meanings and implications “There are no signposts in the sea”
如何看待emoji英语作文短
如何看待emoji英语作文短全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1How to View Emoji: A Short EssayIn today's digital age, emojis have become an integral part of our communication. These small, colorful icons seem to be everywhere – from text messages and social media posts to email subject lines and even advertising campaigns. But how should we view emojis? Are they simply fun and playful additions to our messages, or do they have deeper meanings and implications?On one hand, emojis can be seen as a lighthearted way to add emotion and personality to our written communication. With a single emoji, we can convey a wide range of feelings –from happiness and love to sadness and anger. In this sense, emojis can enhance the tone and clarity of our messages, making them more engaging and expressive. They can also help bridge cultural and language barriers, as emojis are often universal symbols that can be easily understood by people from different backgrounds.On the other hand, some may argue that emojis are eroding the richness and nuance of language. Instead of using words to express our thoughts and feelings, we are increasingly relying on emojis to do the work for us. This trend towards visual communication may be leading to a decline in our ability to articulate our ideas effectively in written form. In addition, the overuse of emojis can sometimes come across as insincere or even lazy, as they can be used to mask true emotions or convey a message in a superficial way.In light of these differing perspectives, how should we view emojis? Perhaps the key is to strike a balance between using emojis as a fun and creative form of expression, while also recognizing the importance of clear and thoughtful communication. Emojis can be a useful tool for adding color and personality to our messages, but they should not replace the richness and depth of language. Instead, we should strive to use emojis in a way that enhances our communication, rather than detracts from it.In conclusion, emojis are a unique and versatile form of expression that can add a fun and colorful touch to our communication. However, it is important to view emojis in the context of their use and be mindful of how they are impactingour ability to communicate effectively. By striking a balance between using emojis and traditional language, we can ensure that our messages are clear, authentic, and engaging. So next time you send a text or post on social media, consider how emojis can enhance your message – but remember that words are still the most powerful tool we have for truly connecting with others.篇2How to View EmojiEmojis have become an integral part of our digital communication in the 21st century. These small, colorful characters are used to convey emotions, reactions, and feelings through text messages, social media posts, and online interactions. While emojis are often seen as light-hearted and fun, they can also spark deeper discussions around language, culture, and communication. In this essay, we will explore how to view emojis in a nuanced and thoughtful way.First and foremost, it is important to recognize that emojis are a form of visual language. Just like spoken and written languages, emojis have their own grammar, syntax, and meaning. They can be combined in endless ways to create complex andnuanced messages. For example, a simple smiley face can convey happiness, contentment, or sarcasm, depending on the context in which it is used. By understanding the grammar of emojis and how they interact with each other, we can better interpret and appreciate their communicative power.Furthermore, emojis are not universal. While some emojis, such as the smiling face or the heart symbol, have relatively consistent meanings across cultures, others can be highly contextual and culture-specific. For example, the thumbs-up gesture may be interpreted as a positive affirmation in Western countries, but as an offensive gesture in some Middle Eastern cultures. When using and interpreting emojis, it is crucial to consider the cultural context in which they are being used and to be mindful of potential misunderstandings.In addition, emojis can be a powerful tool for self-expression and identity formation. People often use emojis to reflect their personalities, emotions, and experiences in a digital environment. For example, someone who loves animals may frequently use animal emojis in their messages, while someone who is feeling sad or lonely may use emojis that convey sadness or isolation. By analyzing the emojis that people use, we can gain insights into their emotions, preferences, and values.Moreover, emojis can be a bridge between different languages and communication styles. In a globalized world where people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds interact online, emojis can serve as a common visual language that transcends linguistic barriers. They can help facilitate communication between individuals who speak different languages or who have different communication preferences. Emojis can also add depth and nuance to text-based communications, allowing users to convey emotions and intentions that may be difficult to express in words alone.However, it is important to remember that emojis are not a substitute for traditional forms of communication. While emojis can enhance and enrich our digital interactions, they should not replace face-to-face conversations, phone calls, or written messages. Emojis are best used in conjunction with other forms of communication to create a more holistic and meaningful interaction.In conclusion, emojis are a fascinating and versatile form of visual communication that have transformed the way we interact online. By viewing emojis as a form of visual language, respecting their cultural nuances, exploring their potential for self-expression, and recognizing their role in cross-culturalcommunication, we can better appreciate the richness and complexity of emojis in our digital world. Emojis are not just cute and colorful characters – they are a powerful and expressive tool that can help us connect, communicate, and understand one another in new and innovative ways. Embrace emojis, but do so with thoughtfulness, awareness, and curiosity.