造成家禽肾脏病变的九种常见病的鉴别诊断
鸡肾脏病和常见病因
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浅述动物肾脏病变的检疫检验
不大 时 ， 修 割梗死部后 出售 ， 如 病灶较多
时应予 以化制销毁 。
３ ． 肾盂 积 尿
在我 国新颁布 的动物屠宰检疫规 程
中对 。 肾脏 的检 疫检验根据动物种类 的不 同要求也不同。
肾盂扩 张 ， 髓质 萎缩 ， 皮质 变薄 ， 肾脏外 观失行 ， 切开后有少量液或尿臭味。此种
严格 。
肾脏肿 大 ， 皮质和髓质呈 暗色 ， 刀切 时常流 出暗红色血液 。这样 的肾脏 多为
也 属于肾炎的一类 ，一般是 由于急
性 问 质 性 肾 炎 引 起 ，在 肾 表 面 形 成 大 小
中毒或死亡动物 肾脏 ， 应予 以化制销毁 。
２ ． 肾 梗死
不 等的 白色斑块 ，此种 肾也 应予 以化制
一
２ ． 《 家禽屠宰检疫 规程 》 ６ ． ２ ． ８章节 中
提到： 肾脏 ， 检 查有无肿 大 、 出血 、 苍白、 尿酸盐沉积 、 结节等 ； ３ ． 《 牛屠宰检 疫规程》 ７ ． ２ ． ４章节 中提
、
常见 的几种病变及处理
动物 的肾实质 和肾盂会放生 多种类 型的炎症 及特定病 原体所引起 的各种特
时肾脏 外观贫血 ， 皮质 呈灰 白色 ， 上有点 状 出血点 。此类情况均属热性病引起 ， 肾
脏全部应予 以化制销毁 。
（ ２ ） 化 脓性 肾 炎
４ ． 《 羊屠 宰检疫规程》 ７ ． ２ ． ４章节 中提 到： 肾脏 ， 剥离两 侧 肾被 膜 （ 两刀） ， 检 查 弹性 、 硬度及有无贫血 、 出血 、 淤血等 。
由慢性问质性 肾炎 引起 ， 肾脏萎缩 、 变硬 ， 有 时表面呈结节状 隆起 ， 形成小 卵 石块样 。这种肾同样给予 化制销毁处理 。 二、 肾脏的检疫检验 的不 同要求
鸡肾病临床鉴别诊疗
鸡痛风症引起肾脏白色尿酸盐沉积
鸡痛风症引起肾脏和输尿管白色尿酸盐沉积
鸡法氏囊病引起的肾脏病变：肾脏肿大、出血，法氏囊发炎、水肿
鸡肾型传染性支气管炎引起的肾病变：肾肿大，呈花斑肾
鸡肾型传染性支气管炎引起的肾病变：肾肿大，输尿管有白色尿酸盐沉积
磺胺类中毒引起的肾病变：肾肿大，有出 血点
鸡白细胞原虫引起的肾病变：肾肿大、出血
鸡马立克氏病引起的肾病变：肾脏肿瘤
鸡马立克氏病引起的肾病变：肾脏肿瘤
鸡副伤寒引起的肾病变：肾肿大、出血
鸡结核病引起的肾病变：肾有灰白色结节
肾脏结石引起的肾病变：肾输尿管有结石
鸡肾病临床鉴别诊疗
随着养鸡业的迅速发展，鸡的肾病已成为鸡病中不可忽视的疾病。鸡的肾病是由多种病因引起的肾 脏机能障碍的总称，主要表现为肾肿胀、苍白、出血和尿酸盐沉积。轻者使雏鸡生长受阻，重者导 致鸡大量死亡，给养鸡业造成重大经济损失。
一、鉴别诊断: 不同病因引起的肾脏的病理变化，其特征性病变也有所不同。 1、由鸡痛风症引起的肾病变：肾脏和输尿管有白色尿酸盐沉积。 2、由鸡法氏囊病引起的肾病变：肾脏肿大、出血，法氏囊发炎、水肿。 3、由鸡肾型传染性支气管炎引起的肾病变：肾肿大，呈花斑肾。 4、由磺胺类中毒引起的肾病变：肾肿大，有出血点。 5、由鸡白细胞原虫引起的肾病变：肾肿大、出血，有血凝块。 6、由鸡马立克氏病引起的肾病变：肾脏肿瘤。 7、由鸡结核病引起的病变：肾有灰白色结节。 8、由鸡副伤寒引起的肾病变：肾肿大、出血。 9、由肾脏结石引起的肾病变：肾输尿管有结石。
3、对于鸡肾型传染性支气管炎引起的肾脏病的治疗。可选用下列药物进行治疗： （1）、用金钱草20g、大青叶90g、枇杷叶100g、苏叶60g、车前草75g、甘草8，加入冷水20~30kg饮用，连用5~7天。 （2）、10％氧氟沙星和10％黄芪多糖，加水饮用，连用5~7天。 （3）、对有肾型病变的传支，再加五苓散（茯苓、泽泻、猪苓、肉桂、炒白术），煮水饮用，连 用5~7天，以排除尿酸盐沉积和消除肾脏炎症。
引起鸡肾脏疾病的原因及防治
尿酸盐稀 便 ， 蛋鸡产 蛋量下 降。 产
病 理 变化 剖 检 主 要 是 肾 脏 出血 、 大 、 尿 酸 盐 肿 因 沉 积 而 形 成 花 斑 肾 ， 尿 管 梗 塞 而 变 成 白色 。 输 ３引 起 肾脏 疾 病 的原 因
３１传 染 性 原 因 ．
生成等 。 因鸡 的泌 尿器官没 有肾盂 和膀胱 。 成的 生 尿液直接 排入到泄 殖腔 ， 随粪便 直接排 出 。
禽业 导肮
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杨 双 学 ， 伟 梁 （ 极 县 动 物 卫 生 监 督 所 ， 北 石 家庄 ０ ２ ６ ） 无 河 ５ ４０
１鸡 的 肾 脏 生 理 功 能
浅 谈肾型 传染性支 气 管炎的防治
张 红 燕
（ 北 省 邯 郸 县 农 牧 局 动 物 防 疫 监 督 站 河 沙 镇 分 站 ， 北邯 郸 ０ ６ ０ ） 河 河 ５ １ ８
肾 型 传 染 性 支 气 管 炎 是 由 冠 状 病 毒 引 起 的 鸡 传 染 性 支 气 管 炎 的 一 种 病 理 表 现 。 近 几 年 来 肾 型
亡率 下降 ， 采食量 逐渐恢 复 正常 ， 群病情 得 到 了 大
有 效 的控 制 ４讨 论 与 体 会
４６适 时调整饲 养密度 ，让饲养 密度达 到一个合 ．
理 化 。合 理 的 饲 养 密 度 见 下 表 。
肉仔 鸡 的饲 养 密 度
腺 胃炎 可能 由于父母 代种鸡 感染 过不 同的免 疫 抑 制性病 毒 （ ： 如 网状 内皮 组 织增 殖病 毒 、 染 传
禽泌尿、生殖系统疾病临床鉴别诊疗
（四）、防制：
1、免疫接种是鸡减蛋综合征主要的防制措施。种鸡场鸡群必须注射疫苗，在开产前4~10周进行初
次接种，产前3~4周进行第二次接种。
2、鸡减蛋综合征尚无有效的治疗方法。当发生本病时，可用鸡减蛋综合征高免蛋黄注射液，给病
鸡每只肌内注射或皮下注射2mL，同时配合补充维生素、钙、糖水等，改善营养条件，有一定的治
产蛋高峰期禽群抗应激能力差，强应激会造成卵泡跌落、破裂，引起腹膜炎；如接种油苗、突然惊
吓（猫狗等动物闯入）、突然的响声等；高温应激也会造成卵黄性腹膜炎的发生。
4、霉菌因素：
霉菌毒素的长期刺激与破坏，也会造成生殖机能障碍，引起渐进性的卵黄性腹膜炎，一般还会伴随
着坏死性肠炎同时发生。
（二）、流行特点：
（1）、氟苯尼考，加水饮用，连用5~7天。
（2）、乳酸环丙沙星，加水饮用，连用5~7天。
（3）、盐酸洛美沙星，加水饮用，连用5~7天。
（4）、头孢拉定加庆大霉素，肌注， 连用5~7天，效果极佳。
发病母鹅精神不振，伏地不起
产蛋鸭发病后所产的沙壳蛋和畸形蛋
产蛋鸭发病后所产的沙壳蛋和畸形蛋
产蛋鸭发病后生殖器及子宫外脱
产蛋鸭发病后生殖器及子宫外脱
产蛋鸭发病后泄殖腔和肛门外周发炎、坏死，形成伪膜
产蛋鸭发病后泄殖腔发炎，外观肿大
发病蛋鸡卵巢发炎、出血、破裂、变形和溶化
发病蛋鸭卵巢出血、发炎、破裂、变形，
呈卵黄性腹膜炎
发病蛋鸡卵巢发炎，变形和溶化，腹腔有黄色纤
维素性渗出物，肠粘连，有破裂卵黄，恶臭
发病蛋鸡卵巢发炎、破裂、变形和凝质白块滞留
出现，增加死淘率。
2、病毒感染：
家禽肾病综合症的发生原因及防治对策
家禽肾病综合症的发生原因及防治对策近年来，商品肉鸡、商品蛋鸡发展迅速，有的鸡场常因密度大、空气质量难以保证，饲料搭配不合理，药物使用不当等多种原因造成疾病时有发生，同时常导致鸡的肾脏、输尿管发生形态、颜色上的多种病变，严重者造成病鸡死亡，又称作肾病综合症。
一、家禽肾病综合症的主要临床症状：家禽的肾病综合症是有多种病因引起的肾脏机能障碍的总称。
临床上主要表现为：饮水增多，排白色稀粪，从而导致雏鸡生长受阻，成年鸡生产性能下降。
严重者可引起大批量死亡，给养殖业带来巨大的经济损失。
二、家禽肾病综合症的剖检病变病鸡轻则肾脏肿胀、充血；重则大量尿酸盐沉积于肾脏、输尿管及其他内脏器官的表面。
肾脏肿胀苍白，如果肾小管内有尿酸盐蓄积时会出现花斑肾；有的在输尿管内大量蓄积则形成两条白色像筷子粗的结晶柱，使得机体排泄受阻。
