语言学课件Chapter 2
2011功能语言学课程Chapter 1 and 2 课件PPT
Trochaic : iambic – 2 syllables
Trochaic（扬抑拍）: strong + weak e.g. better butter Iambic（抑扬拍）：weak +strong If all the world was ap--ple pie foot
Poem structure in two systems
Questions:
How many words consist of a sentence? ____one? two? Several? (maybe) E.g. “yes”, “ok”, “I did”, “I did it” How many letters consist of a word? ____one? Two? Several? (maybe) E.g. “I”, “no”, “and” ......
教材及主要参考书目
An Introduction to Functional Grammar Second edition by M. A.
K. Halliday.Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press and Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited (外语教学与研究出版社， 爱德华 阿诺德出版社）. 2000. Introducing Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. By Thompson, Geoff. 1996. Working with Discourse: Meaning beyond the clause. London: continuum. By Martin, J. R.and David Rose. 2003. The Functional Analysis of English: A Hallidayan Approach. London: Edward Arnold. By Bloor, Thomas and Meriel Bloor. 1995. 《系统功能语法概论》胡壮麟，朱永生，张德禄，李占子， 北京： 北京大学出版社. 2005.
Chapter 2 Lecture 2 语言学
? Complementary distribution: When two or more than
two sounds never occur in the same environment, they
h
=
_
are said to be in complementary distribution. [p , p ] [l, l ]
Phonological processes
? Assimilation: The process by which one sound takes on some or all the features of its neighboring sound, thus making the two sounds similar, the process is called assimilation. ? Regressive assimilation: There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a preceding sound is influenced by a following sound, making the two sounds similar, it is called regressive assimilation. ? Progressive assimilation: The converse process of regressive assimilation, in which a following sound is influenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar, the process is known as progressive assimilation.
语言学简明教程Chapter_2
Vocal tract
Pharyngeal cavity
Glottis/Throat
Pharynx, velum
Oral cavity mouth
Nasal cavity nose
12
13
The process of sound production
trachea
airstream
larynx
18
Place of articulation
bilabial: / p, b, m/ labiodental: / f, v/
dental: / θ, ð / alveolar: / t, d, l, n, s, z / palatal : / j, ∫, з / velar: / k, g, ŋ / palatal-alveolar: / t ∫, d з / glottal: [h]
7
Henry Sweet, in his Handbook of phonetics made a distinction between narrow and broad transcription. Compare : broad and narrow transcription
words: pit broad transcription: /pit/ narrow transcription: /phit/ feel /fi:l/ /fi:ł/ later /’leitə/ /’leiDə/
(vocal cords)
voiceless velum voiced glottal stop
oral cavity
nasal cavity
Chapter 2-Lecture 2 语言学
Sonority scale: Vowels Approximants Fricatives Stops
Nasals
Maximal onset principle: It is a principle used to guide how to syllabify, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is to put into the onset rather than the coda, for instance, in " country " [ k ntri ] , [ t ] should be put into the onset of the second syllable rather than the coda of the first syllable.
syllable Structure
syllable
onset
rhyme
nucleus
coda
Classification of Syllables
Open syllable: A standardized syllable includes an onset, a nucleus and a coda. A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable. In English, only long vowels and diphthongs can occur in open syllable.
Progressive assimilation: The converse process of regressive assimilation, in which a following sound is influenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar, the process is known as progressive assimilation.
chapter 2 what is language 优质课件
Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages:
‘house’ ‘maison’ ‘dom’ ‘fangzi’
English French Russian Chinese.
6
What about onomatopoeic words?
Chapter 2 What is Language?
Introduction to Linguistics
1
1. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?
2. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?
a cow:10 a chicken: around 20 a fox: over thirty a dolphin, gorilla and chimpanzee: between 20 and
30.