篇3Title: How to Interpret Emojis in English WritingEmojis have become an integral part of our daily communication, both in casual texting and professional emails. These small icons, depicting a range of emotions, objects, and activities, can add depth and nuance to our written messages. However, the interpretation of emojis in English writing can vary widely depending on the context and the relationship between the sender and receiver. In this article, we will explore how to effectively use and understand emojis in English writing.First and foremost, it is important to consider the appropriateness of using emojis in a given situation. While emojis can help convey emotions and tone that may be lost in written text, they may not always be suitable for formal or professional communications. It is essential to gauge therelationship between the sender and receiver, as well as the overall tone of the message, before deciding to use emojis.When using emojis in English writing, it is crucial to consider the cultural implications of certain symbols. Different cultures may interpret emojis differently, so it is important to be mindful of potential misunderstandings. For example, the thumbs up emoji may be seen as positive in Western cultures, but in some Asian cultures, it can be interpreted as rude or dismissive.Emojis can also help clarify the tone of a message, especially in situations where the meaning may be ambiguous. For example, adding a smiley face emoji to a sarcastic comment can indicate to the receiver that the sender is not being serious. Likewise, using a sad face emoji can convey empathy or concern in a difficult situation.In addition to clarifying tone, emojis can also add personality and warmth to written communication. They can help create a more personal connection between the sender and receiver, making the message feel more human and relatable. However, it is important not to overuse emojis, as this can come across as unprofessional or juvenile.When interpreting emojis in English writing, it is essential to consider the context in which they are used. Emojis can enhanceunderstanding and emotional connection, but they should not be relied upon as the sole means of communication. It is important to also consider the words and overall message of the text when interpreting emojis.In conclusion, emojis can be a powerful tool for enhancing written communication in English. They can convey emotions, clarify tone, and add personality to messages. However, it is important to use emojis judiciously and considerately, taking into account the context and cultural implications of certain symbols. By following these guidelines, we can effectively use and interpret emojis in English writing.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题及答案
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题第一章:语言学导论I. Choose the best answer。
(20％)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contact B。
communicationC. relation D。
community2。
Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A。
tree B. typewriterC。
crash D。
bang3。
The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4。
In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A。
Interpersonal B. EmotiveC. Performative D。
Recreational5。
Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place，due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A。
介绍天气和气候英语作文
Weather and climate are two fundamental concepts in meteorology that,while often used interchangeably,have distinct meanings and implications.Weather refers to the shortterm atmospheric conditions in a specific area at a particular time.It is the daytoday state of the atmosphere and is characterized by its variability. Weather can change rapidly,from minute to minute and hour to hour.The elements that describe weather include temperature,humidity,precipitation,cloudiness,visibility,and wind.For instance,on a given day,the weather might be sunny with a high of80degrees Fahrenheit,with a sudden drop in temperature and a heavy rain shower in the afternoon.In an English composition about weather,one might write:Todays weather was quite unpredictable.The morning started with a bright sun,casting a warm glow over the city.However,by noon,dark clouds gathered,signaling an impending storm.The temperature,which had been comfortably warm,dropped significantly,and a sudden downpour soaked the streets within minutes.Climate,on the other hand,is the longterm average of weather patterns in a large region over a significant period,typically30years or more.Climate provides a broader perspective on the atmospheric conditions and is used to classify regions based on their typical weather patterns.It is influenced by factors such as latitude,altitude,ocean currents,and proximity to large bodies of water.Climate zones include tropical,arid, temperate,and polar,each with its own set of characteristics.In an essay about climate,one might compose:The climate of the Mediterranean region is characterized by its warm,dry summers and mild,wet winters.This pattern is due to the regions location and the influence of the Mediterranean Sea,which moderates temperature extremes.The longterm averages of temperature and precipitation define the Mediterranean climate,making it distinct from other climate types.Understanding the difference between weather and climate is crucial for various applications,including agriculture,urban planning,and environmental conservation. While weather forecasts help us prepare for the daytoday changes,knowledge of climate is essential for making longterm decisions that affect our lives and the planets health.。
语言学测试试题答案
