Nanobubble generation and its applications in froth flotation(partⅢ)：specially designed labo
纳米多功能手环作文
纳米多功能手环作文英文回答：A nanotechnology multifunctional bracelet is a wearable device that is equipped with various advanced features and capabilities. It is designed to enhance our daily lives by providing convenience, health monitoring, and communication functions.Firstly, the nanotechnology multifunctional bracelet serves as a personal assistant. It can sync with our smartphones and provide notifications for incoming calls, messages, and social media updates. This feature allows us to stay connected with our friends and family without constantly checking our phones. For example, when I am in a meeting, I can discreetly glance at my bracelet to see if there are any urgent messages or calls that require my attention.Secondly, the bracelet incorporates health monitoringfeatures. It can track our heart rate, sleep patterns, and even blood pressure. This information is valuable for maintaining a healthy lifestyle. For instance, if my heart rate is consistently high during exercise, the bracelet can alert me to take a break and avoid overexertion. Additionally, the bracelet can remind me to stand up and stretch if I have been sitting for too long, promoting better posture and reducing the risk of sedentary-related health issues.Furthermore, the nanotechnology multifunctional bracelet can also function as a mobile payment device. With the integration of near-field communication (NFC) technology, it allows us to make contactless payments at various stores and establishments. This feature eliminates the need to carry multiple cards or cash, making shopping more convenient and secure. For example, I can simply tap my bracelet on the payment terminal to complete a transaction, without the hassle of searching for my wallet or entering a PIN.In addition to its practical functions, the braceletcan also be customized to suit our personal style and preferences. It comes in various designs and colors,allowing us to express our individuality. Moreover, the bracelet can be paired with different bands and accessories to match different outfits and occasions. This versatility makes it a fashionable accessory that complements ouroverall look.中文回答：纳米多功能手环是一种可穿戴设备，具备各种先进的功能和能力。
Quantum Mechanics and Applications
Quantum Mechanics and ApplicationsQuantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of physics that deals with the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic levels. It is a framework for describing the behavior of particles that are too small to be observed directly and for predicting their interactions with one another and with their environment. As a field, quantum mechanics has led to many groundbreaking discoveries and has revolutionized our understanding of the physical world.In this article, we will explore some of the key concepts of quantum mechanics and their applications in modern technology.Wave-Particle DualityOne of the fundamental concepts of quantum mechanics is wave-particle duality. Simply put, this means that particles like electrons and photons can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like behavior, depending on how they are observed. This concept was first proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1924 and has since been confirmed through numerous experiments.One of the most famous experiments that demonstrates wave-particle duality is the double-slit experiment. In this experiment, a beam of electrons or photons is fired at a screen with two slits. Behind the screen, a detector records the pattern of interference that is created by the particles passing through the slits and interfering with each other. This pattern is characteristic of waves rather than particles and demonstrates the wave-like nature of the particles.Quantum SuperpositionAnother fundamental concept of quantum mechanics is quantum superposition. This refers to the ability of particles to exist in multiple states or locations simultaneously. This idea is often illustrated using the famous thought experiment of Schrödinger's cat, in which a cat is placed in a box with a vial of poison that will be released if a particular radioactive atom decays. According to the principles of quantum mechanics, until the boxis opened and the cat is observed, it is in a state of superposition, in which it is both alive and dead at the same time.Quantum superposition is key to the field of quantum computing, which is a new method of processing information that promises to be much faster than classical computing. In a quantum computer, data is stored in quantum bits, or qubits, which can exist in multiple states simultaneously. This allows quantum computers to perform certain calculations much more quickly than classical computers.Quantum EntanglementAnother key concept of quantum mechanics is quantum entanglement. This refers to the phenomenon in which two particles become correlated in such a way that the properties of one particle are dependent on the properties of the other, even when the particles are separated by large distances.Quantum entanglement is a key component of quantum cryptography, which is a method of secure communication that relies on the principles of quantum mechanics. In quantum cryptography, information is encoded using qubits, which are then transmitted over long distances. Because the qubits are entangled, any attempt to intercept or measure them will cause them