英语语言学导论笔记
英语语言学笔记
3
语音学
语音（Phonetics）
研究语言的发音机制、音素（音位）的发音特征和分布规律。
/b/、/t/、/d/等辅音音素的发音方式。
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音位（Phoneme）
语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。
在英语中，“bit”和“bet”因音位/ɪ/和/ɛ/的不同而意义不同。
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音系学
音系（Phonology）
研究语言中音素的组合规则和模式，以及这些规则如何影响语言的意义。
英语中的重音和节奏模式对单词和句子的意义有影响。
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语法学
语法（Grammar）
描述语言中单词、短语和句子如何组合成有意义的结构的规则系统。
句子“The cat sat on the mat.”遵循英语语法规则。
英语语言学笔记
序号
主题/子主题
关键概念/术语
定义/解释
示例/应用
备注
1
语言学基础
语言学（guistics）
研究语言的科学，包括语言的结构、功能、演变以及语言在社会中的应用。
语言学家研究不同语言的语音、语法、词汇等。
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语言（Language）
人类特有的、用于沟通的一套符号系统，包括口语、书面语和手势语等。
研究语言中的词汇、短语和句子如何表达意义。
单词“happy”的意义是“快乐的”。
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语用学
语用（Pragmatics）
研究语言如何在特定情境中使用，以及语言使用者的意图、背景和互动如何影响语言的意义。
“It’s cold in here.”可能不仅仅是描述温度，还可能暗示要求关窗或开暖气。
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社会语言学
社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）
英语语言学笔记第六章
第六章语言的心理过程6.1 绪言为什么要研究语言？从某种更深刻更重要的意义上来说，语言是思维的镜子。
它是人类智慧的结晶，通过意志和意识觉察不到的一些机制在人类每一个体上重生。
（乔姆斯基，Reflections on Language，1975）"语言和思维"这项研究致力于构造思维中与语言相关部分的工作模型。
毫无疑问，思维的种种结构和关系是不可观察的，因而研究者们提出假设时总是根据一些零星的线索。
这也说明了为什么围绕这一论题几乎所有方面的争议都那么尖锐。
人们最经常给"语言和思维"这项研究贴上的标签是心理语言学--一个通常认为是正流行的术语，近年来该术语从某种意义上说被滥用了，我们会发现它几乎可以用于任一语言学论题。
"准确的"心理语言学也许可以注解为对利用任一媒介（口头的或书面的）进行的语言储存、理解、产生和习得过程的研究。
为什么要研究心理语言学？心理语言学首要关注的是调查语言结构的心理现实。
照实说，该学科通常也会产生一些对语言研究提出他们自己评论的发现，这些发现促进了理论体系的改进。
如果我们通过一个宽泛聚合体--认知心理学的视角来看心理语言学的任务，那么它将变得和对语言指令行为表征的研究相一致。
作为现代形态的心理学，它采用实验的方法论，坚持必须在实验条件下研究这些行为表征；通过近三十年左右始终追求这一目标、在精密实验方法指导下的心理语言学，我们看到这样做也是合理的。
区别心理语言学与语言心理学或许有助于我们的讨论。
后者处理诸如语言在多大范围内影响了思想之类更常见的论题；而且从交际心理学角度看，它还研究包括手势、面部表情等非言语交际。
在心理语言学内部，一个可能的区分是某些学者把自己称作"认知心理语言学家"，以与"实验心理语言学家"相对。
前者首要关注的是作出关于人类思维内容的推论，后者则更关心经验主义的事实、比如对一个特定单词的反应速度。
《语言学导论》中文笔记
《语言学导论》中文笔记语言学导论中文笔记(完整)什么是语言学?- 语言学是研究语言的科学- 研究语言的性质、结构和功能- 研究语言的发展、变化和使用语言学的分支1. 语音学: 研究语音的产生、传播和认知2. 词汇学: 研究单词的构成、意义和使用3. 句法学: 研究句子的结构和语法规则4. 语义学: 研究词语和句子的意义5. 语用学: 研究语言在特定情境中的使用方式语言的特点1. 语言是人类特有的沟通工具2. 语言具有拟态性，即能通过语言表达事物的形状、动作等特征3. 语言具有符号性，即语言中的单词和语法符号代表着特定的意义4. 语言是可以研究和教授的，通过语言能够传递文化和知识语言的功能1. 意指功能: 通过语言表达思想、情感和意图2. 表示功能: 通过语言描述和描绘事物、现象和过程3. 交际功能: 通过语言实现沟通和交流4. 记忆功能: 通过语言记录和传递信息5. 心理功能: 通过语言影响和塑造个体的心理活动语言与文化- 语言是文化的一部分，反映了社会和文化的价值观和观念- 不同的语言体现了不同的文化方式和思维方式- 语言的变化和发展与文化的变迁和演变相互关联语言的变化和发展- 语言是动态的，不断发展和变化- 语言变化的原因包括：社会文化变迁、语言接触和语言演化- 语言变化常常由语言使用者的创新和共同接受推动语言的使用- 语言使用涉及语言使用者的语法知识、语境理解和交际目的- 语言的使用方式受到社会、文化、地域等因素的影响- 语言的使用也受到个体因素和语言使用者之间的关系影响以上是《语言学导论》的简要笔记，介绍了语言学的定义、分支、特点、功能、与文化关系、变化和使用等方面的内容。
对于进一步学习语言学的人来说，这份笔记能够提供一个全面的概览，并为深入研究打下基础。
(完整word版)第一章语言学导论解析.doc
第一章语言学导论Chapter1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as wellas linguistics and other disciplines.Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you define linguistics? What is linguistics?—— Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a sciencein the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language.What are we going to learn about linguistics?1.It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics.语音学 (phonetics); 音系学 (phonology); 形态学 (morphology); 句法学 (syntax) — Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学 (semantics) ; 语用学 (pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics —— interdisciplinary learningSaussure, father of modern linguistics( 现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance onother disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖中解放出来。
英语语言学概论笔记
