Lecture 3 Contrastive Analysis
错误分析和对比分析
6
究中作为一种研究方法而创建的一个术语。
语言之间的一致性和分歧性，特别 是分歧性。为了说明问题，对比分 析有时也要涉及辞源和语言的某些 历史演变。
about us
Constrastive analysis is based on the following four assumptions:
1.second language learning二语 学习
the weak version
emphasizes the
only recognizes the
prediction
of
significance
of
difficulties
in
interference across
learning a second
languages and tries
language.(预测)
意义：一套严密的
局限性：学习者的困
方法和程序-深入
难和难点是多元的；
了解语言，应用于
对理论上的批评：心
语言教学，加强针
理学-不能预测的自然
对性-负迁移；一
条件下.语言学-忽视语
种语言的分析方法：
言的创造性，只能表
观察和分析学习语
层的对比；对难度等
言系统的良好起点。
级和偏误预测的批评。
Second method
1.Identifying overt and covert errors(显性和隐性的 误差） 2.Providing interpretations and constructing wellformed sentences in the target language.
3.Providing pairs of ill-formed orInappropriate sentences and reconstructed well-formed sentences inthe target languagefor comparison.
Contrastive Analysis语言学中的对比分析PPT
kinds
Phonological interference ----Those who cannot distinguish /n/and /l/
sound in Chinese cannot distinguish the two sounds in English , either
Contrastive Analysis
Group Member：...
Outline
➢ What is Contrastive Analysis/ Study/ Linguistics?
➢ What is the psychological basis of CA? ➢ What procedures should we adopt while conducting CA? ➢ What do we contrast / compare?
Teaching materials based on contrastive analysis can reduce the effects of interference and difficulties , and facilitate L2 learning.
Two types of transfer
kinds
Intralingual Cross-linguistic/Interlingual Phonological interference Syntactic interference Contrastive pragmatics
Kinds
Intralingual ---Analysis of contrastive phonemes. ---Feature analysis of morph syntactic categories. ---Analysis of morphemes having grammatical
二语习得引论读书笔记chapter3
主要研究成果I.The nature of languageII.Early approaches to SLA1.Contrastive Analysis (CA)1). as a beginning of the survey:aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recent approaches.It introduced the influence of L1 on L2 (Chomsky)2). CA: an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaininglearner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2)3). influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism.4). Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increase efficiency in L2teaching and testing.5). Process:Describing L1 and L2 at different levelAnalyzing comparable segment of the language for elements that may cause problems6). Assessment:Cannot explain the logical problem of language learning (how learners knowmore than they’ve heard and been taught)Not always validated by evidence from actual learner errors.Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammarIts analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation2.Error analysis (EA)1). EA: the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus onlearner’s creative ability to construct language.(based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2)2). CA f EAPredictions by CA not always correct; many real learner errors are nottransferred from L1Focus on surface-level forms and patterns f underlying rules Behaviorism fmentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity) Teaching concerns as motivationI3). Procedures for analyzing learner errors:Collection of a sample of learner languageIdentification of errorsDescription of errorsExplanation of errorsEvaluation of errors4). ShortcomingsAmbiguity in classificationLack of positive dataPotential for avoidance3.Interlanguage (IL)1). IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of a learner’s languageas it moves toward the target L2.2). Characteristics:SystematicDynamicVariableReduced system, both in form and function3). Differences between SLA and L1 acquisition by childrenLanguage transfer from L1 to L2Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taughtStrategies of 2nd language learningOvergeneralization of the target language linguistic materials4). L1 as fossilization for L2 learners:Fossilization: the probability that they 'll cease their IL development in somerespects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2input and passage time.Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.4.Morpheme order studies1). Refers to：a n important Q in the study of SLA, whether there is a naturalorder (or universal sequence) in the grammatical development of L2 learners.2). Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base form of a word, togive it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.)3). The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same.4). The concept of natural order remains very important for understanding SLA.(both from linguistic and cognitive approaches)5.Monitor model1). One of the last of the early approaches which has an internal focus in theMonitor Model.(Stephen Krashen)2). It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a language acquisition device(LAD) (Chomsky used for children’s innate knowledge of language)3). Krashen’s approach: 5 hypotheses6.Consensus:1). What is being acquired in SLA is a “rule0governed” language systems2). How SLA take place involves creative mental processes.3). Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than others relates primarilyto the age of the learner.m. Universal Grammar (UG)1.UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common.1). Two important conceptslinguistic competence (speaker-hearers’ underlying knowledge of language)needs to be accounted for LAsuch knowledge of language > what could be learned from the input. (the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument)2). The nature of speaker-hearers’ competence in native language can beexplained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with.3). The innate knowledge is in the language facultyLanguage faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented inthe brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.2.Principles and Parameters1). With Chomsky’s reconceptualization of UG in the Principles and Parametersframework [often called the Government and Binding (GB) model] and thesubsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there came a new ideaabout the acquisition process.2). UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which are properties of alllanguages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters3). What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UGthat match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input.4). How acquisition occurs for children:natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system5). Why some learners are more successful:Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)1.Functional approach1). Based on: the framework of Functionalism2). Characteristics of functional approaches to SLAFocus on the use of language in real situations (performance) and underlyingknowledge (competence)Assumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA requirecommunicative useConcern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used ininteraction; include aspects of communication beyond language Systemic linguistics Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.“language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions”3). What language learners acquire: meaning potential4). Process of acquisition:mastering certain basic functions of language developing a meaning potentialfor each5). pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition: instrumental f regulatoryf interactional f personal f heuristic f imagination^ representational6). linguistic structures: directly reflections of the functions that language serves;related to the social and personal needs2.Functional Typology1). Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the world’s language2). Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences among languages; todetermine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution.3). Application: why some L2 constructions are more/less difficult than others forL2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer4). important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specific feature oflanguage is marked or unmarked)5)In SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones.6). Compared with CA:Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structural (CA) to moreabstract patterns, principles and constraints;the Markedness Differential Hypothesis7). implications:some aspects of some languages are more difficultwhy some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and2nd language (factors: perceptual salience, ease of cognitive processing,physical constraints, communicative needs)3.Function-to-form mapping1). Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process of grammaticalization.2). Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed by sharedextralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse,then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker.Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive process3). Pragmatic mode: a style of expressing meaning which relies more on context.Syntactic mode: a style which relies more on formal grammatical element4). According to function-to-mapping approach, LA importantly involves developinglinguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions.rmation organization1). Focus on: utterance structure (the way learners put their words together.)2). Includes:describing the structures of interlanguage (learner varieties)disc overing what organizational principles guide learners’ production at various stages of developmentanalyzing how these principles interact with one another.3). European Science Foundation (ESF) projectdevelopmental levels: in this study, no matter what their L1 and L2, thelearners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in theirinterlanguage.organizing principles:*there is a limited set of principles (phrasal constraints; semanticconstraints; pragmatic constraints) which learners make use of fororganizing information.*Individual variation: how the principles apply in their L1 and influence the interlanguage use.。
AContrastiveAnalysisofChineseandEnglishPoliticalSp
词汇层面的对比分析
中文政治演讲常用词汇：人民、国家、 发展、改革等
英文政治演讲常用修辞手法： metaphor、simile、 personification等
英文政治演讲常用词汇：democracy、 freedom、equality、justice等
中文政治演讲常用句型：陈述句、祈 使句、疑问句等
YOUR LOGO
基于系统功能语法的 中英政治演讲对比分 析
,a click to unlimited possibilities
汇报人：
时间：20XX-XX-XX
目录
01
02
添加标题 引言
03
04
05
06
系统功能 语法概述
中英政治 演讲的语 言特征
中英政治 演讲的对 比分析
中英政治 演讲的翻 译技巧
中英政治演讲的句法特点
中文政治演讲：多用短句，简洁明了，易于理解 英文政治演讲：多用长句，复杂句型，强调逻辑关系 中文政治演讲：多用并列句，强调并列关系 英文政治演讲：多用从句，强调因果关系和条件关系 中文政治演讲：多用祈使句，强调命令和呼吁 英文政治演讲：多用虚拟语气，强调假设和可能性
中英政治演讲的语篇特点
词汇增减：根据 语法和语义，对 词汇进行增减， 如将“我们”翻 译为“we”， 将“你们”翻译 为“you”
句法层面的翻译技巧
主语和谓语的转换：根据中英语法差异，适当调整主语和谓语的位置 定语和状语的处理：根据中英语法差异，适当调整定语和状语的位置 长句和短句的转换：根据中英语法差异，适当调整长句和短句的比例 语序和结构的调整：根据中英语法差异，适当调整语序和结构，使翻译更加流畅自然
PART 6
中英政治演讲的翻译技巧
第三章翻译中的语言对比分析ContrastiveAnalysisin
1) Is more growth really better?经济发展得越快越好吗？
2)Tess is queer.苔丝的脾气可古怪呢。
3)“My dear Mr. Bennet,” replied his wife, “how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them/my daughters”(J. Austen: Pride and Prejudice)
2)Over time, Kelley has learned to move her fingers enough to use a computer and to get around daily with the help of a wheelchair.随着时间的推移，凯里学会了灵活地移动手指并可以使用计算机，借助电动轮椅，能够处理自己的日常生活。
英语的形合句汉语也可以用汉语的形合句来翻译
1)You and the girls may go, or you may send them by themselves, which perhaps will be still better, for as you are as handsome as any of them, Mr. Bingley might like you the best of the party.