长期不能排泄的尿酸盐沉积在体内各器官的表面和关节腔内形成白色结晶，造成内脏型和关节型痛风。
病情严重者造成一侧肾脏高度肿胀，另一侧萎缩。
从中医理论上讲：“肾亏则虚”脾为机体的免疫器官，肾受损可造成机体免疫力下降，这也是当前疾病易发且不易治愈的原因之一。
三、肾病综合症的病因分析造成肾病发生的原因很多也很复杂，总的分析有营养因素、疾病因素、饲养管理因素、药物和毒物等。
（一）营养性因素（1）发病机制：家禽蛋白质的代谢产物与其他动物不同，这是因为家禽肝脏中缺乏精氨酸酶使蛋白质的最终代谢产物为微溶的尿酸盐。
在正常的情况下，机体生成的和排出的尿酸盐是平衡的，当肾脏功能发生障碍时机体排泄尿酸盐的速度减慢，或因某种因素机体内生成大量的尿酸盐时，超出了肾脏正常代谢功能，就造成了微溶的尿酸盐在肾脏内大量蓄积。
（2）发病原因1、如果饲料中蛋白质含量长期严重超标，生成微溶性的尿酸盐含量增多，导致肾脏排泄功能失衡，不能及时排泄出去则沉积于肾脏，造成肾脏肿大苍白、花斑肾。
严重的在内脏器官的表面、输尿管及关节腔可见尿酸盐沉积。
导致鸡只死亡率升高。
蛋鸡肾脏病毒与营养性疾病的诊治
蛋鸡肾脏病毒与营养性疾病的诊治肾脏是机体重要排泄器官。
它在鸡的生理过程中所处的地位十分等重要。
肾脏发生疾病能影响正常的生理活动和生产性能，降低养殖效益，降低饲料利用率，加大养殖成本。
因此，正确了解蛋鸡肾脏的生理结构及肾病发生的原因，将有利于现代养蛋鸡业的健康发展。
1病毒性因素1.1传染性法氏囊病主要症状为拉白色稀便如牛奶状，极度怕冷、扎堆，极度虚弱，鸡表现脱水，腿部和胸部肌肉出血，法氏囊肿大如球，法氏囊内粘液增多，粘膜表面有点状。
出血或弥漫性出血，严重者法氏囊内有干酪样渗出物。
5天后法氏囊开始萎缩，肾有不同程度的肿胀，发病鸡肾小管上皮细胞变性，管腔扩张，管腔内有异染性细胞和均质性物质构成的管型，间质有单核和细胞浸润，充血。
肾功能下降，引起尿酸盐在肾脏沉积。
治疗：首先用抗鸡传染性法氏囊的高免卵黄抗体每只鸡0.5-lml。
1.2肾型传染性支气管炎鸡肾型传染性支气管炎，是由传染性支气管炎病毒（IBV）的嗜肾毒株引起。
此病多发生于15-40日龄的雏鸡，死亡率高达40%，它除了具有呼吸道症状，如分泌物增多，气管、支气管充血、出血炎症外，还可见肾肿大、变形、出血、苍白，多数呈斑驳状的“花肾”，肾小管和输尿管因尿酸盐沉积而扩张，输尿管内容物呈白色石灰乳样很明显。
在严重的病例，白色尿酸盐沉积，可见于其他组织器官表面。
治疗：本病无特效治疗药物，免疫接种是本病的关键，免疫程序要根据当地的免疫情况而定。
不要随意推迟免疫程序。
免疫接种时要采用活苗加死苗的方法免疫效果最好。
1.3包涵体肝炎由腺病毒感染引起的肾脏肿大，呈灰白色出血点，典型病变为肝肿胀、质地脆弱易破裂，呈点状或斑马状出血，并见隆起坏死灶，肝脂肪变性。
黄染出血，心、肝内脏器管褪色变黄。
防治：（1）本病无特效治疗方法，主要措施为加强饲养管理，杜绝传染源传人，防止和消除应激因素。
在饲料中补微量元素和复合维生素，增强鸡的抵抗力，加强禽舍和环境消毒；（2）用土霉素原粉500g拌料700斤，连用5-7天，效果较好，预防并发或继发细菌类疾病。
鸡的肾脏疾病浅析.doc
鸡的肾脏疾病浅析概述：一、肾脏疾病的危害1、患鸡饲料转化率低下，生长减慢，体重减轻，可造成蛋鸡生产性能降低，严重的可导致死亡。
2、恶化其他鸡病。
二、造成肾脏疾病的主要原因一是传染性的原因，二是非传染性的原因，这些因素往往单独或交织在一起引起发病。
1、传染性的原因：(1)肾型传染性支气管炎。
(2)传染性法氏囊病。
(3)产蛋下降综合症。
(4)传染性肾炎。
(5)雏鸡白痢。
另外，马立克氏病、球虫病、白冠病、螺旋体病等都可引起肾脏病变。
2、非传染性的原因：(1)长期饲喂高蛋白质饲料(2)饲料中钙或镁的含量过高或饲料中钙镁比例失调。
(3)长期维生素A缺乏或维生素A和D长期过量。
(4)多种中毒性疾病，如长期大量添加抗生素以及霉菌毒素等。
(5)饲养管理：①冷热应激。
②饮水不足。
③密度过大，运动不足，环境阴暗潮湿。
(6)家禽的遗传缺陷。
三、临诊表现患鸡精神差，贫血，冠苍白，脱水，脱毛；周期性体温升高，心跳增数，神经症状，不自主地排泄白色的尿酸盐尿；对于肉仔鸡，有的造成肾性腹水，降低商品等级。
继发于细菌、病毒、寄生虫、药物中毒等疾病的肾脏疾病除有上述症状外，还兼有相应各病的具体症状如呼噜、排绿粪、血便、产蛋率下降等。
四、病理变化肾脏出血、肿大，有的因尿酸盐沉积而形成花斑肾，输尿管梗阻而变成白色，严重者可见心脏、肝、脾、关节处有尿酸盐沉积，如果是继发于其它疾病的尚有呼吸道病变及生殖系统病变。
五、预防与治疗1、加强饲养管理，保证饲料的质量和营养的全价，尤其不能缺乏维生素A。
2、做好肾型传染性支气管炎、传染性法氏囊病等疾病的防治。
3、不要长期或过量使用对肾脏有损害的药物及消毒剂，如磺胺类药物、庆大霉素、卡那霉素、链霉素等。
4、对发病鸡群的治疗：（1）降低饲料中蛋白质的水平，增加维生素的含量，给予充足的饮水，停止使用对肾脏有损害的药物和消毒剂。
禽类肾脏疾病
Avian renal disease:pathogenesis,diagnosis,and therapyMichael Lierz,Dr Med VetInstitute for Poultry Medicine,Free University of Berlin,Koserstrasse 21,14195Berlin,GermanyAnatomy and physiologyThe following anatomic and physiologic sections are based on a review of the works of Skadhauge,Siller,Waibl and Sinowatz,Braun,Goldstein and Skadhauge,and Carretero et al [1–7].The kidney excretes nitrogenous waste products,and is central to body water and solute homeostasis.During embryonic development of the bird within the shelled egg,nitrogenous waste products accumulate and cannot be voided.Insoluble uric acid is the main byproduct,rather than urea.Different renal anatomy and physiology lead to different renal diseases in birds compared to mammals.In birds,the left and right kidneys are positioned on either side of the ver-tebral column,and are in contact with the pelvis and synsacrum dorsally.Each kidney is divided into three divisions and each section contains several functional lobes.Each lobe is divided into lobules and each lobule has a cor-tex and a medulla.A lobe is defined as a group of lobules draining through their medullary cones into the same secondary branch of the ureter.Blood vessels and collecting tubules are located between the lobules.In the center of each