语言学测试试题答案Concise Linguistics (1)Ⅰ.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%)1. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good proof that human language is ______.A. arbitraryB. non-arbitraryC. logicalD. non-productive2. The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonly termed the ______.A. phrase structureB. surface structureC. syntactic structureD. deep structure3. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ______.A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. antonymyD. homonymy4. The utterance …We?re already working 25 hours a day, eight days a week.? obviously violates the maxim of ______.A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner5. The famous quotation from Shakespeare's play “Romeo and Juliet” …A rose by any other name would smell as sweet? well illustrates _______. A. the conventional nature of languageB. the creative nature of languageC. the universality of languageD. the big difference between human language and animalcommunication6. Of the following sound combinations, only _______ is permissible according to the sequential rules in English.A. kiblB. bkilC. ilkbD. ilbk7.The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a _______ for mula "S→NP VP".A. hierarchicalB. linearC. tree diagramD. vertical8. Predication analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentence9. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called _______.A. commisivesB. directivesC. expressivesD. declaratives10. The term _______ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparative11.Chomsky uses the term _______to refer to the actual realization of alanguage user?s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication.A. langueB. competenceC. paroleD. performance12. Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by_______in 1957.A. L. BloomfieldB. F. SaussureC. N. ChomskyD.M. A. K. Halliday13. Synonyms are cla ssified into several kinds. The kind to which …girl? and …lass? belong is called ( ) synonyms.A. stylisticB. dialectalC. emotiveD. collocational14. The illocutionary point of _______ is to express thepsychological state specified in the utterance.A. representativesB. commissivesC. expressivesD. declaratives15. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ___.()A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. co-hyponymsD. synonyms16. A word with several meanings is called __word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a multiple17. The function of the s entence “A nice day, isn't it?” is __.A. informativeB. phaticC. directiveD. performative18. The se mantic components of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as __.A. +animate, +male, +human, -adultB. +animate, +male, +human, +adultC. +animate, -male, +human, -adultD. +animate, -male, +human, +adult19. The kind of antonymy between "married "and "single" is one of__________.(A) converseness(B) relational opposites(C) complementarity (D) gradable opposites20. …This orphan has a father? is a case of ________(A) inconsistency (B) presupposition(C)semantic anomaly (D) tautology21. According to Austin , a speaker, while making an utterance, is in most cases performing _______ acts simultaneously.(A) two(B) three(C)four(D)five22. …Your money or your life?" is an example of _________(A)declarations (B) expressives(C)commissives (D) directives.23.______ are also called rewrite rules.(A) phonological rules(B) morphological rules(C) phrase structure rules(D) transformational rules24.The major components of a transformational grammar are __________(A) syntactic, phonological, and semantic(B)base, deep structure, and surface structure(C)deletion, copying ,addition, and reordering(D)generation and transformation25. …Rotten, addle, rancid, sour? can be best described as _________(A) dialectal synonyms(B) collocationally-restricted synonyms(C) words differing in …styles? or …registers?(D) words differing in emotive or evaluative meaningⅡ. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the followin g statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.(1%×10=10%)1. As the first step of their scientific investigation of language,linguists have to observe and collect linguistic facts before they can do anything else.2. Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.3. An independent unit of meaning that can be used freely by itself is called a free morpheme.4. The study of the linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called semantics.5. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the Cooperative principle proposed by J. Grice.6. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.7. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.8. Referent is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between form and the reality.9. Although the development of a communicative system is not unique to human beings, the natural acquisition of language as a system of highly abstract rules and regulations for creative communication is what distinguishes humans from all other animal species.10. Language exists in time and changes through time. The description ofa language at some point of time is called a synchronic study of language.11. An essential difference between consonants and vowels is whether the air coming up from the lungs meets with any obstruction when a sound is produced.12. The morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words arecalled bound morpheme.13. XP may contain more than just X. For example, the NP "the boy who likes his puppy" consists of Det, N and S, with Det being the specifier, N the head and S the complement.14. Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items. The word that is more general in meaning is called superordinate.15. V owels can be nasalized. The vowel nasalization rule is an assimilation rule, which, for the most part, is caused by articulatory or physiological process in which successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another.16.Clear ［1］and dark［1］are allophones of the same one phoneme /1/.They never take the same position in sound combinations, thus they are said to be in complementary distribution.17. A root is often seen as part of a word, but it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.18. A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated in the other.19. While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent.Ⅲ. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why youthink so and give the correct version. (2%×10=20%)(T ) 1.Radar is an example of acronym.(T ) 2.What is a permissible sequence in one language may not be so in another language.( F) 3.English has only three bilabials,which are [p][b][m]. ([W]) (T) 4.Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two possible ways: phonemic contrast and complementary distribution.(F ) 5.In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form. (The opposite is right.) ( T) 6.Bloomfield's theory of syntax has two central ideas: one is the notion of discovering procedures and the other is that of constituent structure.( F ) 7.A compound is the combination of only two words. (It can combine more than two words, e.g. stay-at-home ) (T ) 8.Transformational rules are also called rewrite rules.( T) 9. The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech; thus there are still many languages in today?s world that can only be spoken, but not written.