Case Study
奖项
Michelin Guide 米其林指南
• The oldest and best-known European hotel and restaurant guide, which awards the Michelin stars
• The guide awards one to
three stars to a small number of restaurants of outstanding quality • One star indicates a "very good cuisine in its category"
• two conference suites each with a capacity of 20 两个会议室，每个均可容纳20人
• parking facilities (behind the hotel) have space
for 50 vehicles 酒店后的停车场设施可容纳50辆车 • equidistant from both Glasgow and Edinburgh 酒店离格拉斯哥和爱丁堡是等距的
have lodged local planning consent
applications, which, may effectively double the available bed spaces 2家全国高速公路服务店运营 商已递交了当地业务计划的申请书，很可能使得床位数 量翻倍
Motorway Service Areas / Stations
高速公路服务区 / 服务站
• places where drivers can leave a motorway to
refuel, rest, or take refreshments • 加油，休息，补给
2. Overview 概况
• present owners: Jack & Jill Hall 现任酒店经营者 • both have extensive experience in the hotel industry 二人均具备丰富的酒店业从业经验 • Jack: was a General Manager with Grand State Hotels (a reputable international company) 杰 克：曾在一家声名显赫的国际连锁酒店任总经理一职
the other two 非常可靠，但她拒绝为其他两名年轻员
工顶班或代其完成工作
•
has been with the Hill family since they open
the hotel 自希尔一家的酒店开张起就在此工作
• has a good relationship with the regular guests
3. Staff in Post 在岗员工
① 3 full-time Room Attendants 3名全职的客房服务员
•
duties include the in house laundry facility 职责
范围包括酒店内的洗衣设施
② 2 full-time Reception staff 2名全职的接待员
与酒店常客建立了良好的关系
• • now in the late fifties 年龄已近60岁 considering looking for a less taxing situation 考虑寻找缴税额度相对低一些的情况
not fully involved in the hotel 目前，因承担家庭
责任，他并没有全面参与酒店的管理工作
• Jill (Jack’s wife): involved with food since leaving school 吉尔：自毕业后一直从事与食品相关的工作 • was awarded a Michelin Star for the excellence of the food 因烹饪食物的高超技艺曾被授予米其林一星级
Bellevue House (Hotel)
1. Introduction 背景介绍
• situated in the central belt of Scotland 苏格兰的 中心地带 • an impressive tree lined drive leading to the main property (15 acres away) 距酒店15英亩以外 有一条林荫车道
议室空间太过狭小
• Conference room too large, was like being in a
barn 会议室太大，给人感觉像臵身在仓库中
• Lack of natural daylight made the rooms uncomfortable 房间内自然光不足，使人感觉不适 • No air conditioning 没有空调 • Some staff surly 有些员工态度粗鲁无礼 • Not sufficient parking 没有足够的停车位 • No evidence of IT services 没有提供互联网等服务
• of these establishments, two are privately owned and operated 在这些扩建产业中，有两间是 私人经营的 • two are company units 另外两间属于公司旗下
• two national Motorway Services operators
时段，应提前4周进行预订
Feedback from the client 客户反馈 • Great food, very slow service 食物非常美味，但 服务速度太慢、效率低下
• Bedrooms a bit dull 客房的陈设、布臵有些沉闷
• Conference room too small for the number 会
可雇佣兼职和临时工，包括当需征用额外人手时请来
的学生
•
in the past the hotel has relied upon these additional temporary staff to undertake the conference work 过去酒店一直依赖于这些额外的 临时工来完成会议接待和服务的工作
• Three Assessment Tasks • Based on ONE Case Study (keep the copy)
• You are allowed to bring 1 × A4 page of original
notes (200 - 250 words) into the assessment area • Only ONE page of notes will be allowable
More detailed staffing structure & info 组织架构
House Keeping 客房部
• Jack as the supervisor 杰克担任主管职责
•
•
Isa, feels always put upon 伊莎感到工作负担过重
very reliable and objects when she has to cover
• the hotel enjoys an excellent non-resident
trade 为酒店餐厅带来大量的非住店客人
• due to the use of the best local ingredients and
her staff’s skills 坚信成功秘诀来源于上好的当地食
• last post was in a 200 bed roomed hotel with leisure facilities in the south of England 他的上 一份工作是在英格兰南部的的一家有200间客房的酒店 管理休闲娱乐设施 • at present, due to family commitments, he is
• current chairperson of a local good restaurant Association 现任当地优秀餐厅协会主席
• adopts a Chef Patron role in the hotel
restaurant 酒店餐厅的厨师赞助人 • reputation for quality and standards of cuisine 以菜品的优质量和高标准而闻名
• duties include telephone 职责范围包括接听电话
③ 3 full-time Porters 3名全职的行李员
•
who double as handymen and gardeners 还同
时担任勤杂工和园艺工
④ 3 full-time Kitchen staff 3名全职的厨房员工 ⑤ 4 full-time Food service staff 4名全职的餐饮服务 人员 ⑥ 2 full-time Bar staff 2名全职的吧台工作人员 ⑦ 2 full-time General Assistants 2名全职的总助理
Glasgow
the largest city in
Scotland and third most populous in the
United Kingdom
Edinburgh
capital city of Scotland, the second largest city
in Scotland
材及员工的娴熟技巧 • hotel regularly undertakes functions for business and private individuals 酒店定期地承接 商务和私人性质的宴会活动
case study的作用
case study，也称为个案研究，是对某一特定个体、单位、现象或主题进行的研究。
其作用体现在多个方面：
深入了解研究对象：case study允许研究人员对特定个体、群体、企业或现象进行深入的、详细的研究，通过对研究对象产生与发展的过程、内在与外在因素及其相互关系的全面了解和分析，研究人员可以形成对有关问题的深入全面的认识和结论。
