语言学与翻译学第4..revised
语言学教程Chapter4
语言学教程Chapter4Chapter 4 Syntax4.1 The traditional approach4.1.1 Number, gender and case4.1.2 T ense and aspect[For these two sections, please consult materials on traditional English grammar. –icywarmtea]4.1.3 Concord and governmentConcord (a.k.a. agreement) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. E.g. in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concordin number as in this man, these men. And the form of a subject should agree with that ofthe verb in terms of number in the present tense, e.g. He speaks English; They speakEnglish.Government is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic construction. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship inwhich a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certaincategory. E.g. in English, the pronoun after a verb or a preposition should be in theobject form as in She gave him a book; She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb,or the preposition, governs the form of the pronoun after it.The former is the governor,and the latter is the governed.4.2 The structural approach4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic (a.k.a. horizontal / chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relationbetween weather and the others in the following sentence: If the weather is nice, we’llgo out.Paradigmatic (a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between oneelement present and the others absent.4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)1. How to do itImmediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence or a word group or a word.Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of asentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. The IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or shown with a tree diagram. E.g.Poor John ran away. →(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).(2)2. Its advantagesThrough IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, any ambiguities, if any, will be revealed in that IC analysis emphasizes not only the linear structure of the sentence but also the hierarchical structure of the sentence.E.g. the sentence Leave the book on the shelf. is ambiguous. It has two meanings: (1)Put the book on the shelf; (2) Don’t touch the book on the shelf. These two meanings can be shown by the following tree diagrams. (Omitted. See the textbook p125~128.)3. Its problemsHowever, IC analysis has three disadvantages. First, at the beginning, some advocator insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not possible. E.g. Old men and women is ambiguous in that it may me an old + men and women or old men + and women. It’s impossible to combine with only the preceding part or only the succeeding part. Second, constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis.E.g. the phrasal verbs like make up, turn on, or give up will cause problems in that whenthe object is expressed by a pronoun, it will interrupt the phrasal verb as in make it up.The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis. E.g. the tree diagram and the labels can only do one analysis for the love of God.4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructionsAn endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also called headed construction. Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions. Those, in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constructions dependent, are subordinate constructions. In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head,e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equalsyntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center or head in it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plus object constructions.4. The behavioral process (a process of behavioring): physiological andpsychological behavior.5. The verbal process (a process of saying): any kinds of symbolic exchange ofmeaning.6. The existential process (a process of happening): a representation ofsomething in existence or happening/These six processes form a circle as follows: (omitted. Seetextbook, p.155)。
语言学与翻译的关系
语言学与翻译翻译有助于本国文化的发展。
这一点，老一辈的翻译家们已经作出了很大的贡献。
许多新字眼、新的句法就是通过翻译外文而产生的。
在古代的中国文字中，哪有“沙文主义”（chauvinism）、“罗曼蒂克”（romantic）、“俱乐部”（club）、“盘尼西林”（penicillin）等词语？由于很多新的词语使我们能更好地了解某些事情，所以我们接受并运用了，有时甚至不知道它们是从外语中翻译过来的。
►同样地，英语中有很多词语（尤其是习语）也是源于外国语言，特别是西方语言，如希腊语、拉丁语、法语、德语和西班牙语等。
汉语中有部分词语也被译成英文，受到广泛的应有，并且很多已被列为正式的英语。
例如英语中的“茶”（tea）就是由福建话音译为英语的。
近年流行于外国的kung fu（功夫）和势将流行的wu shu（武术）也会逐渐被吸收进英语中去。
►有些词语和习语由于用途广或意义佳，所以更可能从一种语言翻译成为另一种语言之后，再被子译为第三或第四种语言。
如英语中的sour grape来自希腊的《伊索寓言》，汉语又从英语中直译过来，成为“酸葡萄”，同样用来表示“可望而不可及”的东西。
1．1 理论语言学与翻译►从全球的角度看，当代语言学的分支很多，带有“语言学”字样的学科或专业名称就有：社会语言学、人类语言学、心理语言学、认知语言学、神经语言学、计算语言学、语料库语言学、历史语言学、比较语言学等。
还有一些不带“语言学”字样的，如语音学、音系学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学、会话分析、语篇分析等。
一般把这些不带的称为理论语言学，那些带的称为应用语言学。
理论语言学跟应用语言学的区分是不能反映当代语言学的特色的。
这是因为所谓的应用语言学本身也有很多理论问题，同样理论语言学也有许多应用成分。
►实际上，我们可以把当代语言学比成一盏发光的灯：核心是语言学的传统研究领域如语音学、音系学、词汇学、句法学和语义学，核心的外围是一些新兴分支如语用学、会话分析、语篇分析等。
语言学+chapter+4
AP (Deg程度) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to
PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near thier
X Head
Complement
Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.