to become disturbed, alerting the receiver to the presence of an eavesdropper.Applications of Quantum MechanicsThe concepts of quantum mechanics have led to many practical applications in modern technology. One of the most well-known applications is the laser, which uses the principles of quantum mechanics to produce a beam of coherent light.Another important application of quantum mechanics is in the field of medicine. For example, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses the principles of quantum mechanics to produce detailed images of the inside of the body. In an MRI machine, the patient is exposed to a strong magnetic field, which causes the protons in their body to become aligned with the field. When a radio wave is then applied to the patient, the protons release energy, which is detected by the MRI machine and used to produce an image.ConclusionIn conclusion, quantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of physics that has revolutionized our understanding of the physical world. Its concepts of wave-particle duality, quantum superposition, and quantum entanglement have led to many practical applications in modern technology, from lasers to medicine. As our understanding of quantum mechanics continues to develop, it is likely that we will see even more exciting applications in the years to come.。
211251872_蛋白质纳米颗粒的制备及其在食品领域的应用研究进展
高琦，张首央，唐子程，等. 蛋白质纳米颗粒的制备及其在食品领域的应用研究进展[J]. 食品工业科技，2023，44（11）：30−37. doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022110153GAO Qi, ZHANG Shouyang, TANG Zicheng, et al. Research Progress on Preparation and Application of Protein Nanoparticles in Food Field[J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2023, 44(11): 30−37. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022110153· 青年编委专栏—食品营养素包埋与递送（客座主编：黄强、蔡杰、陈帅） ·蛋白质纳米颗粒的制备及其在食品领域的应用研究进展高 琦1,2，张首央1，唐子程1，彭 雪1，王 宁1，薛友林1,*（1.辽宁大学轻型产业学院，辽宁沈阳 110036；2.中共辽宁省委党校，辽宁沈阳 110161）摘 要：蛋白质纳米颗粒即纳米级的蛋白质颗粒，由于蛋白质本身具有良好的生物相容性和生物降解性，与合成纳米材料相比，蛋白质纳米颗粒在生物活性物质的包埋和传递方面具有极大优势，近年来逐渐成为研究的热点。
本文首先介绍了目前主要用于食品工业的动物蛋白纳米颗粒和植物蛋白纳米颗粒的常见类型，并对蛋白质纳米颗粒的常用制备方法进行了归纳总结，包括反溶剂沉淀法、盐析法、纳米喷雾干燥法、静电纺丝法、超临界流体法和热致聚集法等，分析了各种方法的原理及在安全性、适用性、产品质量和操作复杂程度等方面的优缺点，然后对蛋白质纳米颗粒在功能性食品的生产、食品的活性包装和食品Pickering 乳液的稳定三个方面的应用进行了综述，最后归纳了蛋白质纳米颗粒应用安全性方面的研究现状，以期为蛋白质纳米颗粒的进一步研究提供理论参考。
纳米书包的作文200
纳米书包的作文200英文回答：The concept of a nanoscale backpack holds immense potential for revolutionizing the delivery of drugs, enhancing medical treatments, and advancing biotechnology. These minuscule backpacks, measuring just a few nanometersin size, have the remarkable ability to carry and release therapeutic agents with unprecedented precision, paving the way for targeted and personalized medicine.The key to nanoscale backpacks lies in their ability to encapsulate and protect therapeutic agents, ensuring their stability and solubility. These backpacks are often engineered from biocompatible materials, such as lipids or polymers, which can be tailored to the specific needs ofthe intended application. By precisely controlling the size, shape, and surface properties of the backpack, scientists can optimize its circulation time, tissue targeting, and drug release kinetics.The delivery of therapeutic agents using nanoscale backpacks offers numerous advantages over conventional methods. By encapsulating the therapeutic agents, the backpacks protect them from degradation and premature clearance, ensuring greater bioavailability and enhanced therapeutic efficacy. The targeted delivery approach also minimizes systemic toxicity, reducing the risk of adverse effects. Moreover, the ability to control the release kinetics allows for sustained or timed delivery, providing a more efficient and personalized treatment regimen.The applications of nanoscale backpacks are vast and extend across various disciplines, including oncology, infectious diseases, and gene therapy. In oncology, nanoscale backpacks have shown promise in delivering chemotherapeutic agents directly to tumor cells, increasing their potency while reducing systemic toxicity. In infectious diseases, backpacks can encapsulate antibiotics or antiviral agents, enabling targeted delivery to specific pathogens, improving treatment outcomes and reducing the emergence of drug resistance. Gene therapy also benefitsfrom nanoscale backpacks, as they can protect and deliver genetic material to specific cells, facilitating geneediting and potentially curing genetic disorders.While the development and application of nanoscale backpacks hold immense promise, there are also potential challenges and limitations to address. Ensuring the biocompatibility and scalability of these backpacks is crucial for clinical translation. Additionally, the complex nature of biological systems poses challenges in predicting and controlling the behavior of nanoscale backpacks in vivo.中文回答：纳米背包的概念在药物递送、医疗治疗改进和生物技术进步方面具有巨大的潜力。
人工智能蛋白质设计技术的研究进展及在生物医药创新开发中的应用与面临的挑战
·专家论坛·人工智能蛋白质设计技术的研究进展及在生物医药创新开发中的应用与面临的挑战苗洪江董泽凯向秋茹薛贵荣（上海天壤智能科技有限公司上海 200232）摘要蛋白质是协调复杂生命过程的精密“分子机器”，具有巨大的医疗应用潜力。
然而，因为蛋白质的一维氨基酸序列、三维结构和生物功能之间的关联复杂，所以设计蛋白质并将其工程化以实现预期的功能和特性是一个极其困难的挑战。
目前，人工智能在各个领域均取得了革命性的进展，人工智能与蛋白质工程技术的结合已成为一种强大的新型蛋白质设计工具，可用于生成各类生物活性分子。
本文介绍人工智能蛋白质模拟和设计领域的研究进展和应用，尤其是在生物医药创新开发应用中面临的挑战和前景。