lobule an intralobular vein collects blood from the peritubular plexus.Intralobular arteries branch from the renal arteries to supply the glo-meruli.Efferent glomerular arterioles join branches of the interlobular vein (renal portal blood)and form the peritubular plexi.The kidneys have afferent arterial and afferent venous blood supplies.The arterial supply of the cranial division of the kidneys is from a branch of the aorta.Branches of the ischiatic arteries supply the middle and caudal divi-sions.Arterioles form the capillary tufts of the glomeruli,which are respon-sible for the ultrafiltration of blood.E-mail address:lierz@zedat.fu-berlin.de (M.Lierz).1094-9194/03/$-see front matter Ó2003,Elsevier Science (USA).All rights reserved.PII:S 1094-9194(02)00029-4Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–55A renal portal system with afferent venous blood is important in birds but does not exist in mammals.The external and internal iliac veins and the ischiatic and caudal mesenteric veins collect venous blood from the capillary system of the limb,tail,pelvis,and caudal part of intestine and spine.These vessels combine to form the caudal portal vein.The cranial portal vein (a branch of the external ischiatic vein)and caudal portal vein form a venous ring located ventral to the kidney.The common iliac vein carries venous blood to the caudal vena cava.A renal portal valve is located within the common iliac vein to regulate venous blood flow through the kidney.When the valve is closed,most of the venous blood from the capillary system is directed through the kidney.This happens when the bird is at rest.When the valve opens venous blood is directed into the caudal vena cava,bypassing the kidney (Fig.1).Blood from the venous ring can still bypass the kidney by flowing into the caudal mesenteric vein or internal vertebral venous sinus.Right and left renal portal valves can operate independently.Valvular smooth muscle has sympathetic and parasympathetic enervation.Adrener-gic stimulation causes relaxation of the valve muscles while cholinergic causes contraction.The smooth muscle of the renal portal vein contracts under adrenergic stimulation.These autonomic responses govern flow of renal portal blood.Under sympathetic stimulation the valve is open and blood bypasses the kidney.Parasympathetic stimulation increases valve resistance and blood enters the renal portal system.Afferent venous blood enters the peritubular capillary network to mix with efferent glomerular arteriolar blood.Intralobular veins converge to form the caudal and cranial renal veins proximal to the renal portalvalves Fig.1.Schematic drawing of the avian renal blood supply.The renal portal valve within the common iliac vein regulates the amount of blood shunted into the caudal caval vein.(Courtesy of T.Hoffman,modification of Rickert-Mueller CR.Das Blutgefa ¨sssystem der Niere des Haushuhns (Gallus dom .).Veterinary Thesis,Giessen,Germany;1968.)30M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–55in the common iliac vein.The peritubular capillaries reabsorb large amounts of solute and water from the renal tubules.Birds have two types of nephron.Cortical (reptilian type)nephrons are most common (up to 90%)and are located in the lobule cortex.Their glo-meruli are smaller,and they do not possess the loop of Henle.Medullary (mammalian type)nephrons have long loops of Henle reaching far into the medulla.Bundles of collecting