2) A good book may be among the best of friends. It is the same today that it always was, and it will never change
第二章 翻译中的语言对比分析Contrastive Analysis
第二章翻译中的语言对比分析Contrastive Analysis形合与意合句的处理策略★英语的形合句翻译成汉语的意合句1)As I resumed walking I blurted out, “It’s a lucky thing ithappened that way. Y ou wouldn’t have met Mother. ”(R.Zacks: “The Date Father Didn’t Keep”)我们继续往前走，我又冒出一句话：“这样倒是一件幸／好事。
不然，你就遇不上你妈妈了。
”★英语的形合句汉语也可以用汉语的形合句来翻译1)Y ou and the girls may go, or you may send them by themselves, which perhaps will be still better, for as you are as handsome as any of them, Mr. Bingley might like you the best of the party.( J. Austen: Pride and Prejudice)你带着女儿们去就行了，要不你索性打发她们自己去，这样做或许更好些，因为你的姿色并不亚于她们中的任何一个，（你一去增译），宾利先生到看中你呢！2) It will be no use to us, if twenty such should come since you will not visit them.( J. Austen: Pride and Prejudice)既然你不肯去拜访，即使搬来二十个，那对我们又有什么用呢？2)That altered, frightened, fat face told his secret wellenough.( W.M.Thackeray: V anity Fair)他的胖脸蛋吓得走了样，他心里的想法全写在脸上。
9 Constrastive Analysis
linguistics, language independent, looking for the realization of universal categories in two or more languages, by giving an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between them, providing an adequate model for their comparison, and determining their comparability. Applied contrastive studies belong to applied linguistics, concerned not only with the comparison as well as similarities between them, but also with possible consequences for a given field of application. Its another task is to identify the probable areas of difficulty in L another language.
interfering elements of learning, claiming that interference means difficulty in learning. Linguistic aspect, based on structuralist linguistics, lays strong emphasis on differences between languages and provides the tools to describe accurately the two languages in question, and to match those tow descriptions against each other to determine the differences and similarities between them. CA is based on four assumptions:
Contrastive Analysis语言学中的对比分析 PPT课件
Kinds
Cross-linguistic/Interlingual ---Comparative analysis of morph syntactic
systems. ---Comparative analysis of lexical semantics ---Analysis of translational equivalence ---Study of interference in foreign language
Contrastive Analysis
Group Member：...
Outline
➢ What is Contrastive Analysis/ Study/ Linguistics?
➢ What is the psychological basis of CA? ➢ What procedures should we adopt while conducting CA? ➢ What do we contrast / compare?
➢ Introspective data:
➢ a kind of data involving the subject reflecting the kinds of decisions they make and the kinds of strategies they use while carrying out a task, and reporting them as they occur.
2) selection (i.e. certain areas or items of the two
languages were chosen for detailed comparison such as phonology, syntax and lexicon)
CONTRASTIVEANALYSIS-I
• According to this theory, L2 learning is
also thought to involve rule formation
• after hearing L2 input, learners form
hypotheses about the L2 rules and begin testing them by producing forms according to the hypotheses.
•
• For one thing, people produce and
understand new sentences all the time.
• For another, evidence of
overgeneralization of the past tense indicated that language is more the application of rules than it is of mimicry and analogy.
• The strong one (a priori) claimed
that predictions of trouble spots could be made based upon a comparison of two languages. This starts with a crosslinguistic analysis and then attempts to predict trouble spots.
