5外文文献翻译
外文资料原文及译文
中文题目：在快速的人口老龄化背景下对社会养老保险面临的风险分析
英文题目：The Analysis of the Risks Faced by China’s Social Endowment Insurance under the Background of Rapid Aging Population 学院: 社会与公共管理学院
专业年级: 2012级劳动与社会保障
学生姓名: 司雪力学号: 2012282103
指导教师: 唐礼武职称: 讲师
日期: 2016 年 3 月 1 日
在快速的人口老龄化背景下对社会养老保险面临的风险分析重庆工商大学劳动与社会保障专业 2012级一班司雪力
指导老师：唐礼武
摘要：随着人口老龄化加剧，社会养老保险在我国的压力增长速度超过以往任何时候都更加迅速。同时，也有一些实际问题和缺点在中国目前的社会养老保险制度。而这一切都将提高的风险固有的金融，基金投资和运作的养老保险制度的领域。在同时，它会导致制度和政策领域的新风险。因此，只有通过加强风险管理和积极响应社会养老保险的风险，可以政府不断完善社会养老保险制度。
关键词：人口老龄化，社会养老保险，风险，对策
引言
根据国际社会的定义，在一个国家或地区，如果人口年龄超过60岁以上的人口占总人口的10%以上，或超过65岁的人口占全国人口的7%以上，占全国人口总数的以上地区可以被视为一个老龄化社会。老年人口比例越大，程度越高人口老龄化。随着科学技术的发展和医疗卫生技术的不断进步，以及
人们越来越重视身体健康，全球人口老龄化正在迅速增长人口正在增长。因此，它给社会经济发展带来了各种各样的影响。许多各国都面临着人口老龄化的挑战。在世界范围内，它已成为一个全球和战略社会问题。我国已进入老龄化社会，早在2000年人口老龄化背景我国养老保险制度面临的严峻挑战，如何分析养老保险的风险我国保险业，并提出有效措施，以降低风险是值得研究的。本文在分析我国人口老龄化和养老保险现状的基础上，分析了我国人口老龄化和养老保险的现状，论文分析了养老保险国家的风险，提出了相应的对策和措施为我国养老保险制度的发展提供了建议。
以下内容分为五个部分。第一部分是对现状与特点的分析我国人口老龄化的研究。第二部分是中国养老保险发展现状及存在的问题。第三部分为我国人口老龄化背景养老保险的风险分析的研究。第四部分是对策建议，以减少养老保险风险。最后一部分是结论。
我国人口老龄化的现状与特点
中国人口老龄化进程始于上世纪80年代，加速后。根据第五次人口普查国家统计局公布的数据，如到2000年11月1日我国60岁以上的老年人已经达到1亿2400万，占10.45%总人口数，65岁以上人口占8825万，占7.1%。这表明，我国已进入老龄化社会
并根据第六次全国人口普查结果显示，11月1日，2010岁以上的老年人口60已达1亿7700万，占中国总人口的13.26%，其中，人口数
65岁以上老人约占1亿1900万，占8.87%。正如你所看到的，我们的国家是唯一的国家在当今世界上，老年人的数量接近2亿。根据这一趋势，2025，中国人口老龄化将达到2亿8400万，占人口总数的19.34%这将峰值近4亿3000万人的2050左右，占比超过四分之一的，同时，由于国情、人口环境和传统文化的特殊性我国人口老龄化呈现出以下鲜明的特点：第一，速度人口老龄化比经济增长快。基本上，发达国家步入老龄化社会实现社会现代化。但我国已提前进入老龄化社会经济不发达，没有实现现代化的情况下。当发达国家进入老龄化社会，人均国内生产总值（GDP）一般在5000元至10000元左右，但是，当我国进入老龄社会，人均国内生产总值（GDP）刚刚超过1000美元。正如你所看到的，我国仍然属于中等收入者之一。它显得相对较弱处理人口老龄化问题。其次，随着人口老龄化速度的加快，这说明2000、我国60岁以上老年人的数量在1亿2400万岁以上，并在2010，这个数字已经达到了1亿7700万。60岁以上的老年人口增长了5000以上仅仅十年。据统计，近年来，我国人口老龄化的速度还远比欧洲和美国和其他国家快，甚至比日本的快。老年人口（65人，老年人，下同）从4.91%增加到6.96%，这已经花费了18年。在日本，这一比例从4.79%上升到7.06%，在日本已经花费了20年时间。它增加了从5.2%到8.4%在瑞典，已经花了40年时间。老年人口比例的增加给社会经济压力带来了日益增长的压力[ 3 ]。第三，它是区域发展不平衡。数据显示，东部地区被定义为劳动力进入地区，中青年人群占较大比例。虽然面临人口老龄化为养老事业的发展和经济发展提供了良好的支持强度。作为中西部地区的劳动人口外流区，老年人口存款，特别是在广大农村地区，它形成了大量的空巢老人群体。
养老保险发展概况及存在的问题
在中国
3.1。发展概述
