Globalization of English and Teaching EIL in China

Globalization of English and Teaching EIL in China０IntroductionDue to migration, colonization, and globalization, English (Kachru & Nelson, 2001, p.9, cited in Kuo, 2006, p.213) has developed from “the native language of a relatively small island nation” to “the most widely taught, read, and spoken language that the world has ever known” in less than a lifetime. Without any doubt, English has gained itself the status of a global language (together with an international language, a world language or an international lingua franca) (McKay, 2003). As a result, general English proficiency at a global level is rising, and the number of English learners all over the world is rising dramatically, especially in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, etc.China currently boasts the largest English-learning population in the world. Since the rapid economic development and an explosion in commercial, technological and cultural exchanges with other countries of the world, it has given rise to a rapidly expanding demand for English proficiency in the last few decades. The reasons are mainly on two levels. On the national level, English is perceived by the government as a necessary means for helping the nation to further the open-up policy, a valuable resource for realizing its modernization program, and an important recognition of China’s significant role in world affairs. On the individual level, English proficiency plays a key role in securing a bunch of opportunities: to enter and graduate from universities, to go abroad for further education, to obtain desirable jobs in foreign-invested or joint companies, and to be eligible for promotion to higher positions. All this has great implications for English language teaching (ELT) in China. What does the globalization of English mean to English learners? What are the general trends of Chinese ELT in the context of globalization of English? What changes of Chinese people’s perceptions accompany the shift from English as a foreign language (EFL) to English as an international language (EIL)?１The globalization of EnglishWhen a language develops a special role that is recognized in every country, it achieves a genuinely global status (Crystal, 1997). As a global language, English has been officially recognized as a first or secondary language in more than 75 territories, and the number of speakers of English as a first or second language or foreign language, or those routinely exposed to English, has reached 2, 213, 507, 500, making up over a third of the world’s population ( Crystal, 1997).The status of English as a global language can also be clearly showed in various aspects. It permeates popular culture and has become the main language of popular music, advertising, home computer, and video games; it becomes the language of international air traffic communication and is increasingly used in international maritime, policing and emergency services; it is applied extensively and thereby deemed significantly paramount in the academic, scientific and technological, international business sectors (Crystal, 1997).As well as the globalization of English, English is also experiencing itslocalization. With the wide spread of English, many varieties of English appear in the world, which are often categorized into two groups, the center and the periphery (Holliday, 2005). The former refers to native varieties of English, such as English used in Britain, Australia and North America, while the later seems to be more complicated, and always refers to non-native varieties. The center varieties of English are located in the inner circle countries, traditionally enjoying the ownership and claiming the establishment of norms. The periphery varieties of English can be usually classified into the outer circle (where English is used as a second language, with well established local norms since colonial times, such as India, Philippines and Singapore) and expanding circle (where English is initially used as a foreign language, such as China, South Korea and Japan). The emergence of different varieties of English in the course of globalization has triggered a lot of debates and concerns in relation with the issues of standards and norms, local cultures and identities, and so forth.Above all, English is deeply involved in ongoing processes of globalization and localization. Therefore, the current situation in light of English language use can not be adequately addressed by using terms like second or foreign language. As a result, the term English as an International Language(EIL) emerged in linguistic fields. In Smith’s words, “it is the widespread use of English which makes it an international language” (Xu, 2002, p.227).The status of English as an international language indicates that English language is no longer constrained to one nation or region; instead, it belongs to all the people who use it (McKay, 2003). In an EIL context, language learners or users are not inextricably tied to native norms and cultures. Rather, they can use their own varieties which reflect their own cultures and project their own identities. This changing nature of English has continuously exerted great impact on the development of ELT in China.２Trends of ELT in ChinaAlong with the globalization of English, ELT in China was accorded ever-increasing importance because of English’s perceived role in the modernization scheme. Meanwhile, however, there was also growing dissatisfaction with the quality of ELT. Multiple causes of the low quality of ELT were recognized, including outdated curriculums, rigid teaching methods, and examination-oriented instruction With the recognition of these problems, Chinese government initiated a top-down effort to reform ELT (Adamson, 2004). The effects of the rapid globalization of English on ELT policies and practice in China will be revealed.２.１Decentralization of curriculum developmentDuring the process of curriculum development, two clear trends have emerged. One is the decentralization of education. Another is the continuous updating of theoretical assumptions about language teaching and learning.By the min-1980s, much criticism has been put on the imposition of unified curricula and textbooks nationwide (Adamson, 2004). It was said that this practice ignored the diversity of regional needs and developments since China is a big country within which situations vary from region to region and school to school. One of the important measures taken to solve this problem was to decentralize decision makingand allow considerable regional autonomy in exploring and implementing new approaches to education (Adamson, 2004). Seven economically developed provinces (including Zhejiang and Shanghai) were allowed to develop their own curricula and textbooks.New educational philosophies, approaches and methods have been constantly introduced into the classroom. In response to the changing needs of ELT in China, the