拓展工作经验和丰富专业知识：通过case study，研究人员可以根据此前的科学研究，进一步拓展其工作经验，并丰富现有的专业知识体系。
验证理论或假设：在某些情况下，case study被用来验证特定的理论或假设。
研究人员通过对特定案例的深入研究，来测试理论或假设的有效性和适用性。
提供实践指导：case study的结果可以为实践提供指导。
例如，在企业管理领域，对成功或失败企业的案例研究可以为其他企业提供借鉴和启示，帮助企业避免犯同样的错误或复制成功的模式。
激发新的研究思路：通过对特定案例的深入研究，研究人员可能会发现新的研究问题或思路，从而推动相关领域的进一步研究。
总的来说，case study是一种非常有用的研究方法，可以帮助我们深入了解研究对象，拓展知识和经验，验证理论或假设，提供实践指导，以及激发新的研究思路。
case study和field study
Case study和field study是两种常见的研究方法，它们在社会科学研究中扮演着重要的角色。
本文将就这两种研究方法进行深入探讨，从定义、特点、应用领域和优缺点等方面展开阐述。
一、案例研究（case study）1.定义案例研究是一种深入细致地对一个个案或少数几个相关个案进行全面分析和研究的方法。
在案例研究中，研究者会就研究对象的历史、背景、活动等方面进行深入的了解和研究。
2.特点（1）深入性：案例研究具有深入细致地对个案进行研究的特点，能够全面深入地了解个案的方方面面。
（2）个别性：案例研究侧重于对个别个案进行研究，而非对整体进行概括分析。
（3）多样性：案例研究可以涉及多种类型的个案，如个人、组织、事件等。
3.应用领域案例研究在社会科学领域有着广泛的应用，尤其在管理学、教育学、心理学等领域有着重要地位。
通过案例研究，研究者可以深入了解个案的内在规律，为理论的建构和验证提供重要依据。
4.优缺点（1）优点：案例研究能够深入了解个案的方方面面，有利于发现新现象、构建新理论，具有较高的启发性和反思性。
（2）缺点：由于案例研究的个别性和局限性，其研究结果通常具有一定的局限性，难以进行横向比较和总体推广。
二、实地研究（field study）1.定义实地研究是一种通过实地调查和观察的方式进行研究的方法。
在实地研究中，研究者会亲自前往研究对象所在的环境进行深入观察和调查，以获取真实、客观的数据和信息。
2.特点（1）真实性：实地研究可以获取真实、客观的数据和信息，有利于揭示事物的真实状态和规律。
（2）全面性：实地研究可以全面地观察和调查研究对象，获取丰富的信息和数据。
（3）灵活性：实地研究能够根据实际情况进行灵活的调整和改进，有利于获取更加准确的数据和信息。
3.应用领域实地研究在人类学、地理学、生态学等领域有着广泛的应用，尤其对于需要直接观察、调查的研究对象具有重要意义。
通过实地研究，研究者可以深入了解研究对象所在的环境、文化和社会生活，为理论的建构和实践的开展提供重要支持。
case analysis与case study
case analysis与case studyCase Analysis与Case Study一、概述Case Analysis和Case Study都是一种研究方法，用于分析和解决实际问题。
它们都需要对特定的情境进行深入的研究和分析，以便找到最佳的解决方案。
但是，这两种方法在研究设计、数据收集和分析等方面存在差异。
二、Case Analysis1. 定义Case Analysis是一种系统性的方法，用于研究一个特定问题或情境。
它通常涉及对相关文献的收集和分析，并且需要对数据进行逻辑推理和解释。
在这个过程中，研究者需要使用各种工具来帮助他们理解问题，并提出最佳的解决方案。
2. 设计在进行Case Analysis时，研究者需要有一个清晰的设计，以确保他们能够收集到必要的信息并得出正确的结论。
这通常包括以下步骤：(1) 确定问题：首先，研究者需要明确他们要解决什么问题，并确定该问题所处的情境。
(2) 收集信息：接下来，研究者需要收集尽可能多的信息来了解该情境。
这可能包括采访相关人员、查阅文献或分析数据等。
(3) 分析信息：在收集到足够的信息后，研究者需要对其进行分析，以确定最佳的解决方案。
这可能涉及到逻辑推理、数据分析或其他方法。
(4) 提出结论：最后，研究者需要根据他们的分析提出最佳的解决方案，并提供相关建议。
3. 数据收集和分析在进行Case Analysis时，研究者通常需要使用多种数据收集和分析工具。
这可能包括文献综述、问卷调查、深入访谈、焦点小组讨论等。
在收集到数据后，研究者还需要对其进行逻辑推理和解释，以确定最佳的解决方案。
三、Case Study1. 定义Case Study是一种详细的研究方法，用于深入了解一个特定情境或事件。
它通常涉及对个人、团体或组织进行深入访谈和观察，并且需要对数据进行详细的描述和分析。
在这个过程中，研究者需要使用各种工具来帮助他们理解问题，并提出最佳的解决方案。
个案研究法(Case Study)
个案研究法（Case Study）陈姿伶中兴大学农业推广教育研究所早在1870年，美国哈佛大学法学院即创用此一个案研究法来训练学生思考法律的原理原则。
依叶重新（2001）的考证，此法最初多用于医学方面，应用于研究病人的案例；尔后，陆续地于心理学、社会学及工商管理学等领域相继被沿用，至今于教育界的运用也相当广泛，大都采此法于教学与相关的学习研究上，或者应用于教育心理与儿童心理等领域，特别对于超常儿童、特殊才能儿童、学习落后或低度缺陷儿童等类型学习者的心理研究。
而在这当中几位举足轻重的关键学者，如实验心理学家菲吉纳于1860年创立新物法，针对个别对象，进行有系统的感官研究，建立著名的Fecher’s Law。
之后，弗洛伊德及皮亚杰等，于其所涉及的相关研究中皆不难发现「个案研究法」被运用的例证。
以弗洛伊德为例，可被视为是运用个案研究法于精神病学的先驱，就其处理精神神经症的病人方面言之，则是致力于发现所谓的「一致的经验模式」。
在其细心的探求下，使得病人能够回忆自己在儿童及年轻时代所发生的，但却已遗忘良久的，有关创伤性的或与性有关的意外事件，根据弗洛伊德的假设：这些意外事件或可用来解释病人的神经性行为，以所曾研究之Sergei Petrov 的—位狼人（the Wolf Man）的生活史来说，其最后并以「来自婴幼期神经症的生活史」（From the History of an Infantile Neurosis）为标题，将研究结果撰写成书并于1918年出版问世，此书则是弗洛伊德应用个案研究的典型例举之一，且其所归结获致之个案的结果，事实上与其假设一致吻合，这亦使得心理的个案分析因此一时蔚为时尚，且被认定视为一项有效的处理事情的方法。
总言之，个案的运用与分析，在法律和医学知识的传授上，早就成为最基本的教学工具之一。
法律的名词称个案为「案例」或「判例」，医学的名词则称其为「病例」。
至于个案分析在社会学上的发展沿革，则可依年代顺序归纳如下：（1）1908年，哈佛大学创设企业管理研究所，由经济学家Edwin F, Gay担任首任院长，他认为企管教学，应仿效哈佛法学院的教学方法，Gay称作「问题方法」（problem method），自此哈佛大学设置个案发展单位。
experiment 和 survey 、case study -回复
experiment 和survey 、case study -回复实验（Experiment）与调查（Survey）与案例研究（Case Study）是研究领域经常使用的三种研究方法。
本文将逐步回答关于这三种方法的主题，并分析它们的优劣和适用情况。
一、实验（Experiment）实验是一种控制变量的研究方法，旨在验证因果关系。
研究者通过人为控制和操纵独立变量（自变量），以观察其对因变量（结果变量）的影响。
实验通常包括以下几个步骤：1. 确定研究目标和研究问题：在进行实验之前，研究者需要明确研究的目的和问题，以便确定需要研究的因变量和自变量。
2. 设计实验：在实验设计过程中，研究者需要确定实验组和对照组，并且控制其他可能混淆结果的变量。
此外，研究者还需要确定合适的实验条件和方法。
3. 实施实验：在此步骤中，研究者根据实验设计操作实验，并记录观测数据。
4. 分析数据和得出结论：通过对实验数据的统计分析，研究者可以得出结论并验证研究假设。
常用的统计方法包括t检验、方差分析等。
优点：- 提供强有力的因果推断：在实验中，研究者能够控制自变量，并随机分配样本，从而可以准确判断自变量对因变量的影响。
- 可重复性高：实验的步骤和条件可以详细记录，并通过其他研究者的重复实验进行验证和复制。
缺点：- 人工环境的限制：实验通常在实验室控制情境中进行，因此对于某些研究课题，实验室环境无法完全模拟现实生活。
- 可能存在实验效应：实验过程中，可能因为实验者的主观因素或参与者的期望而影响到结果。
二、调查（Survey）调查是通过对样本进行问卷、访谈等方式进行数据收集，以了解特定问题的研究方法。
常见调查的步骤包括：1. 定义研究目标和研究问题：研究者需要明确研究的目标和问题，并设计适当的调查工具。
2. 设计问卷或面谈指南：根据研究问题，研究者可以选择设计问卷或准备面谈指南，以便逐一获得受访者的信息。
3. 选择样本和数据收集：研究者需要选择合适的样本，并通过在线调查、面对面访谈等方式收集数据。
case study和field study
case study和field study摘要：1.研究背景与目的2.案例研究与实地研究的定义与特点3.案例研究与实地研究的应用范围与优势4.案例研究与实地研究的区别与联系5.结论正文：1.研究背景与目的在社会科学、教育学、管理学等领域的研究中，研究方法的选择至关重要。
不同的研究方法对应着不同的研究目的和应用场景。
在众多研究方法中，案例研究（case study）和实地研究（field study）是两种非常常见的研究方法。
它们可以帮助研究者深入了解研究对象的内在规律，为理论研究和实践应用提供有力支持。
本文旨在概括性地介绍案例研究和实地研究的相关内容，帮助研究者更好地选择适合的研究方法。