我国原有的养老保险制度是建立在1951，是典型的国家保护模式。过了城乡分割的计划经济体制下，养老保险制度是一个“企业担保”模式，以保护国有企业和国有企业职工的“病与死”。和农民依靠家庭自我保护。随着中国经济的不断发展和社会，养老保险模式已经很难适应新时代。因此，该我国政府提出要逐步建立适应形势的健全的社会
保障体系，并明确社会保险在经济社会发展中的发展方向中华人民共和国五年度第七计划“，1986。从如此，养老保险由担保单位开始由担保单位向社会保障。中国现行的养老保险制度是在20世纪90年代初成立的，国务院下发了1991个决定关于企业职工养老保险制度改革的研究在社会统筹规划的基础上。1995日，国务院发布了《关于深化的通知》企业职工养老保险制度改革的建议保险是一个系统，它结合了社会的总体规划和个人账户，并澄清养老保险的权利与义务。1997，国务院下发了<<关于建立决定的一个统一的企业职工基本养老保险制度的进一步规范和支付养老保险基金[ 4 ]。同时，为了适应市场变化，及时跟进对权益保护的要公开，中国政府颁布了<<企业年金试行办法>>和<<试行办法>>企业年金基金管理“2004要进一步规范的建立、管理、投资企业年金的运作。2010，介绍了《中华人民共和国社会保险法》，为社会保障的发展奠定了更为坚实的法律基础。随着我国养老保险制度的完善和保险购买数量的增加，养老保险基金不断丰富。据统计，2013年底，参加基本养老保险的城镇职工人数达到3亿2218万，达到基金收入2兆2680亿元。同时，全国社保基金累计已超过1兆2000亿元2013。一句话，中国养老保险业在这一过程中取得了巨大的成就不断改革和完善。
3.2。存在的问题
我国虽然已经建立了全信用积累的养老保险制度整体式。在社会和谐稳定的发展中起到了重要的作用和民生福利。但是不可否认的是，因为我们国家社会保障的时间系统的设置较短，在一定的系统设计水平和实际水平上仍存在一些问题需要不断改进。有2个主要问题。首先，它是养老保险基金的贬值。养老保险我国的基金主要包括以下四个部分：一是城镇信用组合职工基本养老保险基金，其次是城乡居民基本养老保险基金，第三，是养老保险作为企业年金和职业年金的补充，第四是国家社会保障基金作为战略储备。目前，这四个部分的养老保险基金积累了数亿元。面对如此大规模的资金存量，这是一个大问题如何进行有效的投资运作。并按照增长趋势估计现在，在未来30年里，中国养老保险基金规模将达到一个巨大的规模，成百上千的亿元。面对这种趋势，如果缺乏有效的投资运作，每年的折旧率基金的损失将非常惊人。其次，它是如何有效地和公平地偿还“历史债务”的国有老职工的养老金企业。自从上世纪90年代的改革，因为在支付方式上的变化，数以千万计在国有企业中，老年职工把原有的养老保险制度变成了新的养老保险一个信用组合，积累到“历史债务”的养老金。这是政府的问题必须面对。这是完善我国养老保险制度的一步政府要如何解决这一高效、公平的“历史债”，寻找可行的理性解决方案。否则，如果历史遗留下来的问题继续“发酵”，它可能会成为巨大的阻碍我国养老保险制度健康发展的风险。
老龄化背景下养老保险风险分析
面对人口老龄化的严峻问题，我国现行养老保险制度面临的问题各种风险的挑战。现行的“统筹规划和个人账户体系”的养老保险制度不完善，还有很多风险来源，在资金来源、管理体制、监管等方面投资。随着人口的加速老化，这些问题可能会出现，新的风险也会出现。总体而言，养老保险的风险主要表现为：
4.1。经济风险
4.1.1。人口老龄化对我国经济发展的负面影响
纵观世界社会保障的历史，建立、发展和完善社会保障制度需要一定程度的经济发展作为基础。作为社会保障的一部分，当然，养老保险不是一个例外，它的建立、发展和完善都是基于在一定的经济基础上。当社会和经济动荡导致劳动力供给不足或不充分资本的积累，以及人口老龄化带来的社会养老的成本不断上升，挤压经济的发展，刚性需求的特征决定了养老保险的改革系统将面临相应的风险。因此，人口老龄化将影响宏观经济，包括劳动力供给减少，资本积累不足，中国经济发展速度放缓，国内消费需求和其他负面后果的缺乏。
4.1.2。人口老龄化对我国当前的筹资模式提出了严峻的挑战
我们都知道，国家或地区的人口年龄结构的变化将影响当地的劳动力供给状况。中国目前正在实施一项总体规划和个人账户体系类型养老金。该基金主要来自个人和企业。中国目前正处于“拐点”时期人口红利的供给，总体上仍然很丰富，这也使得相对稳定的人口支付养老金。退休金是用来帮助退休的工人，并帮助基金达到一定程度的收支平衡。然而，由于出生控制的连续实施政策，以及人口老龄化，中国的劳动力供给最终会减少。这也意味着萎缩的群体养老保险缴费、基金收入继续下降，而老年人口继续增加；意味着养老支出将继续增加。因此，它可能导致养老金支付赤字。所以，面对日益老龄化的人口问题，我国现行的养老保险筹资模式将面临严峻的挑战。
4.1.3。人口老龄化对养老保险的支持率增加
支持率指的是老年人口比例，老年人口占比例工作年龄人口，它可以通过多少老年人需要的是支持每100个劳动年龄测定人口。中国的人口老龄化意味着老年人口在增长，同时也伴随着出生人口的增长控制政策，工作年龄人口将继续减少，这意味着中国的压