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of struc ture) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Ch omsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like t he dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a humanlanguage but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this fun ction, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction to o, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of thespeaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good ex amples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform action s. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, a nd more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. (2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a sp eech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confusedfacts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue isinvisi ble but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies t he characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in whicha speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the st udy of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are suppose d to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophonesof[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g.,indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographicall y represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonologica l properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.1.42.What is morphology?“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology andlexical/derivational morphology.1.43.What is inflection/inflexion?“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affix es, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.1.44.What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?(1) The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relati onship between expression and content, a。
英语语言学语言学知识点课件
4. scope of linguistics
(语言学的研究范围)
英语语言学语言学知识点
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• 1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)
defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication
英语语言学语言学知识点
40
• 音系学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
英语语言学语言学知识点
34
• 如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别: • 联想: mathematics, physics, mechanics
•
phonetics 语言学，-ics科学性更强
•
•
geology, sociology, astrology
•
phonology 音系学，-ology人文性更强
英语语言学语言学知识点
30
• Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.
• Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
英语语言学笔记第二章
言语产生和言语感知人类可以发出各种声音，但只有其中一部分成为语言系统的单位。
正如我们从前面对语言的讨论中所看到的，语言首先是一个"语音符号系统"，语音远远早于文字而存在，并且，即使是今天，在世界的某些角落，还有些语言是没有文字系统的。
因此，语音的研究是语言学的一个主要组成部分。
在这一章中，我们将考察语音研究的方法以及使用的模式。
我们将从语音研究，即"语音学"开始，然后进入语音模式，即"音系学"的研究。
可以想象，语音被说话者A发出，然后，它被传递并被说话者B接收，语音如图2.1所示经历了3个阶段。
言语产生言语感知（说话者A）→（说话者B）图2.1 言语产生和言语感知过程语音研究自然地分成三个主要领域，一个领域就是一个步骤。
●发音语音学研究语音的产生。
●声学语音学研究语音的物理特征。
●听觉语音学和语音感知有关。
在本书中，我们只集中讨论发音语音学，不涉及其他的研究领域。
语言学教程2.2 言语器官言语器官，如图2.2所示，也经常被称作发音器官。
它们是人体中参与制造言语的部分。
这些器官，并非仅仅用在言语中，它们的主要功能其实是满足呼吸和进食等基本生理需要。
虽然如此，这些器官看起来是经历了长期的进化以适应言语的各种特定的需要。
因为它们的形成保证了其能有效地在言语行为中发挥作用。
如果去考察人体有多少部分参与了言语行为，你会大吃一惊，它们是：肺，气管，喉，鼻和口。
在口里，我们需要辨别舌及腭的不同部分。
在喉里，我们还要辨别咽（喉的上部）和喉头（喉的下部，包括声带）。
咽、口和鼻组成了声道的三大腔，口和鼻常被分别称为口腔和鼻腔。
图2.2 言语器官（略）发音以气流作为其能量来源。
大多数情况下，气流来自于肺部，它从肺里被挤出，然后通过细支气管和支气管（通往气管的一些管道分支）。
以这种方式产生的语音叫做"肺闭塞音"。
气管的顶端是喉头，喉头的前端是喉结。
英语学习_新编简明英语语言学教程笔记_必备
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
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一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。