2.案例研究与实地研究的定义与特点案例研究是一种以具体事件、现象或组织为研究对象，通过收集、整理和分析第一手和第二手资料，来揭示研究对象特征、发展过程及其内在联系的研究方法。
案例研究的主要特点包括：研究对象的具体性、研究方法的多样性、研究过程的动态性以及研究结果的独特性。
实地研究是一种在自然环境下进行的、以研究对象的实际行为和活动为主要研究内容的研究方法。
实地研究强调研究者在现场观察、参与和互动，以获取对研究对象的直接了解和认识。
实地研究的主要特点包括：研究场景的真实性、研究过程的参与性、研究资料的原始性和研究结果的情境性。
3.案例研究与实地研究的应用范围与优势案例研究在以下领域有广泛的应用：教育改革、企业管理、政策分析、市场营销等。
案例研究的优势主要体现在：深入了解研究对象、揭示事物内在规律、为理论研究和实践应用提供支持等方面。
实地研究在以下领域有广泛的应用：民族文化研究、社区发展、环境保护、组织行为等。
实地研究的优势主要体现在：获取原始资料、研究结果具有情境性、提高研究者对研究对象的理解和认识等方面。
4.案例研究与实地研究的区别与联系案例研究和实地研究在研究对象、研究方法和研究场景等方面有一定的区别，但它们在研究目的、研究过程和研究成果等方面有很多相似之处。
case study
Case Study1.Definition：(1)A case study research method is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context (Robert K. Yin,1984).(2) A case study is an intensive analysis of an individual unit (e.g., a person, group, or event) stressing developmental factors in relation to context (Flyvbjerg B,2011).Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves.A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and description.Overview：Case studies typically examine the interplay of all variables in order to provide as complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. This type of comprehensive understanding is arrived at through a process known as thick description, which involves an in-depth description of the entity being evaluated, the circumstances under which it is used, the characteristics of the people involved in it, and the nature of the community in which it is located. Thick description also involves interpreting the meaning of demographic and descriptive data such as cultural norms and mores, community values, ingrained attitudes, and motives.Unlike quantitative methods of research, like the survey, which focus on the questions of who, what, where, how much, and how many, and archival analysis, which often situates the participant in some form of historical context, case studies are the preferred strategy when how or why questions are asked. L ikewise, they are the preferred method when the researcher has little control over the events, and when there is a contemporary focus within a real life context. In addition, unlike more specifically directed experiments, case studies require a problem that seeks a holistic understanding of the event or situation in question using inductive logic--reasoning from specific to more general terms.In scholarly circles, case studies are frequently discussed within the context of qualitative research and naturalistic inquiry. Case studies are often referred to interchangeably with ethnography, field study, and participant observation. The underlying philosophical assumptions in the case are similar to these types of qualitative research because each takes place in a natural setting (such as a classroom, neighborhood, or private home), and strives for a more holistic interpretation of the event or situation under study.Unlike more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, thegoal of a case study is to offer new variables and questions for further research.F.H. Giddings, a sociologist in the early part of the century, compares statistical methods to the case study "on the basis that the former are concerned with the distribution of a particular trait, or a small number of traits, in a population, whereas the case study is concerned with the whole variety of traits to be found in a particular instance" (Hammersley 95).2. Types：Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions, each of which is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator. These types of case study include the following:1). Illustrative Case StudiesThese are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.2).Exploratory (or pilot) Case StudiesThese are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.3).Cumulative Case StudiesThese serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.4).Critical Instance Case StudiesThese examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.Identifying a Theoretical PerspectiveMuch of the case study's design is inherently determined for researchers, depending on the field from which they are working. In composition studies, researchers aretypically working from a qualitative, descriptive standpoint. In contrast, physicists will approach their research from a more quantitative perspective. Still, in