力工作年龄人口对老年人的支持也将越来越大。数据显示，根据的话，我国已经进入了老龄化社会2000，那么支持的比例是9.9%，但现在这个数字已经改变了很多。2012，支持率为20.66%，到2013年底，这一比例上升到21.58%。可以看出，支持率逐年增加，工作年龄的负担人口赡养老人。
4.1.4。养老保险基金投资运作风险
全国社保基金理事会成立于2000。它负责投资业务社会保障基金，并保证基金的价值可以保留或增加。根据为了统计，全国社保基金累计已超过1兆2000亿元2013。在同年，中国的基本养老保险基金收入是2兆4733亿元，其中，总收入城镇职工基本养老保险基金2兆2680亿元，基本养老保险基金收入城乡居民205亿3000万元，而基本养老保险基金支出是1兆9819亿元，基本养老保险基金在今年年底累计累计3兆1275亿元。而且，我国的养老保险个人账户积累了不少基金。人口老龄化无疑将对工作的保护和增加带来严重的挑战我们的养老基金。从现有的投资，养老基金的投资范围仅限于银行存款，债券和其他金融工具交易具有良好的流动性，并在每一个投资的比例项目严格控制。在老龄化问题未到来之前，把养老基金放在银行或投资上非风险和低风险的产品是确保其安全的最佳选择。但是随着年龄的到来，如何投资在各种组合产品中，对社会保障基金的重要，特别是在增加价值养老基金又能更好地保障自身安全。只有唤醒“沉睡”
5。对解决养老保险风险的建议
5.1。建立长效机制防范养老风险
保险制度在养老保险制度的建立和改革过程中，西方发达国家通常都在立法上一、再根据法律开始养老金改革。这是值得学习的先进经验。因此，完善与社会养老保险制度安排密切相关的法律制度是一个长期的基本对策，以防止风险的退休金。近几年来，中国
先后出台了相关法律规定的基本养老保险关系的暂行办法城镇企业职工转变，“社会保险法”，奠定了发展的总体框架养老保险。优先处理的是增加人口老龄化，引入更具体的，可行性法律法规，加强养老保险制度运作的法律支持。
5.2。拓宽筹资渠道，建立多层次的养老保险
养老保险制度首先，作为社会养老保险的一部分，养老保险是社会化的特征，因此它该涵盖所有的职工尽可能在其实施的过程中，从而拓宽了养老资金来源的增加养老金收入。二、完善我国三大支柱养老保险制度。国家基本养老金是第一支柱，其地位和作用应进一步加强和巩固。企业补充养老保险二是支柱，其目前的发展并不理想，需要国家政策的支持。个人储蓄养老是第三大支柱，这是个人层面上的补充养老计划。个人储蓄
养老只是一个小的发展，需要政府的重视和引导。最后，尝试进行商业养老保险。随着我国人口老龄化程度的不断加深，养老问题引起越来越多的关注。因为社会养老保险只提供基本的保障，所以它是东部地区可提供商业养老保险，鼓励有条件的老年人购买。最后，在社会保障体系中实现企业年金保险的积极作用。
5.3。加强监管，维护和增加养老的价值
保险资金养老基金投资的基本原则是安全。因此，政府不仅需要发展适当的政策和法规的运作，养老基金，以指导基金的投资运作管理，也明确了投资公司的责任心，防止和化解操作风险，确保投资项目的风险最小。此外，它是必要的一些短期融资基金到养老基金。例如，让养老基金进入同业间市场与债券市场参与回购交易。这不仅可以增强流动性基金的同时，也有助于更积极地管理资产。总之，只有保证了安全，才能实现养老基金价值的增加具有现实意义。
5.4。放宽生育政策，延长退休年龄
我国人口老龄化程度不断加深，老年人口继续增加这就导致了工作年龄人口的减少。在这种情况下，放宽独生子女政策，让一些符合条件的家庭，一个二孩，人口不断增加，从而保证了后续的劳动力供给力。同时，我国还沿用了最后一个建立的养老制度世纪，男职工60岁退休，女职工50岁退休，退休年龄女干部55。随着社会的发展，医学技术的进步，平均寿命已显著延长。因此，旧的退休制度已经很难适应中国的现状经济和人口结构。在全世界，法定退休年龄都是发达国家国家，甚至许多发展中国家都比中国高。延长退休年龄可以增加养老金收入和养老金支出的减少，为养老基金留有足够的时间应对支付风险。
结论
本文在分析我国人口老龄化和养老保险现状的基础上，分析了我国人口老龄化和养老保险的现状论文分析了人口老龄化背景下我国养老保险的风险。在一个一方面，目前“统
筹规划和个人账户体系”的养老保险制度还不完善，而且人口老龄化的加速，我国养老保险基金将面临融资和投资风险，这可能会导致负面影响的去
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[6]乐，x.m.和吴，李丽（2008）通货膨胀风险影响估计养老保险个人账户。统计与决策，11，66-68。
中英文文献翻译
毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献及译文 英文题目Component-based Safety Computer of Railway Signal Interlocking System 中文题目模块化安全铁路信号计算机联锁系统 学院自动化与电气工程学院 专业自动控制 姓名葛彦宁 学号 200808746 指导教师贺清 2012年5月30日
Component-based Safety Computer of Railway Signal Interlocking System 1 Introduction Signal Interlocking System is the critical equipment which can guarantee traffic safety and enhance operational efficiency in railway transportation. For a long time, the core control computer adopts in interlocking system is the special customized high-grade safety computer, for example, the SIMIS of Siemens, the EI32 of Nippon Signal, and so on. Along with the rapid development of electronic technology, the customized safety computer is facing severe challenges, for instance, the high development costs, poor usability, weak expansibility and slow technology update. To overcome the flaws of the high-grade special customized computer, the U.S. Department of Defense has put forward the concept：we should adopt commercial standards to replace military norms and standards for meeting consumers’demand [1]. In the meantime, there are several explorations and practices about adopting open system architecture in avionics. The United Stated and Europe have do much research about utilizing cost-effective fault-tolerant computer to replace the dedicated computer in aerospace and other safety-critical fields. In recent years, it is gradually becoming a new trend that the utilization of standardized components in aerospace, industry, transportation and other safety-critical fields. 2 Railways signal interlocking system 2.1 Functions of signal interlocking system The basic function of signal interlocking system is to protect train safety by controlling signal equipments, such as switch points, signals and track units in a station, and it handles routes via a certain interlocking regulation. Since the birth of the railway transportation, signal interlocking system has gone through manual signal, mechanical signal, relay-based interlocking, and the modern computer-based Interlocking System. 2.2 Architecture of signal interlocking system Generally, the Interlocking System has a hierarchical structure. According to the function of equipments, the system can be divided to the function of equipments; the system
