英语专八语言学中的一些重要概念

英语专八语言学中的一些重要概念
英语专八语言学中的一些重要概念

语言学中的一些重要概念

一、語言行為(speech acts)的主要类型

表信念(representative):說明信念。例:普心很有趣。

命令(directive):說者希望聽者做一些事。例:幫我倒杯水。

承擔(commissive):答應要做某事。契約、保證、發誓都是。

表意(expressive):說出心理狀況。例:我沒力氣吵了。

宣告(declarative):說出一新事件或狀況。例:你被當掉了

二bilingualism和diglossia的区别

bilingualism,中文称为“双语”,是指个人或群体使用两种语言或方言。(如果使用多种语言或方言,叫做multilingualism ,“多语”。)

diglossia,中文称为“双层语言”,是bilingualism 的其中一种。条件是两种语言或方言有紧密联系,其中一种威望较高,用于正式文本中,另一种威望较低,作为方言口头使用。例如在香港,政府公文、路标、商店招牌、以至大部分产品说明,都是中英对照的,就是双语(bilingualism)的一个典型。同时,大部分香港人的母语是广州话,但是正规的书面语却是用基于普通话的标准白话文,把广州话写成文字会被看为粗俗。这广州方言和白话文之间的关系就是双层语言(diglossia)。

三learning和acquisition的区别

语言习得理论 Language Acquisition

时间:2009-09-15 16:05来源:未知作者:admin 点击:195次

真正的语言是“习得”而并非“学得”,而中国人为什么说不好英语,因为我们是学得的英语,充其量只不过是一些英文知识。

斯蒂芬?克拉申(Stephen Krashen)

斯蒂芬?克拉申(Stephen Krashen)1941年出生于美国芝加哥,现为美国南加州大学荣休教授,他毕生致力于第二语言习得的研究,这为他赢得了世界性声誉。克拉申在20世纪中叶以来提出的第二语言习得的“输入假说模式”,这是近几十年来影响广泛、解释全面又很具争议性的理论。早在1970 年代初克拉申就提出了“监控模式”(The Monitor Model) ,该模式以“监控假说( The Monitor Hypothesis)”为核心;80 年代中叶,克拉申对之进一步扩充修订,转为以“输入假说”(The input hypothesis) 为中心,形成了“输入假说模式”。具

体而言,“输入假说模式”由五个互相联系的核心假说构成,它们分别是: ①语言习得- 学得(The Acquisition—Learning Hypothesis)假说; ②自然顺序假说(The Natural Order Hypothesis); ③监控假说; ④语言输入假说; ⑤情感过滤假说(The Affective Filter Hypothesis)。这五个假说彼此联系、互相补充,构成了一个有机整体。

在第二语言习得研究中成就最大、影响最广也是最全面的理论便是克拉申(S.D.Krashen)的语言习得理论。他的理论实际上是对近几十年来第二语言或外语学习研究的总结,并把各种研究超过加以理论化、系统化,使之成为系统的学说。

克拉申理论主要由以下五个假说组成:

1 习得---学得区别假说(The Acquisition—Learning Hypothesis)

克拉申理论的出发点和核心是他对“习得”和“学得”的区分,以及对它们各自在习得者第二语言能力形成过程中所起的作用的认识。“习得”是潜意识过程,是注意意义的自然交际的结果,儿童习得母语便是这样的过程。习得的语言系统处于大脑左半球语言区,是自发语言运用的根本。与之相对的是“学得”,这是个有意识的过程,即通过课堂教师讲授并辅之以有意识的练习、记忆等活动,达到对所学语言的了解和对其语法概念的“掌握”。“学得”的系统虽然在大脑左半球,但不一定在语言区。克拉申认为,只有“习得”才能直接促进第二语言能力的发展,才是人们运用语言时的生产机制;而对语言结构有意的了解作为“学得”的结果,只能在语言运用中起监控作用,而不能视为语言能力本身的一部分。

2 监控假说( The Monitor Hypothesis)

监控假说与习得---学得区别假说密切相关,它体现了“语言习得”和“语言学习”的内在关系。根据这个假设,语言习得与语言学习的作用各不相同。语言习得系统,即潜意识语言知识,才是真正的语言能力。而语言学得系统,即有意识的语言知识,只是在第二语言运用时起监控或编辑作用。这种监控功能既可能在语言输出(说、写)前也可能在其后。但是,它能否发挥作用还得依赖于三个先决条件:1)有足够的时间,即语言使用者必须要有足够的时间才能有效地选择和运用语法规则;2)注意语言形式,即语言使用者的注意力必须集中在所用语言的形式上,也就是说,必须考虑语言的正确性;3)知道规则,即语言使用者必须具有所学语言的语法概念及语言规则知识。