ducts form the rest of the medulla.All lobules in the same lobe drain into the same secondary branch of the ureter,which then joins a primary ureteral branch.All branches of the ureter are lined with mucous-secreting epithelium,and urates are excreted as a colloidal sus-pension.About 65%of uric acid is chemically bound to proteins.Urate pre-cipitates must remain in this supersaturated suspension.Water is needed to flush the suspension through renal tubules.Smooth muscle fibres coordinate ureteral peristaltic motion to move urates towards the cloacal urodeum.Birds have no urinary bladder.Within the mammalian kidney urea concentration (creating hypertonic-ity)within the medulla is the key factor enabling concentration of urine.As urea is not an important product of avian metabolism and loops of Henle are absent in 90%of avian nephrons,the capacity of the avian kidney to concentrate urine is less than mammals.Water is conserved by resorption within the coprodeum and rectumSolutes can be secreted into the renal tubules,adding to the glomerular ultrafiltrate.Uric acid is mainly excreted through this mechanism,and is independent of both ultrafiltration and tubular urine flow.Plasma urate concentration remains normal even if the bird is dehydrated and the renal tubules are full of urate crystals [8–10].Urates are still excreted into the tubules but cannot be flushed through the kidneys due to lack of ureteral water flow (Fig.2).Early and aggressive fluid therapy is needed to reverse the pathologic changes.By contrast,urea is excreted by glomerular filtra-tion.A dehydrated bird may reabsorb up to 99%of tubular water [11].Reduced ultrafiltration following low blood pressure can reduce urea excre-tion.In addition,tubular reabsorption increases during dehydration,as urine flow through the tubules is slow and plasma urea concentration increases [10].The kidneys also regulate potassium and sodium levels.Potassium can be actively reabsorbed or secreted in the distal tubule.Some species,for exam-ple,gloucous-winged gulls (Larus glaucescens ),have salt glands to aid water and electrolyte homeostasis.Calcium is largely reabsorbed while phosphate is mostly excreted.Calcium reabsorption and phosphate secretion is regu-lated by parathyroid hormone,calcitonin,and vitamin D 3[9].Lumbar and sacral nerve plexi are located between the different kidney divisions (Fig.3).The femoral,obturator,and ischiatic nerves have their origins within these plexi.Kidney diseases that cause renomegaly (eg,swell-ing or neoplasia)might lead to pressure on these nerves resulting in lame-ness or leg paralysis (Fig.4)[12].31M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–55Fig.2.Endoscopic view of a filled ureter in a sparrow hawk (a)(Accipiter nisus ).This is a common finding in free-ranging birds found in a dehydrated and debilitated state.Oviduct(b).Fig.3.Schematic view of the nerve plexus located between the three kidney divisions.Swellings or neoplasias of the kidney can increase the pressure on the nerves,leading to limb paralysis (T.Hoffmann,modified from Harcourt-Brown,2000)[46].32M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–55DiagnosisDiagnosis of renal disorders is difficult as pathognomonic signs are rare.In addition,renal disorders are often seen in conjunction with other dis-eases.Some diagnostic tests can provide immediate indication of renal dys-function.In most cases more than one diagnostic test is