英文文献翻译
中等分辨率制备分离的 快速色谱技术 W. Clark Still,* Michael K a h n , and Abhijit Mitra Departm(7nt o/ Chemistry, Columbia Uniuersity,1Veu York, Neu; York 10027 ReceiLied January 26, 1978 我们希望找到一种简单的吸附色谱技术用于有机化合物的常规净化。这种技术是适于传统的有机物大规模制备分离，该技术需使用长柱色谱法。尽管这种技术得到的效果非常好，但是其需要消耗大量的时间，并且由于频带拖尾经常出现低复原率。当分离的样本剂量大于1或者2g时，这些问题显得更加突出。近年来，几种制备系统已经进行了改进，能将分离时间减少到1-3h，并允许各成分的分辨率ΔR f≥（使用薄层色谱分析进行分析）。在这些方法中，在我们的实验室中，媒介压力色谱法1和短柱色谱法2是最成功的。最近，我们发现一种可以将分离速度大幅度提升的技术，可用于反应产物的常规提纯，我们将这种技术称为急骤色谱法。虽然这种技术的分辨率只是中等（ΔR f≥），而且构建这个系统花费非常低，并且能在10-15min内分离重量在的样本。4 急骤色谱法是以空气压力驱动的混合介质压力以及短柱色谱法为基础，专门针对快速分离，介质压力以及短柱色谱已经进行了优化。优化实验是在一组标准条件5下进行的，优化实验使用苯甲醇作为样本，放在一个20mm*5in.的硅胶柱60内，使用Tracor 970紫外检测器监测圆柱的输出。分辨率通过持续时间（r）和峰宽（w,w/2）的比率进行测定的（Figure 1），结果如图2-4所示，图2-4分别放映分辨率随着硅胶颗粒大小、洗脱液流速和样本大小的变化。
冲压模具技术外文翻译(含外文文献)
前言 在目前激烈的市场竞争中，产品投入市场的迟早往往是成败的关键。模具是高质量、高效率的产品生产工具，模具开发周期占整个产品开发周期的主要部分。因此客户对模具开发周期要求越来越短，不少客户把模具的交货期放在第一位置，然后才是质量和价格。因此，如何在保证质量、控制成本的前提下加工模具是值得认真考虑的问题。模具加工工艺是一项先进的制造工艺，已成为重要发展方向，在航空航天、汽车、机械等各行业得到越来越广泛的应用。模具加工技术，可以提高制造业的综合效益和竞争力。研究和建立模具工艺数据库，为生产企业提供迫切需要的高速切削加工数据，对推广高速切削加工技术具有非常重要的意义。本文的主要目标就是构建一个冲压模具工艺过程，将模具制造企业在实际生产中结合刀具、工件、机床与企业自身的实际情况积累得高速切削加工实例、工艺参数和经验等数据有选择地存储到高速切削数据库中，不但可以节省大量的人力、物力、财力，而且可以指导高速加工生产实践，达到提高加工效率，降低刀具费用，获得更高的经济效益。 1.冲压的概念、特点及应用 冲压是利用安装在冲压设备（主要是压力机）上的模具对材料施加压力，使其产生分离或塑性变形，从而获得所需零件（俗称冲压或冲压件）的一种压力加工方法。冲压通常是在常温下对材料进行冷变形加工，且主要采用板料来加工成所需零件，所以也叫冷冲压或板料冲压。冲压是材料压力加工或塑性加工的主要方法之一，隶属于材料成型工程术。 冲压所使用的模具称为冲压模具，简称冲模。冲模是将材料（金属或非金属）批量加工成所需冲件的专用工具。冲模在冲压中至关重要，没有符合要求的冲模，批量冲压生产就难以进行；没有先进的冲模，先进的冲压工艺就无法实现。冲压工艺与模具、冲压设备和冲压材料构成冲压加工的三要素，只有它们相互结合才能得出冲压件。 与机械加工及塑性加工的其它方法相比，冲压加工无论在技术方面还是经济方面都具有许多独特的优点，主要表现如下； (1) 冲压加工的生产效率高，且操作方便，易于实现机械化与自动化。这是
机械设计设计外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