在口头表达时,人们一般注意的是说话的内容而不是形式,没有时间去考虑语法规则。因此,在说话时,如果过多地考虑使用语法监控,不断地纠正自己的语法错误,说起话来就会结结巴巴,妨碍交际进行。在书面表达时,情况就会好得多,因为作者有足够的时间推敲字句,斟酌语法。

3 输入假说(The Input Hypothesis)

输入假说也是克拉申语言习得理论的核心部分。他曾用一本专著论述他的这个假说。克拉申认为,只有当习得者接触到“可理解的语言输入”

( comprehensive input ),即略高于他现有语言技能水平的第二语言输入,而他又能把注意力集中于对意义或对信息的理解而不是对形式的理解时,才能产生习得。这就是他著名的 i + 1 公式。i 代表习得者现有的水平, 1 代表略高于习得者现有水平的语言材料。根据克拉申的观点,这种 i + 1 的输入并不需要人们故意地去提供,只要习得者能理解输入,而他又有足够的量时,就自动地提供了这种输入。

克拉申认为,理想的输入应具备以下几个特点:

1)可理解性( comprehensibility)。理解输入的语言材料是语言习得的必要条件,不可理解的( incomprehensible )输入对于习得者而言,只是一种噪音。

2)既有趣又有关( interesting and relevant )。要使语言输入对语言的习得有利,必须对它的意义进行加工,输入的语言材料越有趣、越关联,学习者就会在不知不觉中习得语言。

3)非语法程序安排( not grammatically sequenced )。语言习得关键是足量的可理解的输入。如果目的是“习得”而不是“学得”,按语法程序安排的教学不仅不必要,而且不可取。

4)要有足够的输入量。要习得新的语言结构,仅仅靠几道练习题、几篇短文是不够的,它需要连续不断地有内容有趣味的广泛阅读和大量的会话才能奏效。

4 情感过滤假说( The Affective Filter Hypothesis)。

这个假说认为,有大量的可理解输入的环境并不等于学生就可以学好目的语了,第二语言习得的过程还要受许多情感因素的影响。语言输入必须通过情感过滤才有可能变成语言“吸收”( intake )。克拉申认为影响习得语言的情感因素是:1)动力。学生的学习目的是否明确,直接影响学习效果。目的明确则动力大,进步快;反之,则收效甚微。2)性格。自信,性格外向,乐于置身于不熟悉的学习环境,自我感觉良好的学习者在学习中进步较快;3)情感状态。主要指焦虑和放松。焦虑感较强者,情感屏障高,获得的输入少;反之,则容易得到更多的输入。

5 自然顺序假说( The Natural Order Hypothesis)

这个假说认为,人们对语言结构知识的习得是按自然顺序进行的。例如,一些实验表明,在儿童和成人将英语作为第二语言学习时,掌握进行时先于掌握过去时,掌握名词复数先于掌握名词所有格’s 等。克拉申认为,自然顺序假说并不要求人们按这种顺序来制定教学大纲。实际上,如果我们的目的是要习得某种语言能力的话,就有理由不按任何语法顺序来教学。

Langue and Parole

Saussure proposed that linguists should concerned itself with the shared social code ,the abstract system, which he called LANGUE, leaving aside the particular actualities of individual utterances, which he called PAROLE. Langue was, on his account, a collective body of knowledge, a kind of common reference manual, copies of which were acquired by all members of a community of speakers.

Competence and Performance

Chomsky: Alanguage user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules (对语言系统规则中的潜在知识)iscalledhislinguisticCOMPETENCE. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.

深层结构与表层结构

乔氏深层结构和表层结构理论的基本观点,通俗点说,就是人们心理上的认知(深层结构),演化成具体的语言形式(表层结构),要经过一个投射、衍生的变化的过程(转换)。把心里的意思转换成语言(从“深层”到“表层”),可以有不同的形式(平行、并列、对应关系)。比如说,“我在纸上写字”和“我把字写在纸上”这两个句子,深层结构是一样的,但表层结构却不一样。这样,从同一个深层结构投射、衍生、变化而来的表层句子就都是同义形式。同义形式在表层结构里具有平行、并列、对应关系,可以有条件地互相代替。

John expected mother to bring a present.

John persuaded mother to bring a present.

这两句表层结构一样,但深层结构不同

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