designing the study, researchers need to make explicit the questions to be explored and the theoretical perspective from which they will approach the case. The three most commonly adopted theories are listed below:Individual TheoriesThese focus primarily on the individual development, cognitive behavior, personality, learning and disability, and interpersonal interactions of a particular subject. Organizational TheoriesThese focus on bureaucracies, institutions, organizational structure and functions, or excellence in organizational performance.Social TheoriesThese focus on urban development, group behavior, cultural institutions, or marketplace functions.3.Designing a Case Study：After considering the different sub categories of case study and identifying a theoretical perspective, researchers can begin to design their study. Research design is the string of logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study. Typically, research designs deal with at least four problems:∙What questions to study∙What data are relevant∙What data to collect∙How to analyze that dataIn other words, a research design is basically a blueprint for getting from the beginning to the end of a study. The beginning is an initial set of questions to be answered, and the end is some set of conclusions about those questions.Because case studies are conducted on topics as diverse as Anglo-Saxon Literature (Thrane 1986) and AIDS prevention (Van Vugt 1994), it is virtually impossible to outline any strict or universal method or design for conducting the case study. However, Robert K. Yin (1993) does offer five basic components of a research design:1. A study's questions.2. A study's propositions (if any).3. A study's units of analysis.4.The logic linking of the data to the propositions.5.The criteria for interpreting the findings.In addition to these five basic components, Yin also stresses the importance of clearly articulating one's theoretical perspective, determining the goals of the study, selecting one's subject(s), selecting the appropriate method(s) of collecting data, and providing some considerations to the composition of the final report.4. Conducting Case StudiesTo obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of approaches and methods. These approaches, methods, and related issues are discussed in depth in this section.∙Single or Multi-modal approachTo obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of methods. Some common methods include interviews, protocol analyses, field studies, and participant-observations. Emig (1971) chose to use several methods of data collection. Her sources included conversations with the students, protocol analysis, discrete observations of actual composition, writing samples from each student, and school records (Lauer and Asher 1988).Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) collected data by observing classrooms, conducting faculty and student interviews, collecting self reports from the subject, and by looking at the subject's written work.A study that was criticized for using a single method model was done by Flower and Hayes (1984). In this study that explores the ways in which writers use different forms of knowing to create space, the authors used only protocol analysis to gather data. The study came under heavy fire because of their decision to use only one method, and it was, at least according to some researchers, an unreliable method at that.∙Participant SelectionCase studies can use one participant, or a small group of participants. However, it is important that the participant pool remain relatively small. The participants can represent a diverse cross section of society, but this isn't necessary.For example, the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study looked at just one participant, Nate. By contrast, in Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composition process of twelfth graders, eight participants were selected representing a diverse cross section of the community, with volunteers from an all-white upper-middle-classsuburban school, an all-black inner-city school, a racially mixed lower-middle-class school, an economically and racially mixed school, and a university school.Often, a brief "case history" is done on the participants of the study in order to