一个人不可能茁壮地成长除非他知道他的历史。
以前生活的人和现在生活的人被这个谚语联接到了一起，如果我们想茁壮地成长，我们必须了解我们前辈。
当我祖母叫我跟别人讲她的故事的时候，我了解到这个谚语是真的。
其他的在美国的一代一代的黑人也遵循这个传统。
另外一条kikongo的谚语说，“人只可以偷走一个熟睡的婴儿，因为一睁开眼，婴儿就要寻找自己的母亲。
”一个人的传统，一个人与生俱来对自己血统的好奇心以及对自己的身份和认知都被这句话所概括了。
美国的黑人保持他们对自己来历或祖先的关联，就算有很多东西在阻挡他们。
通过决心和记忆，在三百年以来，美国黑人用不同的方式与非洲保持着联系。
这个联系被拉扯扭折过，可是就算这样，它还是没有断。
在美国的黑人在给予或获得人从非洲的认可，力量，在非洲的黑人也与此同时联系到了在美国的黑人，那些被带走的，以同样的理由。
我们已经察看对方很久了看在我们被分开很久的分上。
几个世纪以来，我们看着对方就象一个孩子第一次看着镜子里面的自己一样。
很长时间以来，我们就想那个孩子一样，看着自己在玻璃里面的样子。
抚摸着那个奇怪但熟悉的面孔，我看到他们也盯会看我们。
我们添加想像到我们不知道的事情里面去。
当我们终于见面的时候，美国和非洲都有略微的失望。
模糊的想像不能一直与事实相附。
我们怀疑是不是我们错了，那个联系是不是真的在那里，那个联接着我们的根基是不是已经失去了。
但是又一次的我们被提醒我们所分享的东西。
非洲在我们身上都留下了痕迹。
当我们在文学政治文化宗教上联接到彼此的时候，以及任何时候，这个世界需要关注我们的动态。
SAT填空译文--新OG TEST-1
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托福og阅读文本
托福og阅读文本Powering the Industrial RevolutionIn Britain one of the most dramatic changes of the Industrial Revolution was the harnessing of power. Until the reign of George Ⅲ(1760-1820), available sources of power for work and travel had not increased since the Middle Ages. There were three sources of power: animal or human muscles; the wind, operating on sail or windmill; and running water. Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage: streams flowed where nature intended them to, and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons. Furthermore, even the most reliable waterpower varied with the seasons and disappeared in a drought. The new age of machinery, in short, could not have been born without a new source of both movable and constant power.The source had long been known but not exploited. Early in theeighteenth century, a pump had come into use in which expanding steam raised a piston in a cylinder, and atmospheric pressure brought it down again when the steam condensed inside the cylinder to form a vacuum. This "atmospheric engine," invented by Thomas Savery and vastly improved by his partner, Thomas Newcomen, embodied revolutionary principles, but it was so slow and wasteful of fuel that it could not be employed outside the coal mines for which it had been designed. In the 1760s, James Watt perfected a separate condenser for the steam, so that the cylinder did not have to be cooled at every stroke; then he devised a way to make the piston turn a wheel and thus convert reciprocating (back and forth) motion into rotary motion. He thereby transformed an inefficient pump of limited use into a steam engine of a thousand uses. The final step came when steam was introduced into the cylinder to drive the piston backward as well as forward, thereby increasing the speed of the engine and cutting its fuel consumption.Watt's steam engine soon showed what it could do. It liberated industry from dependence on running water. The engine eliminated water in the mines by driving efficient pumps, which made possibledeeper and deeper mining. The ready availability of coal inspired William Murdoch during the 1790s to develop the first new form of nighttime illumination to be discovered in a millennium and a half. Coal gas rivaled smoky oil lamps and flickering candles, and early in the new century, well-to-do Londoners grew accustomed to gaslit houses and even streets. Iron manufacturers, which had starved for fuel while depending on charcoal, also benefited from ever-increasing supplies of coal: blast furnaces with steam-powered bellows turned out more iron and steel for the new machinery. Steam became the motive force of the Industrial Revolution as coal and iron ore were the raw materials.By 1800 more than a thousand steam engines were in use in the British Isles, and Britain retained a virtual monopoly on steam engine production until the 1830s. Steam power did not merely spin cotton and roll iron; early in the new century, it also multiplied ten times over the amount of paper that a single worker could produce in a day. At the same time, operators of the first printing presses run by steam rather than by hand found it possible to produce a thousand pages in an hour rather than thirty. Steam also promised toeliminate a transportation problem not fully solved by either canal boats or turnpikes. Boats could carry heavy weights, but canals could not cross hilly terrain; turnpikes could cross the hills, but the roadbeds could not stand up under great weights. These problems needed still another solution, and the ingredients for it lay close at hand. In some industrial regions, heavily laden wagons, with flanged wheels, were being hauled by horses along metal rails; and the stationary steam engine was puffing in the factory and mine. Another generation passed before inventors succeeded in combining these ingredients, by putting the engine on wheels and the wheels on the rails, so as to provide a machine to take the place of the horse. Thus the railroad age sprang from what had already happened in the eighteenth century.。
SAT-OG阅读翻译第二版Text1-10(重要!)