(F ) 10.The task of the semantic component is to convert deep structures into surface structures. (transformational component)(T ) 11.Sense relations are in fact a part of the semantic structures of English.( F) 12. In such sound combinations as /bi:p/, /geip/ and /su:p/, the voiceless stop /p/, occurring in the final position, is unaspirated, i.e. pronounced with the strong puff of air withheld to some extent. (aspirated)(F )13. Linguists suggest that language is very variable phenomenon, and that this variability is not governed by any rules. That is one of the reasons why we say language is arbitrary. (The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good proof that human language is arbitrary.)(F ) 14.Chomsky thinks that human beings are innately endowed with the capacity to form some concepts rather than others. (…form universal concepts.)(F) 15. The part of speech of the compound is always determined by the part of speech of the second element, without exception. (…not necessarily…. e.g. …Eight-year-old? is an adjective.)(T ) 16. The relationship between the embedded clause and its matrix clause is one of a part to the whole.(T ) 17. The contextualist view of meaning holds that meaning should be studied in terms of the situational context and linguistic context.(T ) 18. Searle?s classification of illocutionary acts is based on the classification of performative verbs.(T )19. A general difference between phonetics and phonology is thatphonetics is focused on the production of speech sounds while phonology is more concerned with how speech sounds distinguish meaning.(F ) 20. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. (Not necessarily. e.g. open-minded, stay-at-home, etc.)(T ) 21. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order.( F) 22. According to Searle's classification of illocutionary acts, inviting, ordering, advising, promising and apologizing all fall into the category of directives. (Promising falls into the category of commissives.)Ⅳ.Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or twoexamples for illustration. (3%×10=30%)1. cultural transmission (as a defining feature of human language)One of the major defining features of human language. Humans are born with the ability to acquire a language, but different from animals, the actual use of human language is not genetically transmitted, rather it is culturally transmitted, i.e. it has to be taught and learnt. (P11)2. phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds that are used in human language communication, i.e.the speech sounds. (P13)3. inflectional morphemesInflectional morphemes are morphemes that are used to indicate thegrammatical relations and categories, such as number, tense, degree and case. E.g.-ed,-(e)s,-est in English. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest ; John?s. (P37)4. suprasegmental featuresSuprasegmental features refers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments (phoneme), they are phonological properties of such linguistic units as syllable, word and sentence. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. (P28)5. locutionary actLocutionary act refers to the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses.It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. For example, by saying "You have left the door wide open",the locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean.6. bound morphemesThe morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words are called bound morpheme. For example, -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. (P35)7.duality of structureLinguists refer duality (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first,higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor. (P11)8. hyponymyHyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items.The word that is more general in meaning is called superordinate.9. surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure, deep structure and surface structure. Surface structure correspond to the finalsyntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations. (P57)10. assimilation ruleThe …assimilation rule? assimilates one segment to another by …copying? afeature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar.(This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar) input-[…imput](bilabial)) (P27) The …deletion rule?tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter …g?is mute in …sign?, …design?and …paradigm?, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: …signature?, …designation?and …paradigmatic?. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling. (P28)11. rootA root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. A “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed witho ut total loss of identity. In other words, a “root”is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keepsits free morpheme “nation” as its root when “ inter-”, “-al” and “-ism” are tak en away. (P35)12. narrow transcriptionIn handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.13. stemA “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as, and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word “friends”, “friend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “friendships”, “friendships” is its stem, “friend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e.g., “mailman” , “girlfriend” ,e tc. (P35)14. derivational affixesA kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position in the new words: prefix, suffix and infix. (P35)15. predication…Predication analysis? is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. …Predication? is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate (relation element). The …predicate?is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. We may nowdistinguish a …two-place predicate?(which governs two argu ments, e.g., subject and object), a …one-place predicate?(which governs one argument, i.e., subject) and a …no-place predicate?that has simply no argument(no real subject or object).Ⅴ. Answer the following questions.