现代语言学复习笔记2

Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学



1. What is pragmatics?

什么是语用学？



Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.

语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。

由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。



2. Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学



Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。



3. Context 语境



Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.

语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。



The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.

共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。



4. Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义



The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。



5. Speech act theory 言语行为理论



Speech act t

heory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century.

言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。



According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.

根据言语行为理论，我们说话的同时是在实施某种行为。



According to speech act theory, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.

根据言语行为理论，说话者说话时可能同时实施三种行为：言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。



a) A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax lexicon and phonology.

言内行为是说出词、短语和分句的行为， 它是通过句法、词汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。



b) An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。



c) A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学



1. The purpose and significance of the historical study of language

研究语言变化的目的和意义



The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.

Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.

The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.

研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。

历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。

历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。



2. The nature of language change

语言变化的本质



All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the general public of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a con

siderable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar.

Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence.

Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another.

所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。语言的变化是不可避免的。语言变化是普遍的、连续的，在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。在语言演变过程中，词汇和语法规则有的消亡了，有的诞生了，有的是外借的，有的则转化了其意义或功能。

尽管语言变化是普遍的，必然的，有时甚至是显著的，但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程，其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。

语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。



3. Major periods in the history of English

英语历史发展的主要阶段



a) Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段

b) Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段

c) Modern English (1500-今) 现代英语阶段



Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and Old English simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the native language they speak.

大多数现代英语的使用者发现，对于他们来说，中古英语只能部分地被理解，古英语则如外语一般，简直不可理解。



Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.

Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar.

Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.

古英语源自欧洲大陆的盎格鲁撒克逊民族所操的语言。

中古英语深受诺曼底占领者所操的法语的影响。词汇和语法等均受其影响。

现代英语是英语自身发展和欧洲文艺复兴运动渗透结合的产物，很多词汇是外来语。



As British influence reached other continents, the “British Empire” established English-speaking colonies in many parts of the world. English is now the native language in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

英帝国的兴起及其移民化过程的成功使现代英语的使用遍布全球。以现代英语为母语的国家包括英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰等。



4. Linguistic change in English

英语语言系统的变化



Language change is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in the grammar of a language as linguistic change. Linguistic change occurs in all components of the grammar, inc

luding changes in the sound, morphological, syntactic, lexical and semantic systems.

Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学



1. What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？



Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.

社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。



2. Language variation 语言变异



a) Speech community 言语社区



In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.

社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。分离出来用于任何特定研究的社会群体称作言语社区。因而，言语社区就被定义为一个社区（人数小到一个家庭，大到一个国家）使用同样的语言或语言的某种变体的一群人。言语社区的重要特点是，这个群体的成员必须以某种适当的方式与其他的社区成员进行语言交流。这些成员不仅可能对语言规范持相同态度，而且可能使用紧密联系的语言变体。

言语社区的范畴可以是地域性的，也可以是跨地区的。社会地位、经济地位、受教育程度、兴趣爱好、职业、年龄等因素相同的人所使用的语言往往带有相同言语社区的烙印。



b) Speech variety 言语变体



Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. A speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features. Considered a more neutral term, speech variety is sometimes used instead of standard language, vernacular language, dialect, pidgin, creole, etc. Speech variation moves on a scale of the national language, dialect, and individual ways of communication.

Sociolinguists are particularly interested in there types of speech variety, or dialects, namely, regional dialects, sociolects or social dialects, and functional speech varieties known as registers. The term dialect, as a technical term in linguistics, carries no value judgment and simply refers to a distinct form of language.



在社会环境中使用的语言都属于某种言语变体。一种言语变体具有一些与其它言语变体不同的特征。这些特征反映在发音、句法规则、词汇上。言语变体可以指一种不同的语

言，如标准语、方言、洋泾浜等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体、正式语体等。言语变体无论其具有何种社会属性，在社会语言学家看来它们之间没有高低之分、优劣之分。



c) Regional variation 地域变异



Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from. Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable.

语言的地域变异产生了地区方言。语言往往随着使用地理位置的变化而变化。地域变异是语言最易辨别的特征。

The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its accent. Often speakers of the same language but of different regional dialects of the language have a very difficult time communicating. One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning.

语言地域变异的最显著特征是地域口音。由于口音差异给跨地区的交流造成理解上的困难，推广标准化的运动便应运而生。



d) Social variation 社会变异



Social variation gives rise to sociolects which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories which reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational and ethnic background, as well as their sex and age.

语言的社会变异产生了社会方言。社会方言又可以分为更小的语言类别。导致语言社会变异的主要因素包括语言使用者的不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等。