necessary to confirm a renal disorder and make a definitive diagnosis.Plasma chemistryThe use of plasma chemical parameters to diagnose renal disorders is lim-ited.Reference values are missing or inadequate for most avian species.Reference ranges have been produced for some species,but small numbers of birds have been used and these may have been kept under different con-ditions to the patient.A single parameter falling outside the reference range has limited diagnostic use,and several reasons could explain an aberrant value.Consistent and repeatable abnormal results for several parameters produces a clearer picture and may help direct further investigation such as radiology,endoscopy,and biopsy.Uric acid and ureaUric acid and urea values can be assessed,but normal physiologic varia-tions have to be considered.Postprandial values rise in healthy raptors with peaks up to 8hours after feeding [13].Therefore in raptors a 24-hour fasting period prior to blood sampling is recommended for assessment of renal function.In addition,pathologic increases in uric acid can only be detected if 70%or more of kidney function is lost making this parameter uselessfor Fig.4.Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus )with leg paralysis due to a renal neoplasia.33M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–5534M.Lierz/Vet Clin Exot Anim6(2003)29–55early detection[12].Urea can be used to detect dehydration but not to con-firm renal dysfunction.The ratio of plasma urea and uric acid can be used to differentiate prere-nal and renal causes of azotemia[10].Prerenal azotemia with elevated urea levels produces a high urea:uric acid ratio.The ratio is calculated:plasma urea concentration[mmol/L]Â1000:plasma uric acid concentration[l mol/ L].In peregrine falcons(Falco peregrinus)the ratio is>6.5[10].Such normal ratios must be established for each species.Renal failure is likely when uric acid concentration is above the species reference range in a fasted individual. Severe tissue damage could lead to an increased uric acid concentration fol-lowing release of nucleic acids[14].CreatinineCreatinine has limited diagnostic value.In birds,creatine is mostly excreted in urine before it is converted to creatinine so levels of plasma crea-tinine are low[15].Creatinine is excreted by glomerularfiltration and reab-sorbed in the tubules.Both mechanisms keep the plasma concentration constant,and postprandial elevations have not been observed[13].Greater amounts of creatinine are released in cases of severe muscle damage,but excretion appears to remain constant resulting in an elevated plasma concen-tration[14].Reduction of glomerularfiltration can also lead to an increased creatinine concentration[16].In theory,if the glomerularfiltration rate is pre-served but tubules are damaged,plasma creatinine concentration will fall. PotassiumHyperkalemia can be seen in acute renal failure,and can cause severe electrocardiographic changes including cardiac arrest.Sample handling can influence the potassium result,and cells should be separated from the plas-ma within1minute of collection[17].SodiumHypernatremia is seen after an increased sodium intake or during dehy-dration.In renal disease sodium loss can be high and uncompensated. Hyponatremia can be an indicator of renal failure[9].Diarrhea can also lead to significant sodium losses[18].CalciumCalcium is reabsorbed after glomerularfiltration.In renal failure calcium losses