(10%×2=20%)1. Why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements? Support your statement with examples.2. One of the main features of our human language is arbitrariness. Can you briefly explain what is this feature refers to? Give examples if necessary. (10 points)By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be somesound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and“write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degre e.3. The phonological features that occur above the level of individual sounds are called suprasegmental features. Discuss the main suprasegmental features, illustrating with examples how they function in the distinction of meaning.…Suprasegmental phonology?refers to the study ofphonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to b e “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.4. Explain with examples the three notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, and also how they are related.5. What is the speech act theory advanced by John Austin? Please give examples for illustration.Speech act theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developed by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it isoften used to “do things”, to perform ac ts. Austin suggests three basic senses in which in saying something one is doing something and three kinds of acts are performed simultaneously: locutionary act言内行为:------the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. I t’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and /doc/c93918915.html,ly.,the act of saying something :the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.言内行为指的是用句子来叙述，报告，描写。
新编简明英语语言学Chapter5Semantics语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
研究生公共英语教材阅读B第3、4、10、11、14课文原文及翻译
Unite 3 Doctor’s Dilemma: Treat or Let Die?Abigail Trafford1. Medical advances in wonder drugs, daring surgical procedures, radiation therapies, and intensive-care units have brought new life to thousands of people. Yet to many of them, modern medicine has become a double-edged sword.2. Doctor’s power to treat with an array of space-age techniques has outstripped the body’s capacity to heal. More medical problems can be treated, but for many patients, there is little hope of recovery. Even the fundamental distinction between life and death has been blurred.3. Many Americans are caught in medical limbo, as was the South Korean boxer Duk Koo Kim, who was kept alive by artificial means after he had been knocked unconscious in a fight and his brain ceased to function. With the permission of his family, doctors in Las Vegas disconnected the life-support machines and death quickly followed.4. In the wake of technology’s advances in medicine, a heated debate is taking place in hospitals and nursing homes across the country --- over whether survival or quality of life is the paramount goal of medicine.5. “It gets down to what medicine is all about, ” says Daniel Callahan, director of the Institute of Society, Ethics, and the Life Sciences in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York. “Is it really to save a life? Or is the larger goal the welfare of the patient?”6. Doctors, patients, relatives, and often the courts are being forced to make hard choices in medicine. Most often it is at the two extremes of life that these difficultyethical questions arise --- at the beginning for the very sick newborn and at the end for the dying patient.7. The dilemma posed by modern medical technology has created the growing new discipline or bioethics. Many of the country’s 127 medical s chools now offer courses in medical ethics, a field virtually ignored only a decade ago. Many hospitals have chaplains, philosophers, psychiatrists, and social workers on the staff to help patients make crucial decisions, and one in twenty institutions has a special ethics committee to resolve difficult cases.Death and Dying8. Of all the patients in intensive-care units who are at risk of dying, some 20 percent present difficult ethical choices --- whether to keep trying to save the life or to pull back and let the patient die. In many units, decisions regarding life-sustaining care are made about three times a week.9. Even the definition of death has been changed. Now that the heart-lung machine can take over the functions of breathing and pumping blood, death no longer always comes with the patient’s “last gasp” or when the heart stops beating. Thirty-one states and the District of Columbia have passed brain-death statutes that identify death as when the whole brain ceases to function.10. More than a do zen states recognize “living wills” in which the patients leave instructions to doctors not to prolong life by feeding them intravenously or by other methods if their illness becomes hopeless. A survey of California doctors showed that 20 to 30 percent were following instructions of such wills. Meanwhile, the hospicemovement, which its emphasis on providing comfort --- not cure --- to the dying patient, has gained momentum in many areas.11. Despite progress in society’s understanding of death and dying, t heory issues remain. Example: A woman, 87, afflicted by the nervous-system disorder of Parkinson’s disease, has a massive stroke and is found unconscious by her family. Their choices are to put her in a nursing home until she dies or to send her to a medical center for diagnosis and possible treatment. The family opts for a teaching hospital in New York city. Tests show the woman’s stroke resulted from a blood clot that is curable with surgery. After the operation, she says to her family: “Why did you bring me back to this agony?” Her health continues to worsen, and two years later she dies.12. On the other hand, doctors say prognosis is often uncertain and that patients, just because they are old and disabled, should not be denied life-saving therapy. Ethicists also fear that under the guise of medical decision not to treat certain patients, death may become too easy, pushing the country toward the acceptance of euthanasia.13. For some people, the agony of watching high-technology dying is too great. Earlier this year, Woodrow Wilson Collums, a retired dairyman from Poteet, Texas, was put on probation for the mercy killing of his older brother Jim, who lay hopeless in his bed at a nursing home, a victim of severe senility resul ting from Alzheimer’s disease. After the killing, the victim’s widow said: “I think God, Jim’s out of his misery. I hate to think it had to be done the way it was done, but I understand it. ”Crisis in Newborn Care14. At the other end of the life span, technology has so revolutionized newborn carethat it is no longer clear when