Advantage: sound signals can be used in the dark, at some distance, allow a wide variety of messages to be sent, leave the body free for other activities
Language enables humans to do many things, thus serving different functions in the society. Finch (1998) lists general functions:
语言学chapter 2
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②教学方法、手段指使用直观教具、挂图、板图、多媒体教学及双语教学等方法。
③教学进程内容包括课堂教学内容、教学方法、辅助手段、师生互动、时间分配、板书设计和作业布置等。
④板书设计可在教学进程中直接用横线、浪线等标示出来。
⑤教后感是对本次教学过程中自我感觉成功的地方以及存在的不足和学生反馈的信息情况进行总结。
课程名称：课程类型：第次课 3 学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 2: Phonetics: the study of speech soundsT eaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyT eaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about phoneticsLet the students understand the system of the articulatory apparatusLet the students know how to describe consonants and vowels3、Teaching importances: description of consonants and vowels;Teaching difficulties: manners and places of articulation:I.Phonetics: is the scientific study of speech sound. It is mainly concerned with how each speech sounds is articulated and what phonetic features it has.II.Speech organs:①The oral cavity②The nasal cavity③The pharynxSee the Figure 2.1 the articulatory apparatus( page 15)课程名称：课程类型：第4次课学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 2: Phonetics: the study of speech soundsT eaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyT eaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about phoneticsLet the students understand the system of the articulatory apparatusLet the students know how to describe consonants and vowels3、Teaching importances: description of consonants and vowels;Teaching difficulties: manners and places of articulationIII.Classification of speech soundsEgressive sounds: produced by pushing the air stream out of the glottis, all English sounds and Chinese sounds.Ingressive sounds: by sucking the air in.A consonant is a sound produced by an obstruction or blocking of the airflow coming out from the two lungs and then going out through the oral or nasal cavity.A vowel is produced with the vibration of the two vocal cords but with no closure or obstruction when the air stream passes through the mouth.. Classification of consonants:1. V oicing2. Places of articulation (position or place of the obstruction of the air flow)3. Manners of articulation.1.Voiceless consonants:are those that are produced when the vocal cords are apart and the airflow passes freely through the vocal tract.Voiced consonants:are those that are produced when the vocal cords are together and the airstream forces its way through the two vocal cords and caused the vibrate.Whispering is invariably voiceless.* The binary system of description:[+voiced]: [b][d][g][-voiced]: [p][t][k]2.Places of articulationLabials:Bilabials :[p] [b] [m]Labiodentals: [f][v]Labiovelars: [w][M] [ ]Interdentals: [][]Alveolars: [t][d][n][s][z][l][r]Palatals: [ ][ ][ ][ ][j]Velars: [k][g][]Glottal: [h]3.Manners of articulationStopsBilabial stopsAlveolar stopsVelar stopsAspirationpin spin怕爸他搭喀嘎fricativesLabiodental fricativesInterdental fricativesAlveolar fricativesPalatal fricativesGlottal fricativeAffricates:Liquids:[l] The front of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge, but the sidesof the tongue are down and the air can escape laterally through the two sides of the tongue. It is called a lateral.[r] It is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back behind the alveolar ridge, it is called a retroflex.Glides:Nasals:Classification of vowelsmonophthongs diphthongs triphthongsDescription of simple vowels1.The part of the tongue involvedhat hut heart2.The height of the tongueFeet fit fetch fat3.The state of the musclesTense vowels: long vowels and diphthongsLax vowels: short vowels4.The shape of lipsRounded vowels:Unrounded vowels:DiphthongsCentering diphthongs: (from the front or back to the center)Rising /closing diphthongs: ( from a lower vowel to a higher one)IV Phonetic features and natural classesSounds can be analyzed into their phonetic features[u] has the features: [+high] [-back] [+round] [-tense]Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes. [+anterior] (a feature to specify consonants) bilabials, labiodentals, interdentals and alveolar, but not labiovelars.[+continuant] : fricatives, liquids, glides.[+sibilant]( [+strident]): are produced with a hissing noise, and they are called sibilants.[+sonorant]: vowels, glides, liquids and nasals[+syllabic]: vowels and [m] [ n] [l ]V. The IPADid he believe that Caesar could see the people seize the seas? 1888, The International Phonetic AssociationThe latest version revised in 1993 and updated in 1996The broad phonetic transcription transcribes only the sounds that contrast words in meaning.The narrow phonetic transcription provides minute differences in producing sounds.Symbols in IPA and those in American EnglishExercises:1.Fill in the following blanks1).Human communication usually takes place in the form of __________-communication and ___________communication.2).The medium of spoken language is __________.3).___________phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics.4).___________phonetics focuses on the perception of speech sounds.5).Speech organs are composed of three parts, the pharyngeal cavity, the________cavity, and __________cavity.6).The International Phonetic Transcription was devised in the year_______and has undergone several revisions.2. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions.1).Lateral liquid2).Lax high back vowel3).V oice bilabial oral stop4).Mid central lax vowel5).V oiceless labiodental fricative6).Low front vowel7).Palatal glide8).V oice interdental fricative9).V oiced affricate10).V elar nasal consonant11).V oiceless alveolar fricative12).Aspirated bilabial stop13).High front tense unrounded vowel14).Low back vowel15).High back tense vowel16).Mid back lax vowe5、References: 《语言学概论》杨忠高等教育出版社;《新编简明英语语言学教程》戴伟栋何兆熊上海外语教育出版社;《语言学导论论》陈林华吉林大学出版社;《语言学教程》胡壮麟北京大学出版社( 必读书籍)6、Summary after teaching: It is difficult for the students to understand the meta functions of language. I should make a further study for this part.一、双音节词一般地说，一个单词中有几个发音的元音字母，就有几个音节。
语言学chapter2
语言学chapter2Chapter 2 phonology1,what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Speech is more basic than writing. Because the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises, and in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds that is called voicing. It is caused by vocal cords which may also be held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates hem at different speeds .3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics,which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possible do. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol[l]is used for the sound[l]in the four words leaf[li:f],feel[fi:l], build[bild],and health[helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l]in all these four sound combination differ slightly. The [l]in[li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called clear[l], and no diacritic is need to indicate it; the [l]in[fi:l]and[bild]occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and innarr ow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sou nd [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broadtranscription, but i n narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiratio n, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4.How are the English consonants classified?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth , the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. According to which part of the tongue is held highest, vowels may bedistinguished as front, central, and back. And according to the openness of the mouth, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels , semi-open vowels and open vowels. According to the shape of the lips, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, and all the back vowels, with the exception of[a:],are rounded vowels. According to the length of the sound, vowels can be classified into tense and lax vowels.6. Give the phonetic symbol fro each of the following sound descriptions:(1)voiced palatal affricate:[?] (2)voiceless labiodental fricative:[f](3)voiced alveolar stop: [d] (4)front, close, short: [i](5)back, semi-open, long: [?:] (6)voiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:(1)[d]: voiced alveolar stop (2)[l]: voiced alveolar liquids(3)[?]: voiceless palatal affricate (4) [w]: voiced bilabial glides(5) [?]: back, close, short (6) [?]: front, open, short7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.The difference between these sounds is what the phonetician are interested in. Because phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, but phonetician isinterested in how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess.8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Sequential rules refer to the ways the phonemes can be combined. Sequential rules regulate which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other. They are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].Deletion rule is when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.In the pronunciation of such wordsas sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter[g]. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented bythe letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Deletea [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, and intonation.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.。