关键词人工智能蛋白质工程新型蛋白质合成生物学药物开发中图分类号：O629.73; TP399 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1006-1533(2024)07-0001-09引用本文苗洪江, 董泽凯, 向秋茹, 等. 人工智能蛋白质设计技术的研究进展及在生物医药创新开发中的应用与面临的挑战[J]. 上海医药, 2024, 45(7): 1-9; 55.Research progress of artificial intelligence powered protein design and the prospect and challenges of its application in innovative biologics designMIAO Hongjiang, DONG Zekai, XIANG Qiuru, XUE Guirong(Shanghai Tianrang Intelligence Co., Ltd., Shanghai 200232, China)ABSTRACT Proteins, the intricate “molecular machines” that orchestrate life’s processes, hold immense potential for therapeutic applications. However, the designing and engineering of these proteins towards desired properties and functions remain a formidable challenge due to the complex interplay between the amino acid sequence, the three dimensional structure, and biological function. Artificial intelligence (AI) has been making transformative strides in various fields and its combination with protein engineering techniques offers a powerful toolkit in generating novel proteins for synthetic biology and therapeutics development. In this review, we will discuss the advancements and applications of AI in protein modeling and design and highlight the challenges and outlook of its applications.KEY WORDS artificial intelligence; protein engineering; novel proteins; synthetic biology; therapeutics development我国是全球第二大药品市场，但抗体药物市场仅占全球抗体药物市场份额的10%，在新型生物药物的研发和供给方面仍然面临着严峻挑战。
介绍纳米书包150字作文
介绍纳米书包150字作文英文回答：Nano backpack is a revolutionary innovation in thefield of backpacks. It is a compact and lightweight backpack that is designed to be highly portable and convenient. The main feature of the Nano backpack is itssize it is incredibly small when folded up, making it easyto carry around when not in use. When unfolded, it expandsto provide ample storage space for all your essentials.One of the advantages of the Nano backpack is its versatility. It can be used for a wide range of activities, such as hiking, traveling, and even everyday use. Its compact size makes it ideal for outdoor adventures, as it can easily fit into a larger backpack or luggage. Additionally, its lightweight design ensures that it won't weigh you down, allowing you to move freely and comfortably.Another great feature of the Nano backpack is itsdurability. Despite its small size, it is made from high-quality materials that are built to last. It is water-resistant, which means that your belongings will stay dry even in wet conditions. Additionally, it is designed to withstand the wear and tear of regular use, ensuring that it will remain in good condition for a long time.In terms of functionality, the Nano backpack is equipped with various pockets and compartments to help you stay organized. It has a main compartment for larger items, as well as smaller pockets for your phone, wallet, and other essentials. It also has adjustable straps, allowing you to customize the fit and ensure maximum comfort.Overall, the Nano backpack is a game-changer in the world of backpacks. Its compact size, durability, and functionality make it a must-have for anyone on the go. Whether you're hiking in the mountains or navigating the busy streets of a city, the Nano backpack is the perfect companion.中文回答：纳米书包是背包领域的一项革命性创新。
纳米技术的神奇世界,读后感
纳米技术的神奇世界,读后感英文回答：The magical world of nanotechnology is truly fascinating. It has the potential to revolutionize various industries and improve our lives in ways we never thought possible. Nanotechnology involves manipulating matter at the atomic and molecular level, creating materials and devices with unique properties and capabilities.One area where nanotechnology has made significant advancements is in medicine. Nanoparticles can be designed to target specific cells or tissues in the body, delivering drugs directly to the affected area. This targeted drug delivery system has the potential to greatly enhance the effectiveness of treatments while minimizing side effects. For example, researchers have developed nanocarriers that can deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells, reducing the damage to healthy cells and improving the overall outcome for patients.Another exciting application of nanotechnology is in electronics. Nanoscale transistors and circuits can be created, allowing for smaller and more powerful devices. This has led to the development of smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices that are smaller, faster, and more efficient. Additionally, nanotechnology has also enabled the development of flexible and wearable electronics, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers, which have become increasingly popular in recent years.Furthermore, nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the energy sector. Researchers are working on developing more efficient solar panels by using nanomaterials that can absorb sunlight more effectively. This could greatly increase the efficiency of solar energy conversion and make renewable energy more accessible and affordable.In addition to these practical applications, nanotechnology also offers exciting possibilities in the field of materials science. By manipulating the structureand composition of materials at the nanoscale, scientists can create materials with unique properties. For example, carbon nanotubes are incredibly strong and lightweight, making them ideal for applications in aerospace and automotive industries. Similarly, nanocomposites can be created by combining different materials at the nanoscale, resulting in materials with enhanced strength, durability, and conductivity.中文回答：纳米技术的神奇世界真是令人着迷。
超实用高考英语专题复习：阅读理解(说明文)近五年(2018-2022)高考英语真题把脉新高考命题思路
2.a改为the , the same相同的。
3.need后加to，need to do .