human life is viable outside the womb. Newborn care has got huge progress, so it is absolutely clear that human being can survive independently outside the womb. Twenty-five years ago, infants weighting less than three and one-half pounds rarely survived. The current survival rate is 70 percent, and doctors are “salvaging” some babies that weigh only one and one-half pounds. Tremendous progress has been made in treating birth deformities such as spina bifida. Just ten years ago, only 5 percent of infants with transposition of the great arteries --- the congenital heart defect most commonly found in newborns --- survived. Today, 50 percent live.15. Yet, for many infants who owe their lives to new medical advances, survival has come at a price. A significant number emerge with permanent physical and mental handicaps.16. “The question of treatment and nontreatment of seriously ill newborns is not a single one,”says Thomas Murray of the Hastings Center. “But I feel strongly that retardation or the fact that someone is going to be less than perfect is not good grounds for allowing an infant to die.”17. For many parents, however, the experience of having a sick newborn becomes a lingering nightmare. Two years ago, an Atlanta mother gave birth to a baby suffering from Down’s Syndrome, a form of mental retardation; the child also had blocked intestines. The doctors rejected the parents’ plea not to operate, and today the child, severely retarded, still suffers intestinal problems.18. “Every time Melanie has a bowel movement, she cries,” explains her mother.“She’s not able to take care of herself, and we won’t live forever. I wanted to save her from sorrow, pain, and suffering. I don’t understand the emphasis on life at all costs, and I’m very angry at the doctors and the hospital. Who will take care of Melanie after we’re gone? Where will you doctors be then?”Changing Standards19. The choices posed by modern technology have profoundly changed the practice of medicine. Until now, most doctors have been activists, trained to use all the tools in their medical arsenals to treat disease. The current trend is toward nontreatment as doctors grapple with questions not just of who should get care but when to take therapy away.20. Always in the background is the threat of legal action. In August, two California doctors were charged with murdering a comatose patient by allegedly disconnecting the respirator and cutting off food and water. In 1981, a Massachusetts nurse was charged with murdering a cancer patient with massive doses of morphine but was subsequently acquitted.21. Between lawsuits, government regulations, and patients’ rights, many doctors feel they are under siege. Modern technology actually has limited their ability to make choices. More recently, these actions are resolved by committees.Public Policy22. In recent years, the debate on medical ethics has moved to the level of national policy. “It’s just beginning to hit us that we don’t have unlimited resources,” says Washington Hospital Center’s Dr. Lynch. “You can’t talk about ethics without talkingethics without talking about money.”23. Since 1972. Americans have enjoyed unlimited access to a taxpayer-supported, kidney dialysis program that offers life-prolonging therapy to all patients with kidney failure. To a number of police analysts, the program has grown out of control --- to a $1.4billion operation supporting 61,000 patients. The majority are over 50, and about a quarter have other illness, such as cancer or heart disease, conditions that could exclude them from dialysis in other countries.24. Some hospitals are pulling back from certain lifesaving treatment. Massachusetts General Hospital, for example, has decided not perform heart transplants on the ground that the high costs of providing such surgery help too few patients. Burn units --- through extremely effective --- also provide very expensive therapy for very few patients.25. As medical scientists push back the frontiers of therapy, the moral dilemma will continue to grow for doctors and patients alike, making the choice of to treat the basic question in modern medicine.1. 在特效药、风险性手术进程、放疗法以及特护病房方面的医学进展已为数千人带来新生。
implications的语料
主题：implications的语料内容：1. 什么是implications？Implications是一个英文单词，它的意思是“暗示”、“含义”或者“意义”。
在不同的语境中，这个词可能会有不同的解释和使用方式。
在语言学上，implications可以指一个词语或者语句所包含的意义和暗示，也可以指由某个事实或者观点所引起的可能的结果或者影响。
2. 如何使用implications？使用implications时，可以通过一些固定的词语搭配，比如“have implications for”（对...有影响）、“carry implications”（具有含义）、“draw implications from”（从...中得出暗示）等。
在句子结构上，通常可以使用宾语从句或者介词短语来表达implications所涉及的内容和影响范围。
3. impications的语料来源implications这个词的语料来源非常广泛，可以来自于各种语言文本、学术文章、新闻报道、讨论论坛等。
一些大型语料库中也会包含大量的implications相关的语料，可以作为语言学研究和自然语言处理的素材来源。
4. impications的语料分析对于implications的语料分析，可以从不同的角度进行研究和探讨。
首先可以从语义角度对语料进行分析，探究implications所指代的具体意义和蕴含的信息；其次可以从语用角度对语料进行分析，探究implications在不同语境下的使用方式和含义转化；还可以从语篇角度对语料进行分析，探究implications的出现对整个语篇所带来的影响和意义。
5. impications的语料应用implications的语料在语言学研究、自然语言处理、文本分析、语言教学等领域都具有重要的应用价值。
通过对implications相关的语料进行大规模的收集、整理和分析，可以帮助人们更好地理解自然语言的使用规律和文本的含义，也可以为一些自然语言处理系统的构建和优化提供重要的参考资料。
Gravity from Spinors
C. Wetterich
Institut f¨ ur Theoretische Physik, Philosophenweg 16, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany We investigate a possible unified theory of all interactions which is based only on fundamental spinor fields. The vielbein and metric arise as composite objects. The effective quantum gravitational theory can lead to a modification of Einstein’s equations due to the lack of local Lorentz-symmetry. We explore the generalized gravity with global instead of local Lorentz symmetry in first order of a systematic derivative expansion. At this level diffeomorphisms and global Lorentz symmetry allow for two new invariants in the gravitational effective action. The one which arises in the one loop approximation to spinor gravity is consistent with all present tests of general relativity and cosmology. This shows that local Lorentz symmetry is tested only very partially by present observations. In contrast, the second possible new coupling is severely restricted by present solar system observations. PACS numbers: 12.10.-g; 04.20.Cv; 11.10.Kk I. INTRODUCTION HD-THEP-03-32
师范学院《英语听力》unit6iPPT课件
This part will introduce more advanced listening skills, including how to understand complex sentences, how to understand the implicit meaning of the passage, and how to understand different accents and speech speeds.