provide researchers with a clearer understanding of their participants, as well as some insight as to how their own personal histories might affect the outcome of the study. For instance, in Emig's study, the investigator had access to the school records of five of the participants, and to standardized test scores for the remaining three. Also made available to the researcher was the information that three of the eight students were selected as NCTE Achievement Award winners. These personal histories can be useful in later stages of the study when data are being analyzed and conclusions drawn.Data CollectionThere are six types of data collected in case studies:1.Documents.2.Archival records.3.Interviews.4.Direct observation.5.Participant observation.6.Artifacts.In the field of composition research, these six sources might be:1. A writer's drafts.2.School records of student writers.3.Transcripts of interviews with a writer.4.Transcripts of conversations between writers (and protocols).5.Videotapes and notes from direct field observations.6.Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.Depending on whether researchers have chosen to use a single or multi-modal approach for the case study, they may choose to collect data from one or anycombination of these sources.Protocols, that is, transcriptions of participants talking aloud about what they are doing as they do it, have been particularly common in composition case studies. For example, in Emig's (1971) study, the students were asked, in four different sessions, to give oral autobiographies of their writing experiences and to compose aloud three themes in the presence of a tape recorder and the investigator.In some studies, only one method of data collection is conducted. For example, the Flower and Hayes (1981) report on the cognitive process theory of writing depends on protocol analysis alone. However, using multiple sources of evidence to increase the reliability and validity of the data can be advantageous.Case studies are likely to be much more convincing and accurate if they are based on several different sources of information, following a corroborating mode. This conclusion is echoed among many composition researchers. For example, in her study of predrafting processes of high and low-apprehensive writers, Cynthia Selfe (1985) argues that because "methods of indirect observation provide only an incomplete reflection of the complex set of processes involved in composing, a combination of several such methods should be used to gather data in any one study." Thus, in this study, Selfe collected her data from protocols, observations of students role playing their writing processes, audio taped interviews with the students, and videotaped observations of the students in the process of composing.It can be said then, that cross checking data from multiple sources can help provide a multidimensional profile of composing activities in a particular setting. Sharan Merriam (1985) suggests "checking, verifying, testing, probing, and confirming collected data as you go, arguing that this process will follow in a funnel-like design resulting in less data gathering in later phases of the study along with a congruent increase in analysis checking, verifying, and confirming."It is important to note that in case studies, as in any qualitative descriptive research, while researchers begin their studies with one or several questions driving the inquiry (which influence the key factors the researcher will be looking for during data collection), a researcher may find new key factors emerging during data collection. These might be unexpected patterns or linguistic features which become evident only during the course of the research. While not bearing directly on the researcher's guiding questions, these variables may become the basis for new questions asked at the end of the report, thus linking to the possibility of further research.Data AnalysisAs the information is collected, researchers strive to make sense of their data. Generally, researchers interpret their data in one of two ways: holistically or through coding. Holistic analysis does not attempt to break the evidence into parts, but rather to draw conclusions based on the text as a whole. Flower and Hayes (1981), for example, make inferences from