4.able后加to，be able to do “能够做…”。
5. moved改为moving，此句为省略结构，移动物体为主动。
24. How did the cockatoosget the nut from the boxin the experiment?
27. Which can bea suitable titlefor the text?
A. Cockatoos: Quick Error CheckersB. Cockatoos: Independent Learners
C. Cockatoos: Clever Signal-ReadersD. Cockatoos: Skilful Shape-Sorter
25. C
细节理解题。根据文章第二段“In humans, babies can put a round shape in a round hole from around one year of age (在人类身上，婴儿从一岁左右就可以把一个圆形的物品放进一个圆形的洞里)”结合选项，可知，一岁儿童最有可能完成“将一个球放进一个圆形的洞里”的任务。故选C。
距离高考还有一段时间，不少有经验的老师都会提醒考生，愈是临近高考，能否咬紧牙关、学会自我调节，态度是否主动积极，安排是否科学合理，能不能保持良好的心态、以饱满的情绪迎接挑战，其效果往往大不一样。以下是本人从事
养成良好的答题习惯，是决定高考英语成败的决定性因素之一。做题前，要认真阅读题目要求、题干和选项，并对答案内容作出合理预测
A. By following instructions.B. By using a tool.
非遗与现代科技结合英语作文
非遗与现代科技结合英语作文Preserving and promoting intangible cultural heritage is crucial in an era of rapid technological advancement. (保护和推广非物质文化遗产在快速科技发展的时代至关重要。
) Intangible cultural heritage, or "非物质文化遗产", refers to the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, and skills that communities, groups, and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. (例如，传统技艺、民间音乐、民俗表演等) These cultural expressions are valuable not only for their inherent beauty and significance, but also for the legacy they provide future generations. (这些文化表达不仅因其固有的美丽和意义而有价值，而且还为子孙后代提供了宝贵的遗产) Moreover, the integration of intangible cultural heritage with modern technology can help to ensure its preservation, wider dissemination, and increased appreciation. (此外，非遗与现代科技的结合可以帮助确保其保护、更广泛的传播和增加的赏识。
)In recent years, there have been numerous examples of how modern technology has been used to preserve and promote intangible cultural heritage. (近年来，已有许多例子表明现代科技如何被用于保护和推广非物质文化遗产) One notable example is the use of virtual reality(VR) and augmented reality (AR) to recreate traditional cultural practices and performances for new audiences. (一个著名的例子是利用虚拟现实(VR)和增强现实(AR)来重新创造传统的文化实践和表演，以吸引新的观众。
1_Principle_and_applications_of_microbubble_and_nanobubble_technology_for_water_treatment
ReviewPrinciple and applications of microbubble and nanobubble technology for water treatmentAshutosh Agarwal,Wun Jern Ng,Yu Liu ⇑Division of Environmental and Water Resource Engineering,School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Nanyang Technological University,50Nanyang Avenue,Singapore 639798,Singaporea r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 15February 2011Received in revised form 24May 2011Accepted 25May 2011Keywords:Microbubbles Nanobubbles Free radicals Degradation Disinfection Defoulinga b s t r a c tIn recent years,microbubble and nanobubble technologies have drawn great attention due to their wide applications in many fields of science and technology,such as water treatment,biomedical engineering,and nanomaterials.In this paper,we discuss the physics,methods of generation of microbubbles (MBs)and nanobubbles (NBs),while production of free radicals from MBs and NBs are reviewed with the focuses on degradation of toxic compounds,water disinfection,and cleaning/defouling of solid surfaces including membrane.Due to their ability to produce free radicals,it can be expected that the future pros-pects of MBs and NBs will be immense and yet more to be explored.Ó2011Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Contents 1.Microbubbles and nanobubbles.........................................................................................11752.Physics of micro and nanobubbles ......................................................................................11763.Generation of free radicals by collapsing microbubbles in water..............................................................11764.Methods for the generation of MBs and NBs ..............................................................................11775.Determination of bubble size ..........................................................................................11786.Water treatment by MBs and NBs technology.............................................................................11786.1.Degradation of organic pollutants .................................................................................11786.2.Water disinfection..............................................................................................11786.3.Cleaning and defouling of solid surfaces ............................................................................11797.Long-term perspectives of micro and nanobubbles technology ...............................................................1179References .........................................................................................................11791.Microbubbles and nanobubblesMicrobubbles (MBs)and nanobubbles (NBs)are tiny bubbles with a respective diameter of 10–50l m and <200nm,and have been explored for various applications.The existence of NBs as sta-ble entity has been debated for a long while due to some thermo-dynamic