X’ Theory
heads
More…
Phrase elements
Specifier Head complement
Specifiers
Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head;
syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
Phrase structure: a representation of the set of constituents that an expression contains.
语言学与翻译学
语言学与翻译学语言是人类沟通、交流的重要工具，是人类文明的重要一环。
语言的研究和掌握，是人类智慧的结晶，也是文明的传承。
语言学是研究语言结构、语言规律、语言演变等的学科。
而翻译学则是研究语言的转换和交互的学科。
这两门学科在现代社会发挥着重要的作用，下面我从多个角度来探讨这两门学科。
语言学语言是人类思维和文化的载体，也是人类交流的重要工具。
语言学作为一门学科，旨在研究语言的本质、结构、功能等问题。
它是跨学科的，涵盖了哲学、语言哲学、文化学、社会学、心理学、神经学等多个学科。
它从各种角度和层面探究语言的现象，包括语音学、语法学、词汇学、语用学、心理语言学、社会语言学、比较语言学、历史语言学等。
通过对不同方面的研究，人们能更好地了解语言的本质和规律，也能更好地管窥人类思维的本质。
语言学是语言研究的基础学科，它的研究成果不仅对语言和词汇的描述、对语言文化的研究、对语言教育和翻译的实践，都有着重要的启发和指导作用。
语言学的研究对象是自然语言，它就像普通话、英语、法语等这些大家平常说的语言。
这些自然语言都有自己独特的语音、词汇和语法规则。
语言学主要涉及以下几个方面的内容：1. 语音学语音学是研究语音和音素的学科。
我们每天说话的时候，发出来的东西其实就是音素。
音素不是声音，而是语音学上的抽象概念，它是指语音中最小的、能够区分意义的单位。
语音学就是研究这些音素的形式和使用规律，其中主要涉及到的问题包括音素和音位、语音变化、语音调节等等。
2. 语法学语法学是研究语言形式的学科。
它主要研究语言的词法和句法规则。
在词法方面，语法学研究的是单词的词性、屈折和构词规则；在句法方面，它研究的是句子结构和句型、句子成分、句法中心和句法关系等问题。
语法学对人学习语言，尤其是第二语言习得有着重要的意义。
3. 词汇学词汇学是研究词汇的学科。
它涉及到的问题包括词的定义、类别、形态、用法和意义等。
词汇学家研究词汇的好处是了解一个语言丰富多样的词汇以及不同语言之间的字根、前缀、后缀等等变化规则。
翻译系列图书简介
《翻译、重写、文学声誉之操纵》安德烈•列夫维尔著《翻译、重写、文学声誉之操纵》是苏珊•巴斯奈特（Susan Bassnett）和安德烈•列夫维尔（AndréLefevere）主编的《翻译学丛书》（1992）之一；由安德烈•列夫维尔撰著。
1978年，列夫维尔建议学术界将Translation Studies作为翻译学的正式名称；他与霍姆斯（James Holmes）及巴斯奈特等人均为“翻译研究派”（Translation Studies）的中坚人物。
其后巴斯奈特和列夫维尔成为文化学派的代表人物；《翻译、重写、文学声誉之操纵》被视为列夫维尔的代表作。
该书以“重写”文学者而非文学创作者为对象。
著者认为，评论、选编、史学、编辑等都是重写；翻译也是一种重写，它使原文的生命得以延续，因而具有巨大力量。
正如《丛书》前言所云：“翻译确是一种对原文本实施的重写。
凡重写，不论其意图何在，均反映了某种意识形态及诗学传统（第五章；第六章），从而使文学以某种方式在社会中发挥作用。
重写乃借权力以施为；在促进文学及社会演进方面具有积极意义。
”该书揭示了重写如何在文学作品的接受、意识形态及诗学等方面产生重大影响。
例如作者坚持将文学的创作与接受置于文化及其历史大背景下进行考察，给读者展示了在后马克思主义意义上，文学的社会语境及其历史语境中的重写如何对文学领域中诸如原创性、灵感、臻美等神旨圣典产生颠覆发表了富有争议的看法。
此外，该书涉猎文献丰富，包括古典拉丁文、法文、德文；使有兴于文论、比较文学、文学史及翻译学的师生耳目一新。
该书章节目录如下：第一章：前言第二章：赞助体系第三章：诗学体系第四章：范畴之于翻译第五章：意识形态之于翻译第六章：诗学之于翻译第七章：话语之于翻译第八章：语言之于翻译第九章：史学第十章：文选第十一章：批评安德烈·列夫维尔：比利时人，曾先后在香港、安德卫普等地的大学、最后在美国得克萨斯大学奥斯汀（Austin）分校日尔曼语言及比较文学系任教。
新译林版高二英语选择性必修四课文及翻译(unit4)
Unit 4 Never too old to learnReading Learning for life 终身学习The more I learn, the better I know how much there is still left to learn. As I journey through my life, I have become aware that acquiring knowledge is not only a means by which you can better understand the world, but also a way of appreciating how much, as an individual, you do not know. The ability to admit this should be perceived not as a weakness, but as a strength. I once had an art teacher who pointed out that it is not only what you can see that is important, but