entire sections of their students' protocols, rather than searching through the transcripts to look for isolatable characteristics.However, composition researchers commonly interpret their data by coding, that is by systematically searching data to identify and/or categorize specific observable actions or characteristics. These observable actions then become the key variables in thestudy. Sharan Merriam (1988) suggests seven analytic frameworks for the organization and presentation of data:1.The role of participants.2.The network analysis of formal and informal exchanges among groups.3.Historical.4.Thematical.5.Resources.6.Ritual and symbolism.7.Critical incidents that challenge or reinforce fundamental beliefs, practices,and values.There are two purposes of these frameworks: to look for patterns among the data and to look for patterns that give meaning to the case study.As stated above, while most researchers begin their case studies expecting to look for particular observable characteristics, it is not unusual for key variables to emerge during data collection. Typical variables coded in case studies of writers include pauses writers make in the production of a text, the use of specific linguistic units (such as nouns or verbs), and writing processes (planning, drafting, revising, and editing). In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, researchers coded the participant's texts for use of connectives, discourse demonstratives, average sentence length, off-register words, use of the first person pronoun, and the ratio of definite articles to indefinite articles.Since coding is inherently subjective, more than one coder is usually employed. In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, three rhetoricians were employed to code the participant's texts for off-register phrases. The researchers established the agreement among the coders before concluding that the participant used fewer off-register words as the graduate program progressed.Composing the ReportIn the many forms it can take, "a case study is generically a story; it presents the concrete narrative detail of actual, or at least realistic events, it has a plot, exposition, characters, and sometimes even dialogue" (Boehrer 1990). Generally, case study reports are extensively descriptive, with "the most problematic issue often referred to as being the determination of the right combination of description and analysis" (1990). Typically, authors address each step of the research process, and attempt to give the reader as much context as possible for the decisions made in the research design and for the conclusions drawn.This contextualization usually includes a detailed explanation of the researchers' theoretical positions, of how those theories drove the inquiry or led to the guiding research questions, of the participants' backgrounds, of the processes of datacollection, of the training and limitations of the coders, along with a strong attempt to make connections between the data and the conclusions evident.Although the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study does not, case study reports often include the reactions of the participants to the study or to the researchers' conclusions. Because case studies tend to be exploratory, most end with implications for further study. Here researchers may identify significant variables that emerged during the research and suggest studies related to these, or the authors may suggest further general questions that their case study generated.For example, Emig's (1971) study concludes with a section dedicated solely to the topic of implications for further research, in which she suggests several means by which this particular study could have been improved, as well as questions and ideas raised by this study which other researchers might like to address, such as: is there a correlation between a certain personality and a certain composing process profile (e.g. is there a positive correlation between ego strength and persistence in revising)?Also included in Emig's study is a section dedicated to implications for teaching, which outlines the pedagogical ramifications of the study's findings for teachers currently involved in high school writing programs.Sharan Merriam (1985) also offers several suggestions for alternative presentations of data:1.Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groups.2.Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended questions.3.Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section.4.Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text.5.Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes.6.Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations.5.Strengths and Weaknesses：FlexibilityThe case study approach is a comparatively flexible method of scientific research. Because its project designs seem to emphasize exploration rather than prescription or prediction, researchers are comparatively freer to discover and address issues as they arise in their experiments. In addition, the looser format of case studies allows researchers to begin with broad questions and narrow their focus as their experiment progresses rather than attempt to predict every possible outcome before the experiment is conducted.Emphasis on ContextBy seeking to understand as much as possible about a single subject or small group of subjects, case studies specialize in "deep data," or "thick description"--information based on particular contexts that can give research results a more human face. This emphasis can help bridge the gap between abstract research and concrete practice by allowing researchers to compare their firsthand observations with the quantitative results obtained through other methods of research.Inherent Subjectivity"The case study has long been stereotyped as the weak sibling among social science methods," and is often criticized as being too subjective and even pseudo-scientific. Likewise, "investigators who do case studies are often regarded as having deviated from their academic disciplines, and their investigations as having insufficient precision (that is, quantification), objectivity and rigor" (Yin 1989). Opponents cite opportunities for subjectivity in the implementation, presentation, and evaluation of case study research. The approach relies on personal interpretation of data and inferences. Results may not be generalizable, are difficult to test for validity, and rarely offer a problem-solving prescription. Simply put, relying on one or a few subjects as a basis for cognitive extrapolations runs the risk of inferring too much from what might be circumstance.High InvestmentCase studies can involve learning more about the subjects being tested than most researchers would care to know--their educational background, emotional background, perceptions of themselves and their surroundings, their likes, dislikes, and so on. Because of its emphasis on "deep data," the case study is out of reach for many large-scale research projects which look at a subject pool in the tens of thousands. A budget request of $10,000 to examine 200 subjects sounds more efficient than a similar request to examine four subjects.Ethical ConsiderationsResearchers conducting case studies should consider certain ethical issues. For example, many educational case studies are often financed by people who have, either directly or indirectly, power over both those being studied and those conducting the investigation (1985). This conflict of interests can hinder the credibility of the study. The personal integrity, sensitivity, and possible prejudices and/or biases of the investigators need to be taken into consideration as well. Personal biases can creep into how the research is conducted, alternative research methods used, and the preparation of surveys and questionnaires.A common complaint in case study research is that investigators change direction during the course of the study unaware that their original research design was inadequate for the revised investigation. Thus, the researchers leave unknown gaps and biases in the study. To avoid this, researchers should report preliminary findings so that the likelihood of bias will be reduced.6. Concerns about V alidity, Reliability, and GeneralizabilityMerriam (1985) offers several suggestions for how case study researchers might actively combat the popular attacks on the validity, reliability, and generalizability of case studies:Steps to Improve Validity and Reliability∙Prolong the Processes of Data Gathering on Site: This will help to insure the accuracy of the findings by providing the researcher with more concreteinformation upon which to formulate interpretations.