are high,resulting in hypocalcemia.Nutritional and alimentary disor-ders should also be considered.Hypocalcemia can cause tetany.Interpreta-tion of total and ionized blood calcium should only be done in conjunction with albumin concentration.Hypoalbuminemia reduces the quantity ofbound calcium and decreases total calcium concentration,although the level of biologically active ionized calcium may be normal [19].PhosphorusReduced glomerular filtration rates can lead to high plasma con-centrations of inorganic phosphorus [18,20].Decreased phosphorus lev-els may reflect an alimentary problem such as hypovitaminosis D 3or malabsorption.UrinalysisIn contrast to plasma chemistry,urinalysis can be very valuable in diag-nosing avian renal disorders.Although plasma chemistry changes occur later in the course of renal disease,urinary changes can give an earlier indication.For diagnostic purposes a quality urine sample should be nearly free of urates.Obtaining such a sample can be difficult in normal birds,but many with renal disease are polyuric,and collection of urate-free samples is possible.Nonabsorptive paper or plastic substrate allows collection of voided urine from the bird cage floor.A trained bird of prey may provide a stool sample when the hood is removed or food offered.Urine can be col-lected with the aid of a Petri dish.Birds in a veterinary practice are usually stressed.Stress polyuria can cause urine to be voided before retrograde entry to the intestine where absorption of water and electrolytes occurs [9].The sediment of collected urine samples should first be examined by microscopy.High amounts of urate will reduce the diagnostic value considerably.The presence of urinary casts is a sign of renal disease.In nonpolyuric patients an intravenous infusion can increase the urine fraction but will dilute the urine components and may reduce diagnostic value.Abnormal results may suggest a diagnosis,but normal findings do not exclude nephropathy.Halsema et al [21]describes a method of cloacal cannulation to collect urine and gives reference values for pigeon urine.Unfortunately,these values are not established for other bird species.The cloaca is cleaned of feces before the cannula is introduced.It remains for at least 20minutes until enough urine is collected.A perfect urine sample can be obtained,but the long time involved in this method (up to 200minutes)can make it unsuitable for sick or weak birds.The urine sample is routinely examined for color,clarity,osmolality,pH,hemoglobin,glucose,and protein.In addition Gram stain and cytology can be helpful.ColorUrine is usually white or pale yellow.Dark yellow urine may occur fol-lowing the use of Vitamin B-complex.Blue discoloration is rare,but might occur if certain berries are fed.Chronic hepatitis might cause a yellow,35M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–5536M.Lierz/Vet Clin Exot Anim6(2003)29–55sulphur-colored urine while a light green color occurs in liver diseases due to biliverdinuria,and is often associated with late stage of systemic aspergillo-sis.Hematuria is only visible when0.1%of the urine contains blood[9]. Chemical test sticks(MultistixÒ,Bayer Diagnostics,511Benedict Ave,Tar-rytown,NY)show positive reactions with blood concentrations of0.001–0.002%in the urine and,along with microscopy,provide a sensitive method of blood detection.Blood within the urine is not necessarily a result of kid-ney damage.Blood from