01
信息密度大：包含大量专பைடு நூலகம்术语 和细节信息。
02
选择与自己专业相关的材料：这 样更容易理解和记忆。
Academic lecture listening materials
要点一
关注讲座结构和逻辑关系
要点二
积累学科词汇和专业表达方式
有助于把握整体思路和重点信息。
对于不熟悉的词汇和表达方式，要及时查阅并记忆。
Increase cultural awareness: This course will introduce cultural backgrounds and historical backgrounds of English-speaking countries, helping students understand English culture and history better.
News listening materials
积累词汇和表达方式
注意常用词汇和短语，以及新闻特有 的表达方式。
关注听力技巧
如预测答案、定位关键信息和筛选无 关信息等。
Listening materials for movies and TV dramas
简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
《新编简洁英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参照答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. Howdo you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order todiscover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has tocollect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities,and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypothesesabout the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checkedrepeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as inany other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is,a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined toform grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6)pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“ traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybeover-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of itspermanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does notforce languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over adiachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary mediumof human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every nativespeaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later whenhe goes to school.For modern linguists,spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the“revised ” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar toChomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least inthat Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue isa matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychologicalpoint of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third,language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from thecommunication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of humanlanguage that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答： The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used torefer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the constructionand interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce andunderstand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they havenever heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower orthe basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This is what“displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9.What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examplesfor illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language:the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example:“China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices,and values.For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her. ”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople. . For example:“We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, whichone is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, pleaserefer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and someconsonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.The latter,. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of thediacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it isnecessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the fourwords leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l]in[li:f],occurring before a vowel,is called a dear [l],and no diacritic is needed to indicate it;the[1] in[fi:l]and [bild],occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1]as in“leaf”. Itis called dark[?]and in narrow transcription the diacritic[?]is used to indicate it.Then in the sound combination[hel θ],the sound [l]is followed by the English dental sound [ θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it.It is thus called a dental[l],and in narrow transcription the diacritic [ 、 ] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounceddifferently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit,the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription,but in narrow transcription, a small raised“h” is used to show aspiration, thuspit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of mannerof articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place ofarticulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental,dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to whichpart of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, weclassify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-openvowels,and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classificationof vowels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels,i. e.,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowelscan be pronounced with rounded lips.6.A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate2)voiceless labiodental fricative3)voiced alveolar stop4)front, close, short5)back, semi-open, long6)voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?]6) [?]答： A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the sameaspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, theydiffer in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, howthey differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can beclassified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to conveymeaning in linguistic communication.(2)A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasksof the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and[?], [ph] and [p].8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones. A phonemeis not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phoneticcontext. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophonesof the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word beginswith a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying ” a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation ofneighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This“sloppy ” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., itdoes not distinguish meaning. But this does not meanthat vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phoneticcontexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green,team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of thealveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, thenasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it.Weknow that in English the prefix in- can be added to maadjective to makethe meaning of the word negative, . discreet–indiscreet, correct–incorrect. But the [n]sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so inthe word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolarstop,but the [n]sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop.So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are“copying ” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Wehave noticed that in the p ronunciation of such words as sign,design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by theletter g. But in their corresponding forms signature,designation,and paradigmatic, the [g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign– signature, resign– resignation, phlegm–phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will bedeleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although itsspelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones,the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答： a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc. ” translator, “one who translates ”答： (1) suffix:-ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples:acceptable,respectable,“can be accepted “can be respected””(2) suffix:-lymeaning: functionalstem type:added to adjectivesexamples: freely.