also what you cannot see. When I drew a still life, it was impressed upon me that the blank spaces between the objects were just as vital to the success of the composition as the actual objects themselves. Also, as the great educator Confucius stated, “When you know a thing, to recognize t hat you know it and when you do not know a thing, to recognize that you do not know it 一that is knowledge!"我学得越多，就越知道还有多少东西要学。
《英语语言学》术语 英汉对照 表
语言学术语（英-汉对照）表Glossary and Index(备注：因教材改版，部分章节标注等内容有出入。
) Aabbreviation 缩写词，略语3.3.1Abercrombie 10.3.2ablative 夺格，离格4.1.1abstractness 抽象性1.3.2accent 重音（符）2.4.4；2.4.5accuracy 正确性11.6.4accusative 宾格4.1.1achievement test 成绩测试11.6.3acoustic phonetics 声学语音学1.7.1；2.1acquisition 习得6.1.2acronym 缩略语3.3.1action process 动作过程12.2.3actor 动作者4.4.2；12.2.3addition 添加3.3.2address form 称呼形式7.2.3addressee 受话人1.4；9.4.1addresser 发话人1.4；9.4.1adjective 形容词3.1.2；4.1.1；5.5.2adjunct 修饰成分；附加语12.2.3adverb 副词3.1.2affix 词缀3.2.1affix hopping 词缀跳跃4.3.1affixation词缀附加法7.1.4affricate 塞擦音2.4.3；2.4.5；2.9.1agreement 一致关系4.1.3airstream 气流2alliteration 头韵9.3.2；9.3.6allomorph 词/语素变体3.2.4；4.3.1allophone 音位变体2.8allophonic variation 音位变体2.8.3allophony音位变体现象2.8.3alveolar ridge 齿龈2.2alveolar 齿龈音2.4.4；2.4.5ambiguity 歧义4.2.2；4.3.1；6.2.3；8.2.2；8.3.2 ambiguous歧义的5.5.2；6.3American descriptive linguistics 美国描写语言学12.3 American English 美式英语10.3.5American Indian languages 美国印第安族诸语言12.3 American structuralism 美国结构主义10.3.2；12.3 analogical creation 类推造字3.3.1anapest 抑抑扬格9.3.3anaphor 前指替代4.3.3anaphoric reference 前指照应4.3.2Anderson 6.3.1Animal communication system 动物交际系统1.2；1.3 animate 有生命的4.2.1annotation 注解10.3.4；10.3.5antecedent 先行词；前在词4.3.2anthropological 人类学的12.3.1anthropological linguistics 人类语言学1.8.3；7.1.1 anticipatory coarticulation 逆化协同发音2.6.1 antonomasia 换称；代类名7.1.4antonym 反义词5.4antonymy 反义(关系) 5.3.2appellative 称谓性4.4.2applied linguistics 应用语言学11applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学7.2.4 appropriacy 适宜性11.6.4appropriateness 适宜性；得体性11.2.5 approximant 无摩擦延续音2.4.3；2.4.5Apte 7；7.2.1aptitude test 素质测试11.6.2Arabic 阿拉伯语3.3.1；4.4.1arbitrariness 任意性1.3.1；12argument 中项；中词；主目4.3.3；5.5.2article 冠词3.1.2；4.1.1；4.2.1articulation 发音2.6articulator 发音器官2.4.2；2.4.3articulatory phonetics 发音语音学1.7.1；2.1 artificial speech 人工言语10aspect 体4.1.2aspirated 吐气；送气2.6.2；2.8.2 assimilation 同化2.9.1；3.2.4；3.3.2；6.2.4 associative 联想4.2.1associative meaning 联想意义5.3 assonance 准压韵；半谐音9.3.2；9.3.6 Atkinson, A.M. 2.1attributive 属性；修饰语；定语4.2.2；12.2.3 auditory phonetics 听觉语音学1.7.1；2.1 Austin, John Langshaw 8.1；8.1.2authentic input 真实投入11.4.2authorial style 权威风格9.4.3authoring program 编程10.1.3autonomy 自主性1.8auxiliary 助词3.1.2；12.4.3auxiliary verb 助动词3.1.2；12.2.3Bbabbling stage 婴儿语阶段12.4.1back-formation 逆构词法3.3.1Bally, Charles 9.1Bar-Hillel 10.2.1Barnhart & Barnhart 7.1.4base component 基础部分4.3.2；12.4。