the cloaca,genital tract or the caudal intestine can mix with urine.In carnivorous birds with short digestion times,especially if starved or stressed,stick reactions can be positive as still undigested hemo-globin is present[10].Sticks can detect hemoglobinuria,which suggests erythrolysis.High amounts of plasma hemoglobin result in excretion of hemoglobin by the kidney.Myoglobinuria also causes positive reactions,and can only be distin-guished from hemoglubinuria by spectrophotometry[9].It is rarely seen but reported inflamingos(Phoenicopterus spp.)and ostriches(Struthio spp.)fol-lowing rhabdomyolysis.Rosskopf et al[22]reported a red urine color in lead-poisoned amazons,probably caused by porphyrinuria rather than hemoglobinuria.OsmolalityBird urine has low osmolility.High values are common only in birds ad-apted to desert areas with maximum values between500–1000mOsmol[23]. Urine collected by cannula has a lower osmolality compared to excreted samples following water reabsorption in the intestine[5].Urine osmolality provides a direct value for the ability of the patient’s kidneys to con-centrate urine.In polyuric birds the osmolality should be low.Alberts et al [24]developed a test for differentiation of polyuric disorders in racing pigeons.The study suggested an osmolality of450mOsmol/kg as the normal concentration capacity.After24hours of water deprivation the osmolality increases in both healthy pigeons and polyuric pigeons without kidney fail-ure.It is thought that this can be applied to other avian species.Uric acid,pH,and ammoniaUric acid concentration should be measured in supernatants,as the sedi-ments have much higher concentrations.Calcium,sodium,potassium,and magnesium values are of limited diagnostic value but might be helpful if found in high concentrations,suggesting renal dysfunction or excessive rge quantities of cations are trapped within uric acid suspension [25].This varies from3–75%for sodium,8–84%for potassium,and17–32%for calcium and magnesium.Urine ammonia concentration is not influenced by dietary protein intake but increases in dehydrated birds[9,26].ProteinProtein concentrations up to 2g/L are considered normal.Detection of proteinuria is difficult,as urine sticks are often too insensitive.Experience with particular stick types will be helpful.As an alternative the Ponceau S-method can be used for more accurate evaluation [27].Proteinuria is a sign of increased glomerular permeability,and is often associated with glomerulonephritis.GlucoseGlucose urine concentrations are normally low,and cannot be detected with urine sticks.Glucosuria is diagnosed if sticks react positively.Polyuria,polydipsia,and glucosuria are signs of diabetes mellitus,but only if the plas-ma glucose concentration is also elevated.Repeated tests are necessary,as stress can also cause high urine glucose concentrations.Pancreatitis is a cause of glucosuria [16].Urine enzymesKidney tissue contains Lactate-Dehydrogenase,Glutamate-Dehydrogen-ase,Aspartate-Aminotransferase,Alanine-Aminotransferase,Creatine Kin-ase,and Alkaline Phosphatase.It is known that released enzymes from kidney cells are excreted with urine and do not enter the circulation [10].High concentrations of these enzymes signify renal damage,but reference limits are not established.Microscopic examination of urinary sedimentMost important in the diagnosis of early renal diseases is the microscopic demonstration of urinary casts and