curricula have gone through changes constantly. In the 1980s, the emphasis of updated curricula gradually changed from the political needs to economic and technological orientation following from the national drive to modernization (Hu, 2002). Subsequent curricula in 1990s began to adapt new second language acquisition theories to the Chinese context (Hu, 2002). Teachers were required to give priority to the development of communicative competence, to encourage active learner participant, and to develop learner autonomy.The latest curricula for elementary and secondary education (Chinese Ministry of Education, 2004) are justified in relation to the rapid development of information technology, the globalization of economy, the status of English as an international language, and the basic abilities that citizens must possess. It aims to promote quality education and cultivate creativity as well as practical competence. Students’respect for various cultural traditions of other nations and understanding of Chinese local culture are required. And it also aims to develop students’independent learning ability and individuality.３Changes in perceptions and attitudes: the influences of EILAs can be seen in the afore-mentioned trends of ELT in China, the transformation of English from being the language of a few powerful countries to becoming the international language it is today has brought many changes in Chinese English learners’perceptions and attitude in teaching and learning of English.３.１Use of English varietiesEIL encourages students to incorporate first language norms and values into EIL to cater for their own needs, and also facilitate exposure of students to other non-native English varieties.Most English teachers and learners may have an impression on the changes of English varieties taught in China. The changes have gone through three stages: British English; American English mixed with a little British English; American English mixed with British English, Australian English and New Zealand English (Wu, 2001). Clearly, ELT across China has long focused on inner circle norms and values, excluding all other varieties of English.Recently, however, there is an idea of China English raised in discussing the trend of English language teaching in China (Cui, 2006; Hu, 2004; Jiang, 2003). It is defined that China English is based on Standard English, and has been adapted to express characteristics of Chinese culture in terms of phonetic translation, borrowing and meaning of reproduction (Hu, 2004). Many researchers hold the view that China English will be another variety taught in China, because it represents Chinese culture and identity, and it has the large population of learners and users. Take the series of New Senior English for China for example, many articles in these textbooks arewritten in English with Chinese characteristics by Chinese people. In the recent English Curriculum Standards for Elementary and Secondary Education (2004), the national curriculum for elementary and secondary education which takes the status of English as international language into consideration, there is no sign that learners have to strive for the inner circle norms. It is the first time that the curriculum does not clearly spell out that British or American English——the native variety should be our standard norm.EIL researches in China also advocate that Chinese teachers and learners have to expose to the varieties in the periphery countries (Cui, 2006; Hu, 2004). In the Chinese Canton Fair, the largest China import and export fair held twice a year in Guangzhou, Chinese people can meet with all varieties of English in the world. A great number of interpreters employed into the Canton Fair find it hard adjusting to the different varieties of English and they become aware of the importance to expose themselves to other varieties of English.Although the government and many people in China still strenuously cling to a native speaker variety, it is inevitable for Chinese learners to accept the Chinese variety and other non-native varieties in the foreseeable future in the context of EIL.３.２Adoption of local culturesEIL proposes devoting time and attention in class to the learners’own culture as a means of empowering them and giving them the opportunity to share their own culture with other speakers of English (McKay, 2003). It is not only associate with the cultures of native speakers, but also equally associated with the cultures of all non-native speakers in both Outer Circle and Expanding Circle nations.Culture is operative in a pedagogical sense in that choices need to be made regarding the cultural content of language materials and the cultural basis of the teaching methodology It is noteworthy that the latest curricula of compulsory education and senior-secondary education accentuate the need to teach Chinese cultural knowledge and raise students’awareness of cross-cultural exchanges. According to the curricula, leaning materials are rewritten to emphasize the Chinese culture and incorporate as many as the other cultures in the world. It is believed that materials which are written with a view to teaching about target cultures may clash with “values and beliefs espoused by a language learner’s native culture and, when assimilated unconsciously, may threaten cultural identity” (Hu, 2002, p.37). Therefore, the material has been changed to represent local cultures.Efforts are also taken to teach English in a way that respects the Chinese culture of learning. An ongoing question over the last two decades has been whether or how Communicative Approach can be used for ELT in China. The appropriateness of the “pure” Communicative Approach in light of the local context and learners’needs has been challenged for a long time. So researches suggest Chinese learners may draw on the Confucian heritage to learn English; repetition, recitation, mimicry and memorizing may be adapted to more active approaches to develop communication skills (Jin & Cortazzi, 2002). As a result, English teachers in China now have tried to reconcile the communicative approach with Chinese eclectic approaches, which are considered to reflect the Chinese educational culture.４ConclusionThe power of global and national changes has touched almost every aspect of our life, including the languages to be learned and to be used. The globalization of English has secured the dominance of EIL in China, and has affected China’s English language policies and practice. There are also many changes in the perceptions of and attitude towards ELT because of the new trends in EIL in China.The language pedagogy of “global thinking, local teaching” (McKay, 2003, p.17) is becoming particularly important for the teaching EIL in China. Clearly, Chinese EIL educators today need to recognize the use of English as a global language, where English is used for a wide variety of cross-cultural communicative purposes. 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