语言学chapter2
Chapter 2 phonology1,what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Speech is more basic than writing. Because the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises, and in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds that is called voicing. It is caused by vocal cords which may also be held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates hem at different speeds .3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics,which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possible do. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol[l]is used for the sound[l]in the four words leaf[li:f],feel[fi:l], build[bild],and health[helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l]in all these four sound combination differ slightly. The [l]in[li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called clear[l], and no diacritic is need to indicate it; the [l]in[fi:l]and[bild]occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [ɫ] and innarr ow transcription the diacritic [˜] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sou nd [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broadtranscription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiratio n, thus pit is transcribed as [phɪt] and spit is transcribed as [spɪt].4.How are the English consonants classified?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth , the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. According to which part of the tongue is held highest, vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back. And according to the openness of the mouth, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels , semi-open vowels and open vowels. According to the shape of the lips, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, and all the back vowels, with the exception of[a:],are rounded vowels. According to the length of the sound, vowels can be classified into tense and lax vowels.6. Give the phonetic symbol fro each of the following sound descriptions:(1)voiced palatal affricate:[ʤ] (2)voiceless labiodental fricative: [f](3)voiced alveolar stop: [d] (4)front, close, short: [i](5)back, semi-open, long: [ɔ:] (6)voiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:(1)[d]: voiced alveolar stop (2)[l]: voiced alveolar liquids(3)[ʧ]: voiceless palatal affricate (4) [w]: voiced bilabial glides(5) [ʊ]: back, close, short (6) [æ]: front, open, short7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [ɫ], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.The difference between these sounds is what the phonetician are interested in. Because phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, but phonetician is interested in how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess.8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Sequential rules refer to the ways the phonemes can be combined. Sequential rules regulate which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other. They are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].Deletion rule is when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.In the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter[g]. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented bythe letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, and intonation.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.。
chapter-2-Speech-Sounds语言学
• Its main principles were that
– there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
– the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
1.1 Speech production and perception
Speech Production (speaker A)
Speech Perception (speaker B)
A three-step process of speech sounds
Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds
Stop hopping to top. Quash quakes quickly!
Deer fear mere tears.
•
Bob Hope taps the cup.
Kent sent a cent to Ant.
•
Fox falls in love in fall.
• Goat road a boat to vote.
1.3.2 Two ways to transcribe speech sounds
• Broad transcription: transcription with lettersymbols only. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. E.g.help [help], speak [spi:k]
简明语言学教程第2章Chapter 2-Phonology
[j]: the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of
the tongue [t] [d]: the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the velar ridge [θ] [ð ]: partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of
Classification of vowels
1. According to the position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back vowels front vowel: the front part of tongue maintains the highest
semi-open vowels: [ə] [ɔ:]
The place of articulation
1. Bilabial; 2. Labiodental; 3. Dental or interdental; 4. Alveolar; 5. Palato alveolar; 6. Palatal; 7. Velar; 8. Uvular; 9. Glottal.
[t] [d]
[f]
[v]
[k] [g]
Fricatives
Affricates
VL
VD VL VD
[θ]
[ ð]
[s]
[z]
([tʃ] ) ([dʒ])
[ʃ]
[ʒ] [ tʃ ] [ dʒ ]
[h]
Nasals
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Linguistics – by icywarmtea - 6 - Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 2.1 Speech production and perception Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: 1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds 2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech 3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech sounds Most phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics. 2.2 Speech organs Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities. 2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription 2.3.1 Segments and divergences As there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound. 2.3.2 Phonetic transcription International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols. 2.4 Consonants 2.4.1 Consonants and vowels A consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. 2.4.2 Consonants The categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation); 2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation). 2.4.3 Manners of articulation 1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [] are stops and [] are nasal stops. 2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [] are fricatives. 3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes []. 4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream Linguistics – by icywarmtea - 7 - from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [] is the only lateral in English. Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate. 2.4.4 Places of articulation 1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips. 2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. 3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth. 4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge. 5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge. 6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate. 7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate. 8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. 9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum. 10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx. 11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other. 2.4.5 The consonants of English Received Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network. A chart of English consonants