considerations.For example,the total free energy of the system has been supposed to increase along with the formation of NBs unless the surface was extremely rough.However,high Laplace pressure inside NBs would likely cause them to dissolve into solution quickly (Ljunggren and Eriksson,1997;Eriksson and Ljunggren,1999).Fig.1shows the key differences among macrobubbles,MBs and NBs.MBs tend to gradually decrease in size and subsequently collapse due to long stagnation and dissolution of interior gases into the surrounding water,whereas NBs remains as such for months and do not burst out at once (Takahashi,2009).It has been revealed that the interface of NBs consists of hard hydrogen bonds similar to those found in ice and gas hydrates.This in turn leads to reduced diffusivity of NBs that helps to maintain adequate kinetic balance of NBs against high internal pressure.0045-6535/$-see front matter Ó2011Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.05.054Corresponding author.Tel.:+6567905254;fax:+6567910676.E-mail address:cyliu@.sg (Y.Liu).2.Physics of micro and nanobubblesThe existence of NBs at the liquid–solid interface has been dem-onstrated by various techniques, e.g.atomic force microscopy (AFM)(Tyrrell and Attard,2001;Holmberg et al.,2003;Steitz et al.,2003;Simonsen et al.,2004;Switkes and Ruberti,2004;Agrawal et al.,2005;Zhang et al.,2006a,b,c ).It has been shown that NBs at the liquid–solid interface resemble spherical caps with height and diameter of about 10and 100nm,respectively.In fact,this is supported by the fact that NBs can be fused by the tip of AFM to form a larger bubble (Simonsen et al.,2004).It was initially believed that NBs might have high surface tension,thus the gas should be ‘pressed out’of NBs within microseconds after their formation (Matsumoto and Tanaka,2008).However,NBs can form freely and remain stable for long periods of time under the right conditions.The stability of NBs results from a lower interfacial cur-vature than expected due to a high contact angle (Yang et al.,2003;Zhang et al.,2006c ).The formation of NBs in aqueous solutions of small organic molecules (e.g.tetrahydrofuran,ethanol,urea,and a -cyclodextrin)has also been reported (Jin et al.,2007a,b ).under a wide range of pH.Although OH Àand H +ions have been shown to influence the charging mechanism of the gas–water interface (Takahashi,2005).The f potential of the MBs has been found to be constant under similar water conditions irrespective of their size,indicating that the amount of electrical charge per unit area at the gas–water interface would remain constant (Takahashi,2005).Nevertheless,increased f potential with the rate of shrinkage of MBs has been observed during collapse of MBs (Fig.2).Decrease in size of MBs below the water surface results in high internal pressure inside MBs,which is directly proportional to the bubble’s diameter.The relationship between pressure and diame-ter is expressed by the Young–Laplace equation:P ¼PI þ4r d bð1Þwhere P is the gas pressure,PI is the liquid pressure,r is the surface tension of the liquid and d b is the bubble diameter.According to Henry’s law,the amount of dissolved gas surrounding a shrinking bubble increases with the increase in gas pressure.The area sur-rounding a MB has been shown to change its state in a pressure–temperature (P –T )diagram to favor hydrate nucleation (Sloan,1998).This is one of the typical characteristic of MBs.3.Generation of free radicals by collapsing microbubbles in waterAccording to the Young–Laplace equation (Eq.(1)),for a bubble with diameter 1l m at 298K,the internal pressure is about 390kPa,which is almost four times higher than the atmospheric pressure.Since the rate of increase in the internal pressure of MBs is inversely proportional to its size,a high pressure spot is eventually created at the final stage of the MB collapse (Fig.3).If the collapsing speed of MBs is higher than the speed of sound in water,the temperature inside the collapsing bubbles may increase drastically due to adiabatic compression.Since the shrinkage rate of the collapsing bubbles is extremely slow compared to the ultra-sonically induced cavitation bubbles,the temperature inside the Fig.2.Changes in the size and f potential of microbubbles over time (Takahashi et al.,2007b ).84(2011)1175–1180result,the decomposition of ozone for producingÅOH radicals would be expedited in case of ozone MBs(Takahashi et al., 2007a).The MBs of gases with oxidizing power(e.g.ozone)can be applied to various water treatment processes since the ozone MBs have high solubility and improved disinfection ability due to the generation ofÅOH radical and/or pressure waves(Sumikura et al.,2007).Generation of free radicals through the collapse of MBs in the absence of dynamic stimulus has been experimentally demon-strated by electron spin resonance spectroscopy(Takahashi et al., 2007b).5,5-dimethy-1-pyroroline-N-oxide