《翻译》课程教学参考书目
“翻译”课程教学参考书目一、翻译教材（按作者姓名汉语拼音排序）陈宏薇，1996，《新实用汉译英教程》。
武汉：湖北教育出版社。
陈宏薇，1998，《汉英翻译基础》。
上海：上海外语教育出版社。
陈茂松，1996，《新编英汉翻译教程》。
北京：旅游教育出版社。
陈廷佑，1994，《英语汉译技巧：跟我学翻译》。
北京：华龄出版社。
范仲英，1994，《实用翻译教程》。
北京：外语教学与研究出版社。
冯庆华，2002，《实用翻译教程（英汉互译）》（增订本）。
上海：上海外语教育出版社。
古今明，1997，《英汉翻译基础》。
上海：上海外语教育出版社。
郭著章、李庆生，1996，《英汉互译实用教程》（修订本）。
武汉：武汉大学出版社。
靳梅琳，1995，《英汉翻译概要》。
天津：南开大学出版社。
居祖纯，1998，《汉英语篇翻译》。
北京：清华大学出版社。
居祖纯，2000，《高级汉英语篇翻译》。
北京：清华大学出版社。
居祖纯，2002，《新编汉英语篇翻译强化训练》。
北京：清华大学出版社。
柯平，1991，《英汉与汉英翻译教程》。
北京：北京大学出版社。
李辛，1993，《实用汉译英手册》。
北京：中国物资出版社。
李运兴，1998，《英汉语篇翻译》。
北京：清华大学出版社。
刘季春，1996，《实用翻译教程》。
广州：中山大学出版社。
刘宓庆，1987，《英汉翻译技能训练手册》。
上海：上海外语教育出版社。
吕俊、侯向群，2001，《英汉翻译教程》。
上海：上海外语教育出版社。
吕瑞昌、喻云根、张复星、李嘉祜、张燮泉，1983，《汉英翻译教程》。
西安：陕西人民出版社。
彭长江主编，2002，《英汉－汉英翻译教程》。
长沙：湖南师范大学出版社。
单其昌，1991，《汉英翻译入门》。
石家庄：河北教育出版社。
申雨平、戴宁，2002，《实用英汉翻译教程》。
北京：外语教学与研究出版社。
孙万彪、王恩铭，2000，《高级翻译教程》。
上海：上海外语教育出版社。
孙致礼，2003，《新编英汉翻译教程》。
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Consonants
• Velar(软腭音): • the obstruction is created between the back of the tongue and the velum, or the soft palate. • The velar sounds are [k][g] [ŋ] • Glottal(喉音): • The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to produce the glottal sound [h]
Exercise 1
• Our vicar is always raising money one cause or another, but he has never managed to get enough money to have the church clock repaired. The big clock which used to strike the hours day and night was damaged many years ago and has been silent ever since. One night, however, our vicar woke up with a start: the clock was striking the hours! Looking at his watch, he saw that it was one o'clock, but the bell struck 13 times before it stopped. Armed with a torch, the vicar went up into the clock tower to see what was going on.
Super-segmental features(超切分特征)
• Stress, including both word and sentence stress. • Tone languages: in some languages the pitches of words can make a difference in their meaning. Such languages are called tone languages. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.
English consonants
• Affricates (塞擦音):when the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with friction resulting from partial obstruction as in fricatives, the sounds thus produced are affricates. • The English affricates are [tʃ] [dʒ]
English consonants