“adverbial form of‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick'”.(3) suffix:-eemeaning:the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee,“one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed ”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not ”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric,“lacking symmetry ” asexual, “without sex or sex organs ”答： (1) prefix:dis-meaning:showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove,“do not approve ”dishonesty, “lack of honesty ”.(2) prefix:anti-meaning:against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples :antinuclear,“opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial,“opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community.”(3) prefix:counter-meaning:the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples:counterproductive,“prod ucing results opposite to thoseintended ”(sth.) ”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答： (1) the third person singular(2)the past tense(3)the present perfect(4)the present progressive5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：( 略)6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer ’s cows escaped.b)It was raining.c)Those socks are inexpensive.d)Jim needs the newer copy.e)The strongest rower continued.f)She quickly closed the book.g)The alphabetization went well.答：( 略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined toform sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrasestructure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→ (Det) N (PP) ...VP→ (Qual) V (NP) ...AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ...PP→ (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which Xstands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→ (specifier)X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the sameor similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详尽回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property orattribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. Forexample, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property‘pretty’to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly,the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted byadverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words ofdifferent categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix - ing . And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix - er and superlative affix - est . Although inflection is very helpful in determininga word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections.For example, nouns like moisture , fog , do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent , intelligent do not take comparative and superlativeaffixes - er and - est .The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. Forexample, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type withthe help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2)A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category typeof the elements being conjoined.5.What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier andcomplement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to makemore precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks aphrase boundary.Complement:Complementsare themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of thesentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure ).（以下几题只作初步的的成分区分，未画树形图,仅供参照）7.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd)This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier.Drawthe appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A +complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window)NPd) The apple might hit the man.S → NP(The apple) + Infl (might) +VP(hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP(He) + VP(often reads detective stories)9.The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence,first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）extreme caution.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane withmoon hung in the sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A woodenhut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范围）a)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b)Helen put on her clothes and went out.c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure foreach sentence.a)You know that I hate war.b)Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c)Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d)The children argued over whether bats had wings.12.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw thedeep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was excellent.b)Herbert bought a house that she lovedc)The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.（斜体的为深层构造，一般字体的为表层构造）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答： (1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Accordingto this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used ina language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2)The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguisticform and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms ofsituation, use, context––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.。
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I want my fill of beauty before I go.
I should like this empty existence to be prolonged beyond calculation.
I have been exhilarated by two days of storm, but above all I love these long purposeless days in which I shed all that I
• ……and on each of them, high up, shone a steady yellow gleam.
‘Not lighthouse,’ I said to Laura. ‘villagers’ (paragraph 20 )
• In the narrator’s angle, he means that knowing he is going to die, he is at a loss as to not know how long he could live, and he is puzzled how he should deal with his love to Laura. His former principles and pursuit now become meaningless. Nothing could guide him what to do and where to go no longer. So the bound of target disappears, and he could enjoy and connect what he sees, what he feels, and what he likes in his own imagination.
（paragraph 8）
• Darkness falls, and there is nothing but the intermittent gleam of a lighthouse on a solitary promontory. (paragraph 11)
• Aloof on the top, the yellow light revolved, steady, warning; I wondered what mortal controlled it, in what must be one of the loneliest, most forbidding spots on Earth. (paragraph 12)
• The implication is there’s nothing to guide one’top one’s imagination.
• Of course, the narrator’s mind alludes to the author’s thouhgts. A fiction has mostly the elements of fantasy rather than reality, and the fantasy fulfills the author’s unsatisfied wishes.
signpost
The reality The narrator The author
Literally, it means there is no signpost in the sea to give the direction or route to the
shipping, and no sign or mark will show him where he is and where he could go.
Sometimes we follow a coastline, it may be precipitous bluffs of grey limestone rising sheer out of sea, or a low-lying arid stretch with miles of white sandy beach, and no sign of habitation, very bleached and barren.
• signpost (ROAD SIGN) noun [C] a pole at the side of a road, especially at a point where two or more roads meet, which gives information about routes and distances.
• The author expresses what in her deep heart and shows her consciousness by the plots. She just writes what she is thinking, because nothing could control her to show her mind and feelings any more, and anything could in her fantasy. She is digging out all her imaginations at her last time of life, just following her flowing consciousness.
have ever been.
Doubtless some instinct impels me gluttonously to cram these the last weeks of my life with the gentler things I never had time for, releasing some suppressed inclination which in fact was always latent. (paragraph 2)
There are loaded meanings and implications in the last sentence “There are no
signposts in the sea” (Para 4). How do you understand it?
• A new Clovis, loving what I have despised, and suffering from calf love into the bargain, I want my fill of beauty before I go. Geographically I do not care and scarcely know where I am. There are no signposts in the sea.