Test 1P391第一篇短文章狂风呼啸着、低吟着,以每小时50 英里的速度划过基特峰上的望远镜弧顶。
几英尺以下,滑动着一整天都在起起伏伏的一片云海,此刻正在暮色中变得灰淡。
高处,海尔波普彗星像一个羽毛般的鱼饵悬挂在天空,它的尾巴稍稍弯曲,就好像是被这严酷的寒风吹到了一旁。
星星在渐暗的夜空中一颗一颗的眨眼,闪烁着。
不远处,野马们在漫步走过,漫步游荡。
它们都没有扫一眼天空中海尔波普彗星游丝般的痕迹,也没有看一眼这晴朗夜空的壮丽景象,不管有没有彗星,有彗星,或是没有。
做人的感觉真好！第二篇短文章1843 年,Ada K ing 发表了一套很有影响力的笔记,笔记的内容是关于查尔斯·巴比奇的“分析机”的概念-‐-‐-‐这是第一次关于自动操作计算机的设计,其中的内容包括了叫做伯努利数的关于计算机编程的一系列数字计算方法,这些理论也确立了他在计算机领域的重要地位。
然而,她壮丽的人生和显赫的出生（她是著名诗人拜伦的女儿）以及在她在计算机领域扮演的女性先驱的角色都使得她成为一个偶像。
许多的小说,戏剧,电影等都是以她为原型的。
虽然有很多女性为了计算机技术的发展做出了贡献,但只有Ada K ing 拥有以她的名字命名的计算机语言,即Ada。
P392 单长篇以下章节选自1999 年的一篇回忆录,作者是一个美洲黑人妇女和一个刚果男人的儿子,他曾经在美国和非洲都生活过,他是在马萨诸塞州的波士顿和塔桑尼亚的首都达累斯萨拉姆长大的。
在此,他向我们阐述了他关于美洲黑人和非洲黑人历史关系的观点。
在刚果,有一则谚语是这么说的,“一棵树没有了根就无法站立”。
这在现在看来是显而易见的常识,因为在我们这个真正有见解的真理都已经被说过的年代,因为在我们这个时代,都自认为无所不知,,许多东西都已经成为了陈词滥调。
但是所有的陈词滥调都起源于他们对于真理的坚持,创造这一谚语的先辈就是在向他的后人们传递这样一个清晰而有力的信息,一个民族, 如果不知道其过去存在的根源是无法繁荣兴旺的。
新托福TPO24阅读原文及译文(三)
新托福TPO24阅读原文(三)：Moving into PueblosTPO24-3：Moving into PueblosIn the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the landscape almost at will. And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic.Given all the disadvantages of living in aggregated towns, why did people in the thirteenth century move into these closely packed quarters? For transitions of such suddenness, archaeologists consider either pull factors (benefits that drew families together) or push factors (some external threat or crisis that forced people to aggregate). In this case, push explanations dominate.Population growth is considered a particularly influential push. After several generations of population growth, people packed the landscape in densities so high that communal pueblos may have been a necessary outcome. Around Sand Canyon, for example, populations grew from 5 -12 people per square kilometer in the tenth century to as many as 30 - 50 by the 1200s. As densities increased, domestic architecture became larger, culminating in crowded pueblos. Some scholars expand on this idea by emphasizing a corresponding need for arable land to feed growing numbers of people: construction of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses indicates that farmers were intensifying their efforts during the 1200s. Competitionfor good farmland may also have prompted people to bond together to assert rights over the best fields.Another important push was the onset of the Little Ice Age, a climatic phenomenon that led to cooler temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. Although the height of the Little Ice Age was still around the corner, some evidence suggests that temperatures were falling during the thirteenth century. The environmental changes associated with this transition are not fully understood, but people living closest to the San Juan Mountains, to the northeast of Mesa Verde, were affected first. Growing food at these elevations is always difficult because of the short growing season. As the Little Ice Age progressed, farmers probably moved their fields to