机械设计 摘要：机器是由机械装置和其它组件组成的。它是一种用来转换或传递能量的装置，例如：发动机、涡轮机、车辆、起重机、印刷机、洗衣机、照相机和摄影机等。许多原则和设计方法不但适用于机器的设计，也适用于非机器的设计。术语中的“机械装置设计”的含义要比“机械设计”的含义更为广泛一些，机械装置设计包括机械设计。在分析运动及设计结构时，要把产品外型以及以后的保养也要考虑在机械设计中。在机械工程领域中，以及其它工程领域中，所有这些都需要机械设备，比如：开关、凸轮、阀门、船舶以及搅拌机等。 关键词：设计流程设计规则机械设计 设计流程 设计开始之前就要想到机器的实际性，现存的机器需要在耐用性、效率、重量、速度，或者成本上得到改善。新的机器必需具有以前机器所能执行的功能。 在设计的初始阶段，应该允许设计人员充分发挥创造性，不要受到任何约束。即使产生了许多不切实际的想法，也会在设计的早期，即在绘制图纸之前被改正掉。只有这样，才不致于阻断创新的思路。通常,还要提出几套设计方案，然后加以比较。很有可能在这个计划最后决定中,使用了某些不在计划之内的一些设想。 一般的当外型特点和组件部分的尺寸特点分析得透彻时，就可以全面的设计和分析。接着还要客观的分析机器性能的优越性，以及它的安全、重量、耐用性，并且竞争力的成本也要考虑在分析结果之内。每一个至关重要的部分要优化它的比例和尺寸，同时也要保持与其它组成部分相协调。 也要选择原材料和处理原材料的方法。通过力学原理来分析和实现这些重要的特性，如那些静态反应的能量和摩擦力的最佳利用，像动力惯性、加速动力和能量；包括弹性材料的强度、应力和刚度等材料的物理特性，以及流体润滑和驱动器的流体力学。设计的过程是重复和合作的过程，无论是正式或非正式的进行，对设计者来说每个阶段都很重要。 最后，以图样为设计的标准，并建立将来的模型。如果它的测试是符合事先要
计算机网络-外文文献-外文翻译-英文文献-新技术的计算机网络
New technique of the computer network Abstract The 21 century is an ages of the information economy, being the computer network technique of representative techniques this ages, will be at very fast speed develop soon in continuously creatively, and will go deep into the people's work, life and study. Therefore, control this technique and then seem to be more to deliver the importance. Now I mainly introduce the new technique of a few networks in actuality live of application. keywords Internet Network System Digital Certificates Grid Storage 1. Foreword Internet turns 36, still a work in progress Thirty-six years after computer scientists at UCLA linked two bulky computers using a 15-foot gray cable, testing a new way for exchanging data over networks, what would ultimately become the Internet remains a work in progress. University researchers are experimenting with ways to increase its capacity and speed. Programmers are trying to imbue Web pages with intelligence. And work is underway to re-engineer the network to reduce Spam (junk mail) and security troubles. All the while threats loom: Critics warn that commercial, legal and political pressures could hinder the types of innovations that made the Internet what it is today. Stephen Crocker and Vinton Cerf were among the graduate students who joined UCLA professor Len Klein rock in an engineering lab on Sept. 2, 1969, as bits of meaningless test data flowed silently between the two computers. By January, three other "nodes" joined the fledgling network.