was chosen as the spin-trap agent to trap the free radicals generated in the process of collapse.The solution pH was found to have significant effect on the quantity of free radicals generated by the collapse of oxygen MBs,e.g.lowered pH enhanced generation of free radicals.Mean-while,the type of gas used for the generation of MBs can also affect the quantity of free radicals generated.For example,oxygen MBsÅpassage of ultrasonic waves is so-called acoustic cavitation,while cavitation due to the pressure variations in theflowing liquid is termed as hydrodynamic cavitation.Acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitations may result in the desired physical and chemical changes in a solution,but optic and particle cavitations are incapa-ble of bringing about any change in the bulk solution.Millions of hot spots in the reactor can be generated through hydrodynamic and acoustic cavitation due to very high localized energy density which in turn results in extremely high pressure and temperatures in the range of10–500MPa and1000–10,000K,respectively(Suslick,1990).However,it should be noted that the collapse of MBs in the absence of dynamic stimulus would not favor the creation of such hot spots(Takahashi et al.,2007b). Nowadays,few methods have been developed for the generation of MBS and NBs.The two widely used methods are based on decompression and gas–water circulation.For the decompression type generator,a supersaturated condition for gas dissolution is created at high pressure of304–405kPa(Fig.4).At such high pres-sure,supersaturated gas is highly unstable and eventually escapes out from the water.As the result,large number of MBs would be generated instantly.However,for gas–water circulation type gen-erator,the gas is introduced into the water vortex,and gas bubbles are subsequently broken down into MBs by breaking up the vortex (Takahashi,2009).Generation of the ozone MBs through decompression has been found to be more efficient than through gas–water circulation(Ikeura et al.,2011).Similar to the decom-pression type,the venturi-type MB generator has also been widely used.This has the advantages of compact size,low pump power and high-density generation of MBs normally with a mean diame-ter below100l m.The venturi-type generator consists of three main parts,i.e.inflow,tubule and tapered outflow.Cavitation occurs due to decrease in static pressure of the pressurizedfluid entering the tubule part.In the tubule part,velocity of thefluid in-creases at the cost of decrease in static pressure.Simultaneously, gas entering into the tubule part from outside develops a multi-phase-flow of the gas and liquid.When thefluid exceeds the speed of sound,a pressure wall with a shock wave is created in the tubule.MBs are thus generated through the collision of gas with the pressure wall developed with a shock wave(Yoshida et al.,Fig.4.Decompression and gas–water circulation methods for the generation of MBs/NBs(Ikeura et al.,2011).84(2011)1175–11801177that generation of monodispersed MBs and NBs using the above methods still remain a major challenge.5.Determination of bubble sizeLaser diffraction particle size analyser has often been used to measure the size and size distribution of MBs and NBs(Kukizaki and Goto,2006;Tasaki et al.,2009b).The monodispersity of bub-bles is determined according to the particle size dispersal coeffi-cient d:d¼D90bÀD10bD50bð2Þwhere D90b ,D50band D10bare the diameters corresponding to90%,50%,and10%by volume respectively,on the relative cumulative bubble size distribution curve;D50brepresents the mean bubble diameter. The specific interfacial area(a,m2mÀ3)of MBs and NBs is defined by:a¼6e GD50bð3Þe G¼V GL Gð4Þwhere e G is the gas holdup,V G is the volume occupied by the gas phase(bubbles),V L is the volume occupied by the liquid phase. The particle size can also be determined by scanning electron microscopy(SEM).For this purpose,a replicafilm had been devel-oped(Ohgaki et al.,2010).Particle counting spectrometer for liq-uids which uses light-obscuration method can also be used for measuring the size distribution of MBs(Takahashi et al.,2003, 2007a).6.Water treatment by MBs and NBs technologyIn the past few years,more and more attention has been given to the potential applications of the MBs and NBs for water treat-ment due to their ability to generate highly reactive free radicals. Recently,MBs/NBs have been used for detoxification of water (Yamasaki et al.,2010),while it has been reported that air and nitrogen MBs/NBs can enhance the activity of aerobic and anaero-bic microorganisms in submerged membrane bioreactor.Evidence shows that nitrogen MBs/NBs cannot only be applied for water and wastewater treatment,but also for fermentation,brewing as well for human waste treatment.MBs/NBs have been found to catalyze chemical reactions,and enhance the detoxification efficiency, thereby improving the efficiency of chemical