• Fossilization - when a learner gets
'stuck' at a particular point along the IL continuum, she is said to be fossilized. This could be for various reasons, among them loss of motivation once the learner learns 'enough' to get by, or dislike of the L2 speakers (Turks in Germany). This is a major difference between L1 and L2 acquisition.
Contrastive_analysis
Intralingual
–Analysis of contrastive phonemes –Feature analysis of morphosyntactic categories –Analysis of morphemes having grammatical meaning –Analysis of word order –Componential analysis of lexemes –Analysis of lexical relations
What is contrastive analysis (CA)?
Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
Lado maintained a more controversial position, however, when he claimed that "those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult" (Lado 1957:2, Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers). This conviction that linguistic differences could be used to predict learning difficulty produced the notion of the contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH): "Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result." (Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991: 53)
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Interlingual/Cross-linguistic – Analysis of contrastive phonemes 48 phonemes in English, vowels and consonants, voiced and voiceless consonants, phonetic feature of Chinese pinyin system, the differences in stressed syllable, tone, and rhythm between Chinese and English.
– Analysis of translational equivalence In Chinese, the SV sentence pattern has a variable VS. In translating it into English, we usually use the common SV. For instance: 弹指又过了三四年。（《儒林外史》 第一回） So three or four years quickly & Gladys Yang
– Study of interference in foreign language learning phonological interference: Those who cannot distinguish /n/and /l/ sound in Chinese cannot distinguish the two sounds in English, either. syntactic interference: *From the chart we can see people study for interest increase when they grow older.
Contrastive Pragmatics: Analysis needs to consider not only linguistic contrasts but also pragmatic contrasts such as the similarities and differences in the stylistic uses, culture, and other communicative networks.
Theoretical bases and basic assumptions Heavily influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism. The focus of CA is on the surface structure, including the phonology, morphology, syntax and discourse. Following Behaviorism, CA emphasizes on transfer in language learning.
Contrastive analysis as applied to L2 teaching
CA emphasizes differences between languages rather than similarities; It is pedagogically-oriented, with the aim to discover and predict learning problems and difficulties. Just as Lado (1957) makes clear, “The teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them.”
Plural forms and subject-predicate agreement in person and number use of articles use of modal verbs Attributive Clause, etc. Because we don’t have such grammatical phenomena in Chinese.
In pronunciation, many students have problems in pronuncing words ended with consonant. For example, "A good old friend" is pronounced as [ə 'gudə əuldə 'frendə] When compared with Chinese, we see it may be due to the negative transfer from our mother tongue, because in Chinese syllables very often end in vowels.
The conviction that linguistic differences could be used to predict learning difficulty gave rise to the contrastive ananysis hypothesis: Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer , or interference, would result.
1.What is contrastive analysis (CA)?
Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach which involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them.
Please be seated. Please take your seat. Please sit down Sit down, please. Sit down.
请落座 请就座 请坐下 请坐 坐下
I would be very much appreciative/obliged if you could possibly offer him any help. 如蒙相助,则本人将不胜感激之至. I want to express/extend my heartfelt gratitude/ appreciation/ obligation to you for -- 在此谨向您表达我诚挚的谢意 I am very grateful for you to do --- 非常感谢 Thank you 谢谢 3Q 谢了/啦
– Comparative analysis of morphosyntactic systems (letter language or ideographic language, affix, etc.) – Comparative analysis of lexical semantics Like "借" in Chinese and "borrow" and "lend" in English, and “cousin” in English can mean very differently in Chinese.
Lead-in Questions:
According to your learning experience, what grammatical items are more difficult to learn ( or constantly baffling) in English? And what do you think are easier ? Why?
Semantic differences also exist between Chinese and English, for example: We have green land, green food 绿色食品 green finger (thumb) 园艺技能, etc. 眼红(jealous) But green-eyed 新手 green-hand 尊贵decent ,noble, royal blue blood 黄色电影 pornographic film blue film The differences result in difficulties for learning
Researchers working in CA saw two types of transfer: – Positive transfer: similar structures facilitate learning. L1 habits can successfully be used in the L2. – Negative transfer: “Interference” from the L1. L1 habits will cause errors in the L2.
Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for the learner, and those elements that are different will be difficult(Lado, 1957:2)