• Liquids(流音): • when the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part (s) of the tongue (the sides or the tip) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are liquids . The liquids in English are [l]and [r].
Consonants, place in the mouth
• Alveolar (齿龈音): • The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t][d][n][s][z][l][r] • Palatal(腭音): • the back of the tongue is brought into contact with the hard palate. The palatal sounds are [ʃ ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ][j]
Exercise 2
• Some time ago, an interesting discovery was made by archaeologists on the Aegean island of Kea. An American team explored a temple which stands in an ancient city on the promontory of Ayia Irini. The city at one time must have been prosperous, for it enjoyed a high level of civilization. Houses, often three storeys high, were built of stone. They had large rooms with beautifully decorated walls. The city was even equipped with a drainage system, for a great many clay pipes were found beneath the narrow streets.
Place in the mouth
• Bilabial (or simply labial) (双唇音): • The lips are brought together to create the obstruction. The bilabial are [p][b][m][w] • Dental (齿音)： • The lip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth to create the obstruction. The dental sounds are [θ] [ð ]
Intonation
• Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language. Three tones are frequently used in English: the falling tone, the rising tone, and the fall-rise tone, e.g. : • That’s not the one he wants.
Linguistics and translation
Lecture 4
Speech organs
Vowels and consonants
Classification of the English consonants
The English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation (发音方法） and also in terms of place of articulation （发 音部位）。
Exercise 1
• In the torchlight, he caught sight of a figure whom he immediately recognized as Bill Wilkins, our local grocer. “Whatever are you doing up here Bill?” asked the vicar in surprise. “I'm trying to repair the bell,” answered Bill. “I've been coming up here night after night for weeks now. You see, I was hoping to give you a surprise.” “You certainly did give me a surprise!” said the vicar. “You've probably woken up everyone in the village as well. Still, I'm glad the bell is working again.” “That's the trouble, vicar,” answered Bill. “It's working all right, but I'm afraid that at one o'clock it will strike 13 times and there's nothing I can do about it.” “We'll get used to that Bill,” said the vicar. “13 is not as good as one but it's better than nothing. Now let's go downstairs and have a cup of tea.”