treatment of water. The main purpose of water pretreatment is to reduce biological, chemical and physical loads in order to reduce the running costs and increase the treated water quality.In this context,air MBs/ NBs as a pretreatment means has been shown to be highly benefi-cial for downsizing the water/wastewater treatment plants and improving the quality of product water(Yamasaki et al.,2009, 2010).6.1.Degradation of organic pollutantsMBs generated through hydrodynamic cavitation have been employed for degradation of various organic compounds,such as alachlor(Wang and Zhang,2009),p-nitrophenol(Kalumuck and Chahine,2000),rhodamine B(Wang et al.,2008)and decoloriza-tion of dye effluent stream(Sivakumar and Pandit,2002). Takahashi et al.(2007b)investigated the decomposition of phenol in aqueous solution with air MBs in the absence of dynamic stim-ulus(e.g.UV irradiation and incident ultrasonic wave).When 1.5mM phenol solution was subjected to air MBs collapse for3h without addition of acid,no change in the phenol concentration was observed.However,30%of phenol was decomposed after acid (e.g.nitric,sulfuric or hydrochloric acid)was added to the phenol solution,while intermediates,such as hydroquinone,benzoqui-none,formic acid and oxalic acid were detected.Phenol could therefore be removed by free radicals generated through collapse of air MBs in the presence of a strong acid.The removal of polyvi-nyl alcohol(an ozone resistant)in terms of TOC by collapse of ozone MBs was also achieved under strong acidic conditions in the absence of dynamic stimulus(Takahashi et al.,2007a).As dis-cussed earlier,the formation of hot spots by adiabatic compression of cavitation bubbles in an aggressive collapse process may further enhance organic degradation(Hart and Henglein,1986).However, no reduction in TOC concentration confirmed that the hot spots generated by the ultrasound did not boost the generation ofÅOH radicals for the TOC removal.Excessive accumulation of ions around the gas–water interface of the collapsing MBs would lead to ion concentrations high enough for converting ozone toÅOH rad-icals.The TOC reduction by ozone MBs under strong acidic condi-tions was much greater than using other conventional techniques.Ozonation of a mixture of benzene,toluene,ethylben-zene and xylenes had been reported at different salt concentrations ranging from0to2M(Walker et al.,2001).It was found that the production of MBs helped to improve the mass transfer efficiency and further enhanced the removal of soluble organics from simu-lated seawater.Ozonation of synthetic wastewater containing azo dye and CI Reactive Black5was investigated using collapsing ozone MBs (Chu et al.,2007).In this experiment,the total mass transfer coeffi-cient and pseudo-first order rate constant were found to be1.8and 3.2–3.6times higher than those found in the bubble contractor, respectively.It was clearly shown that the production ofÅOH radicals was increased in the MB system.Evidence shows that the production ofÅOH radicals using vacuum UV irradiations(Oppenländer and Gli-ese,2000)can lead to fast oxidation of organic compounds in water and wastewater as compared to the conventional ozone system withoutÅOH radicals(Echigo et al.,1996).In addition,use of vacuum UV is restricted because of the recombination of carbon-centered radicals during photo degradation which yields undesirable byprod-ucts,such as oligomers and polymers(Han et al.,2004).Recently,use of MBs and NBs technique to overcome the shortcomings of vacuum UV process has been explored(Tasaki et al.,2009a).Under vacuum UV irradiations the degradation of methyl orange in the presence of oxygen MBs was found to be accelerated due to the enhanced mass transfer of oxygen and substrate within the vacuum UV reactor (Tasaki et al.,2009b).The decolorization of methyl orange became faster under185+254nm irradiation with oxygen MBs.The critical role of NBs in degradation of surfactants and nonsurfactant under vacuum UV irradiations has also been investigated.The rate of min-eralization of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate with720nm NBs was found to be much faster than that with MBs(Tasaki et al., 2009a).The observed enhanced mineralization of surfactants can be attributed to the high adsorption capacity of NBs due to their small size,and large specific surface area that facilitates the reaction.6.2.Water disinfectionGeneration of highly reactive free radicals and turbulence asso-ciated with the collapsing MBs provides great potential for water disinfection.Hydrodynamic cavitation has been shown to be a much cost-effective technique for water disinfection as compared to acoustic cavitation.However,lab-scale study suggests that the cost of hydrodynamic cavitation for water disinfection is still high-er than conventional chlorination and ozonation(Jyoti and Pandit, 2001).1178 A.Agarwal et al./Chemosphere84(2011)1175–1180The