lower elevations, infringing on the lands of other farmers and pushing people together, thus contributing to the aggregations. Archaeologists identify a corresponding shift in populations toward the south and west toward Mesa Verde and away from higher elevations.In the face of all these pushes, people in the Mesa Verde area had yet another reason to move into communal villages: the need for greater cooperation. Sharing and cooperation were almost certainly part of early Puebloan life, even for people living in largely independent single-household residences scattered across the landscape. Archaeologists find that even the most isolated residences during the eleventh and twelfth centuries obtained some pottery, and probably food, from some distance away, while major ceremonial events were opportunities for sharing food and crafts. Scholars believe that this cooperation allowed people to contend with a patchy environment in which precipitation and other resources varied across the landscape: if you produce a lot of food one year, you might trade it for pottery made by a distant ally who is having difficulty with crops—and the next year, the flow of goods might go in the opposite direction. But all of this appears to have changed thirteenth century. Although the climate remained as unpredictable as ever between one year and the next, it became much less locally diverse. In a bad year for farming, everyone was equally affected. No longer was it helpful to share widely. Instead, the most sensiblething would be for neighbors to combine efforts to produce as much food as possible, and thus aggregated towns were a sensible arrangement.TPO24-3译文：迁入普韦布洛在古代北美西南部的梅萨维德地区，生活模式在十三世纪发生了变化，大量人群移居大型公社居住地，这种地方被称为普韦布洛，通常建造在峡谷边缘，尤其是在悬崖边。
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新托福
OG阅读原文翻译
鲸的起源
鲸、鼠海豚和海豚都是哺乳动物，这是很明显的事。
它们通过肺呼吸，而不是腮，并且胎生。
它们的流线型身体，退化的后肢，以及尾叶和气孔的出现都无法伪装它们与陆生哺乳动物的密切关系。
然而，不像兽脚亚目和鳍足目的动物（海豹、海狮和海象，那些四肢在陆地和海中都能起作用的动物），想象第一头鲸类的模样可不是容易的。
绝迹但早已完全是水生的鲸类已从化石中发现。
那么，从行走的哺乳动物到能游泳的鲸类，这一进化空缺是如何填补的？直到最近，一些仍未找到的化石能够清晰表明陆生哺乳动物和鲸类关系并起媒介作用。
惊奇的发现最终使得科学家重建鲸类最相向的起源。
在1979年，一个在北巴基斯坦搜寻化石的小组找到了后来被证实为最早鲸化石的东西。
这化石被官方命名为P，为了纪念发现它的国家。
P深埋在位于河床5千200万年沉积层岩石堆中。
这条形成这些床层的河流离一条叫TS和古代海洋不远。
化石内含一个完整的A的头骨，其中A是一个已灭觉的鲸类祖先的种群。
虽然局限于头骨，但是P的化石提供了宝贵的鲸类起源的细节。
头骨是类鲸的，但是在它的下颌骨部分缺少一个用来装油和脂并用以吸收水下声音的扩大部分，正如现代鲸类。
P很有可能用张开的耳朵探测声音，像陆生哺乳动物一样。
这头骨同样缺少气孔，这又一个鲸类潜水所需的适应物器官。
然而，其他特征向专家表明，P是一个从M，一种灭绝的食肉哺乳动物，到鲸类的转型体。
据推测P以浅水中的鱼为食，并且还未适应广域水中的生活。
他很可能在陆地繁殖和哺育后代。
另一个重大发现在1989年的埃及。
另一种早期鲸B的骨架，被发现与TS海的沉积中，现在暴露于撒哈拉沙漠里。
这头鲸生活在4千万年前，晚于P1前200万年。
很多不完整骨架被找到，但是它们首次包括A这类鲸的一只足和三个小趾的完整后肢。
如此后肢太小以至于无法在陆地支撑一条长达50英尺的B。
毫无疑问，拥有没有功能或者说是退化的后肢的B是完全水生动物。
跟令人振奋的发现报道于1994年，同样是来自巴基斯坦。
现已绝迹的鲸AN（可游泳的行走鲸）生活在4千900万年前的TS海。
它活在大概比P晚300万年，而比B早900万年的时间。
化石幸运地包括了一部分好的后肢。
这些后肢强壮而且结尾处的长足非常地像现代鳍足目的足。
它们显然是水路两用的。
AM有一条尾巴但没有现代鲸类用于定向的尾叶。
然而脊柱结构表明，AN上下摆动后部分身体的游泳姿势很像现代的鲸类，即使是没有尾叶。
大的后肢用于在水中推进。
A有可能在陆地繁殖和哺育后代，并且像海狮一样来会移动。
它毫无疑问是一种连接海洋生命与陆地生命动物鲸类。
沙漠化
近似完全占据地表四分之一的沙漠，在最近二十年内正以惊人的速度增加。
沙漠型条件向之前不存在的地区的扩。