∙Employ the Process of "Triangulation": Use a variety of data sources as opposed to relying solely upon one avenue of observation. One example ofsuch a data check would be what McClintock, Brannon, and Maynard (1985)refer to as a "case cluster method," that is, when a single unit within a largercase is randomly sampled, and that data treated quantitatively." For instance,in Emig's (1971) study, the case cluster method was employed, singling outthe productivity of a single student named Lynn. This cluster profile includedan advanced case history of the subject, specific examination and analysis ofindividual compositions and protocols, and extensive interview sessions. Theseven remaining students were then compared with the case of Lynn, toascertain if there are any shared, or unique dimensions to the composingprocess engaged in by these eight students.∙Conduct Member Checks: Initiate and maintain an active corroboration on the interpretation of data between the researcher and those who provided thedata. In other words, talk to your subjects.∙Collect Referential Materials: Complement the file of materials from the actual site with additional document support. For example, Emig (1971)supports her initial propositions with historical accounts by writers such as T.S.Eliot, James Joyce, and D.H. Lawrence. Emig also cites examples oftheoretical research done with regards to the creative process, as well asexamples of empirical research dealing with the writing of adolescents.Specific attention is then given to the four stages description of the composingprocess delineated by Helmoltz, Wallas, and Cowley, as it serves as the focalpoint in this study.∙Engage in Peer Consultation: Prior to composing the final draft of the report, researchers should consult with colleagues in order to establish validitythrough pooled judgment.。
咨询case study 案例及解析
咨询case study 案例及解析摘要：一、案例概述二、案例分析1.问题阐述2.解决方案3.分析与评价三、可读性与实用性提升策略1.叙述方式2.结构优化3.语言表达四、总结与建议正文：【一、案例概述】在当今社会，咨询case study（案例及解析）愈发受到人们的关注。
本文将详细解析一个具有代表性的案例，并从中提炼出有价值的经验教训，以供读者参考。
【二、案例分析】1.问题阐述在这个案例中，我们关注到一个企业面临的一系列问题。
这些问题包括市场竞争加剧、业绩下滑、员工流失率高等。
为了摆脱困境，企业决定寻求外部咨询师的帮助。
2.解决方案咨询师在了解企业现状后，提出了一套完善的解决方案。
主要包括：（1）优化企业内部管理机制，提高工作效率；（2）调整市场战略，明确目标客户群体；（3）加强员工培训，提高员工满意度。
3.分析与评价从解决方案的实施效果来看，企业业绩得到了明显提升。
这表明，咨询师的方案具有针对性和实用性。
同时，我们也应注意到，企业在解决这些问题过程中所付出的努力和投入。
【三、可读性与实用性提升策略】1.叙述方式为了提高文章的可读性，本文在叙述方式上采用了生动、形象的语言。
在描述案例过程中，注重细节描绘，让读者更容易产生共鸣。
2.结构优化在文章结构上，我们遵循了逻辑清晰的原则。
从问题阐述、解决方案到分析与评价，每个环节都有条不紊地进行，使读者能够更好地理解案例的全貌。
3.语言表达在语言表达上，我们力求简洁明了，避免冗余。
同时，注重语言的优美和韵律，让读者在阅读过程中感受到愉悦。
【四、总结与建议】通过对这个咨询case study的解析，我们可以得出以下结论：1.企业应重视案例研究，从中汲取经验教训，以应对现实中的困境；2.选择合适的解决方案，必须充分考虑企业的实际情况；3.加强内部管理，提高员工满意度，是企业持续发展的关键。
此外，我们还建议企业在遇到问题时，勇于寻求外部帮助，结合专业咨询师的指导，制定出更具针对性的解决方案。
Case studies
1. Introduction
Case studies are particularly suitable for longitudinal research （纵向研究）(where you observe the individual change over time and focus is on comparisons of the individual’s performance on a sequence of occasions). They are a vehicle for both qualitative and quantitative research, and can be appropriate for projects in: 1) First-language acquisition (一语习得) 2) Second-language acquisition （二语习得） 3) Language and education (including the acquisition of literacy) （语言与教育 包括读写能力的习得） 4) Some areas of psycholinguistics （心理语言学）
选择个案的关键问题是决定在研究结束时能说些什么，个案 的选择应有一定的意义，其结果是可被推广的。因此，详细 描述个案就有点类似于在定量研究中详细描述从样本中获取 的结果普遍运用到所有人身上的过程。 例如，保拉•克莱恩和保拉•克莱切特（Paula Kleine—Kracht) 姐妹的研究是关于中学校长培养其他成员的教学领导才能， 并以此间接地影响教学。 在这个研究中，被调查的普遍现象是教学领导才能。该个案 是一位教学领导的特殊例子（一位中学校长），也就是推进 教职员的教学领导活动。该个案研究的成果可以推广给其他 校长并对其他教学领导现象有重要意义。
experiment 和 survey 、case study
experiment 和survey 、case study"Experiment"、"survey" 和"case study" 是研究中常用的三种方法，它们具有不同的特点和用途：1. Experiment：实验是一种受控的研究方法，其中研究者系统地改变一个或多个变量，并观察这些变化对其他变量的影响。
实验通常用于验证因果关系，确定因素之间的因果关系。
在实验中，研究者可以操纵自变量，控制其他可能影响结果的因素，并通过比较不同条件下的结果来得出结论。
例如：一个食品科学家可能进行一项实验，研究不同温度对某种食品口感的影响。
2. Survey：调查是一种通过询问受访者问题来收集数据的研究方法。
调查可以是面对面、通过电话、邮件或在线进行。
调查的目的是了解人们的态度、观点、行为或其他特征。
调查可以用于描述性研究、相关性研究或探索性研究。
例如：一个市场研究公司可能进行一项消费者调查，以了解人们对某个产品的偏好和购买意愿。
3. Case study：案例研究是对一个特定个体、组织或情况进行深入调查和分析的研究方法。
案例研究通常用于深入了解复杂的现象、问题或事件，并提供详细的描述和解释。
通过对特定案例的研究，可以揭示其中的关键因素、因果关系和潜在的解决方案。
例如：一个社会学家可能进行一项关于某个社区的案例研究，以了解其社会结构和文化特征。
这些研究方法各有优缺点，适用于不同的研究问题和情境。
选择合适的研究方法取决于研究的目的、研究问题的性质以及可获得的数据和资源。
在研究中，通常可以结合使用多种方法以获得更全面和可靠的结果。