机械类外文文献
附：外文翻译 外文原文： Fundamentals of Mechanical Design Mechanical design means the design of things and systems of a mechanical nature—machines, products, structures, devices, and instruments. For the most part mechanical design utilizes mathematics, the materials sciences, and the engineering-mechanics sciences. The total design process is of interest to us. How does it begin? Does the engineer simply sit down at his desk with a blank sheet of paper? And, as he jots down some ideas, what happens next? What factors influence or control the decisions which have to be made? Finally, then, how does this design process end? Sometimes, but not always, design begins when an engineer recognizes a need and decides to do something about it. Recognition of the need and phrasing it in so many words often constitute a highly creative act because the need may be only a vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, of a sensing that something is not right. The need is usually not evident at all. For example, the need to do something about a food-packaging machine may be indicated by the noise level, by the variations in package weight, and by slight but perceptible variations in the quality of the packaging or wrap. There is a distinct difference between the statement of the need and the identification of the problem. Which follows this statement? The problem is more specific. If the need is for cleaner air, the problem might be that of reducing the dust discharge from power-plant stacks, or reducing the quantity of irritants from automotive exhausts. Definition of the problem must include all the specifications for the thing that is to be designed. The specifications are the input and output quantities, the characteristics of the space the thing must occupy and all the limitations on t hese quantities. We can regard the thing to be designed as something in a black box. In this case we must specify the inputs and outputs of the box together with their characteristics and limitations. The specifications define the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected life, the range, the operating temperature, and the reliability. There are many implied specifications which result either from the designer's particular environment or from the nature of the problem itself. The manufacturing processes which are available, together with the facilities of a certain plant, constitute restrictions on a designer's freedom, and hence are a part of the implied specifications. A small plant, for instance, may not own cold-working machinery. Knowing this, the designer selects other metal-processing methods which can be performed in the plant. The labor skills available and the competitive situation also constitute implied specifications. After the problem has been defined and a set of written and implied specifications has been obtained, the next step in design is the synthesis of an optimum solution. Now synthesis cannot take place without both analysis and optimization because the system under design must be analyzed to determine whether the performance complies with the specifications. The design is an iterative process in which we proceed through several steps, evaluate the results, and then return to an earlier phase of the procedure. Thus we may synthesize several components of a system, analyze and optimize them, and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on the remaining parts of the system. Both analysis and optimization require that we construct or devise abstract models of the system which will admit some form of mathematical analysis. We call these models
机械外文文献翻译
机械外文文献翻译 Overall position of Agricultural Mechanization in Turkey Agricultural equipment and machinery are the indispensable part of agricultural activities. If these instruments, which are used in various stages of production, are not used properly, there may be some problems. So, how can we use them properly ? As the proverb goes, “It is the want of care that makes the field bare”. They return the money and efforts invested in them if they are maintained well. Ploughs, which were being used in our country up until recently, resemble those ploughs of the various tribes that lived in Anatolia long time ago. It is because one society gets use of societies that lived before. Some of the black ploughs that were being used up until recently resemble the ploughs that had been used in the ancient Rome. The first agricultural school was established in the Ottoman Empire in 1846. The first domestic heavy ploughs was manufactured i n Izmir 90 years ago, and tractor was introduced 80 years ago. However, it was only the foundation of the Republic that the tractor began to be used in agricultural activities. Agricultural mobilization began with modern agricultural practices in the Atatürk Forest Farm, which was founded by the Great Atatürk. Use of modern agricultura l equipment was encouraged,
英文文献及中文翻译
毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学院：专 2011年6月 电子与计算机科学技术软件工程
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变电站_外文翻译_外文文献_英文文献_变电站的综合概述