effect of ozone MBs on Escherichia coli was investigated un-der various conditions.It has been found that the faster disinfec-tion kinetics of E.coli by ozone MBs was observed,leading to a reduced reactor size and small ozone dose as compared to the con-ventional ozone disinfection for the same disinfection efficiency of a2-log inactivation(Sumikura et al.,2007).In this process theÅOH radical and shock waves generated by the collapse of MBs have been considered as the main cause for inactivation of coliform, while specific contribution of each effect to inactivation of coliform still remains unknown.Moreover,high deactivation efficiency of E.coli has also been achieved in water disinfection by MBs gener-ated through hydrodynamic cavitation(Jyoti and Pandit,2001, 2003,2004;Arrojo et al.,2008;Mezule et al.,2009).Bathing pool assembly having water full of ozone NBs for rehabilitation has also been developed to prevent pathogen growth(Chen,2009).This assembly consists of a bath,a reservoir and two circulating sys-tems.The circulating systems are connected to bath and reservoir via oxygen and ozone generator.Each circulating system is equipped with high pressure emulsifying device that facilities gen-eration of free radicals and anions from dissolved oxygen and ozone.The amount of ozone in the bath and the reservoir is main-tained at the range of0.5–5and0.2–0.5mg LÀ1,respectively.At a pressure of304–1013kPa provided by the high pressure emulsify-ing device,ozone is rapidly dissolved into water and ozone NBs in the range of10–20nm are thus produced.It was found that the subsequent burst of NBs would provide a more effective means for cleaning and disinfecting both the bath and the reservoir than traditional ultrasonic vibrator.6.3.Cleaning and defouling of solid surfacesNBs have been applied for the prevention and removal of pro-teins adsorbed onto solid surfaces.It has been shown that adsorp-tion of proteins onto various surfaces could be inhibited by NBs, thus preventing the surfaces from fouling(Wu et al.,2006,2007). For example,NBs can block adsorption of bovine serum albumin on mica surface(Wu et al.,2006),while NBs also helps remove or-ganic contaminants from pyrolytic graphite(Wu et al.,2007,2008) and gold surfaces(Liu et al.,2008).Recently,similar defouling effect of NBs was also observed on stainless steel surface(Chen,2009).The use of high frequency,low power ultrasound along with MBs has shown great potential in control of bacteria and algae attachment onto solid surfaces(Broekman et al.,2010).Destabi-lized and reduced biofilms have been observed after treatment by MBs.The bubble size has been found to affect the membrane fouling in case of tubular(Cui et al.,2003)and hollowfiber mem-branes(Lu et al.,2008;Willems et al.,2009).(Tian et al.,2010) investigated the influence of mm sized air bubbles on membrane fouling of immersed hollowfiber membranes for ultrafiltration of river water,and found that continuous air bubbling would be more effective than intermittent bubbling in fouling control.In case of continuous bubbling,air bubbles scrub the membrane surface dur-ing the process offiltration and hence reduce the chances for the formation of concentration polarization and fouling layer on mem-brane surface.Moreover,it was observed that smaller air bubbles were more efficient in reducing fouling.In addition,similar phe-nomenon was also observed in other study of membrane fouling control by bubbling(Yeo et al.,2006;Van Kaam et al.,2008;Zarra-goitia-González et al.,2008;Cornelissen et al.,2009).7.Long-term perspectives of micro and nanobubbles technologyMBs and NBs have exhibited great potential in various engi-neering applications.For example,wide use of oxygen NBs has been anticipated due to their extremely high bioactivity and mass transfer efficiency.Due to their ability to generate free radicals without the use of any toxic chemical,MBs have been proven to be a new environmental friendly technique for oxidation of organic compounds,water disinfection and fouling control.It is reasonable to consider that MBs and NBs would have wide applications where materials come into contact with biological media,such as medical equipment,membrane cleaning,ship andfilter regeneration.MBs and NBs may provide a promising path for a convenient,clean, cheap and environmental friendly technique suitable for cleaning of conducting surfaces.Hence,it can be concluded that the use of MBs and NBs in developing new technology is still ahead to be explored.ReferencesAgrawal,A.,Park,J.,Ryu,D.Y.,Hammond,P.T.,Russell,T.P.,McKinley,G.H.,2005.Controlling the location and spatial extent of nanobubbles using hydrophobically nanopatterned surfaces.Nano Lett.5,1751–1756.Arrojo,S.,Benito,Y.,Martínez Tarifa,A.,2008.A parametrical study of disinfection with hydrodynamic cavitation.Ultrason.Sonochem.15,903–908. 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