英文翻译 A comprehensive overview of substations Along with the economic development and the modern industry developments of quick rising, the design of the power supply system become more and more completely and system. Because the quickly increase electricity of factories, it also increases seriously to the dependable index of the economic condition, power supply in quantity. Therefore they need the higher and more perfect request to the power supply. Whether Design reasonable, not only affect directly the base investment and circulate the expenses with have the metal depletion in colour metal, but also will reflect the dependable in power supply and the safe in many facts. In a word, it is close with the economic performance and the safety of the people. The substation is an importance part of the electric power system, it is consisted of the electric appliances equipments and the Transmission and the Distribution. It obtains the electric power from the electric power system, through its function of transformation and assign, transport and safety. Then transport the power to every place with safe, dependable, and economical. As an important part of power’s transport and control, the transformer substation must change the mode of the traditional design and control, then can adapt to the modern electric power system, the development of modern industry and the of trend of the society life. Electric power industry is one of the foundations of national industry and national economic development to industry, it is a coal, oil, natural gas, hydropower, nuclear power, wind power and other energy conversion into electrical energy of the secondary energy industry, it for the other departments of the national economy fast and stable development of the provision of adequate power, and its level of development is a reflection of the country's economic development an important indicator of the level. As the power in the industry and the importance of the national economy, electricity transmission and distribution of electric energy used in these areas is an indispensable component.。Therefore, power transmission and distribution is critical. Substation is to enable superior power plant power plants or power after adjustments to the lower load of books is an important part of power transmission. Operation of its functions, the capacity of a direct impact on the size of the lower load power, thereby affecting the industrial production and power consumption.Substation system if a link failure, the system will protect the part of action. May result in power outages and so on, to the production and living a great disadvantage. Therefore, the substation in the electric power system for the protection of electricity reliability,
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology(机械类英文文献+翻译)
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology—Machining Serope kalpakjian；Steven R.Schmid 机械工业出版社2004年3月第1版 20.9 MACHINABILITY The machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors: 1、Surface finish and integrity of the machined part; 2、Tool life obtained; 3、Force and power requirements; 4、Chip control. Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integrity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone. Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in the example below. 20.9.1 Machinability Of Steels Because steels are among the most important engineering materials (as noted in Chapter 5), their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels. Resulfurized and Rephosphorized steels. Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in
英文文献及翻译
Research Article Mechanical Properties of Fiber Reinforced Lightweight Concrete Containing Surfactant Y oo-Jae Kim, Jiong Hu, Soon-Jae Lee, and Byung-Hee Y ou Department of Engineering Technology, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA Correspondence should be addressed to Y oo-Jae Kim, yk10@https://www.360docs.net/doc/795615359.html, Received 21 June 2010; Accepted 24 November 2010 Academic Editor: Tarun Kant Copyright ? 2010 Y oo-Jae Kim et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Fiber reinforced aerated lightweight concrete (FALC) was developed to reduce concrete’s density and to improve its fire resistance, thermal conductivity, and energy absorption. Compression tests were performed to determine basic properties of FALC. The primary independent variables were the types and volume fraction of fibers, and the amount of air in the concrete. Polypropylene and carbon fibers were investigated at 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4% volume ratios. The lightweight aggregate used was made of expanded clay. A self-compaction agent was used to reduce the water-cement ratio and keep good workability. A surfactant was also added to introduce air into the concrete. This study provides basic information regarding the mechanical properties of FALC and compares FALC with fiber reinforced lightweight concrete. The properties investigated include the unit weight, uniaxial compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and toughness index. Based on the properties, a stress-strain prediction model was proposed. It was demonstrated that the proposed model accurately predicts the stress-strain behavior of FALC. 1. Introduction In the last three decades, prefabrication has been applied to small housing and tall building construction, and precast concrete panels have become one of the widely used materials in construction system. Recently, much attention has been directed toward the use of lightweight concrete for precast concrete to improve the performances, such as dead load reduction, fire resistance, and thermal conductivity, of the buildings. Additionally, the structure of a precast building should be able to resist impact loading cases, particularly earthquakes, since resisting earthquakes of these buildings under the performances is becoming an important consideration [1, 2].Many efforts have been applied toward developing high performance concrete for building structures with enhanced performance and safety. V arious types of precast concrete products, such as autoclaved aerated lightweight concrete (AALC), fiber reinforced concrete (FRC), and lightweight concrete, have been developed and experimentally verified. A number of them have been applied in full-scale build-ing structures. AALC is well known and widely accepted, but its small size and weak strength limit its use instructural elements [3]. Lightweight aggregate concretes offer strength, deadload reduction, and thermal conductivity,