cells.Cellular casts might contain blood cells,bacteria,fungi,or tissue cells.Cast bacteria signify kidney infection.Bacteria found outside the casts are likely contaminants,and microbiologic examination of urine is not useful [9].Rosskopf demonstrated yellow-orange material without cellular elements,suggesting hemoglobin casts [4].Granular casts are composed of degraded cellular components.Rosskopf[4]described the transition of granular and cellular casts to hemoglobin casts as a prognostic sign for the resolution of an inflammatory process.Bermudez and Hopkins [28]demonstrated eosinophilic casts in a case of hemoglobinuric nephrosis in a rhea (Rhea sp.).Finding microorganisms such as cryptosporidium or cociddia is often significant.RadiologyMammography units are useful for imaging bird kidneys,providing bet-ter detail and resolution than standard equipment.Full-body ventrodorsal 37M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–5538M.Lierz/Vet Clin Exot Anim6(2003)29–55and laterolateral radiographs are routinely produced and are always recom-mended,as renal disorders might result from or cause other abnormalities. In particular,cardiomegaly might be directly linked to kidney disease(or vice versa)as blood pressure and ultrafiltration are linked via the renin–angiotensin mechanism(Fig.5).Kidneys are superimposed by gut and intes-tine in the ventrodorsal radiograph,so the laterolateral view is more useful. In case the kidneys are visible in ventrodorsal radiographs the density must be high and a pathologicfinding is presumed.In normal laterolateral radio-graphs the kidneys are visible as bean-shaped shadows caudal to the last ribs.The caudal kidney is overlapped by the pelvis,making interpretation difficult.Active gonads might superimpose the cranial part of the kidney and resemble neoplasia.If differentiation is difficult,contrast radiography to demonstrate intestine or kidney is recommended.In most bird species, healthy individuals demonstrate a small rim of air above the kidneys.In cases of kidney enlargement,this might not be visible.Incorrect lateral posi-tioning of the bird may obscure this small border of air.Kidney enlarge-ments are common with disease but are nonspecific.A change in kidney shape can be a sign of neoplasia or cysts,but in most cases a contrast radio-graph is necessary for differentiation[8].Increased density of the kidney is often a sign of dehydration or hypovitaminosis A.Gout might be suspected if crystals(uric acid precipitation)are distributed through the kidney but must be confirmed.The radiograph might suggest articular gout with urate tophi within the joints[29].UrographyIndications for urography in birds are few.Differentiation of the kidney and ureter from other structures,obstruction of the ureter,or the demon-stration of functional disturbance of the renal system are anic iodine compounds given intravenously are used as contrast media(Urogra-finÒ70,Schering Berlin Inc.,Montville,NJ).They are excreted very quickly via the renal portal system,especially if administered via the femoral vein, but can be slowed by use of the ulnar vein.As dosage2mL/kg of a70–80%solution of organic iodine compound(300–400mg iodine/mL)is rec-ommended[8].Urograph quality depends on the chosen contrast medium and the concentrating capacity of the kidney.Contrast agents are irritant, and perivascular spillage should be avoided.Agents should be used at body temperature.Newer contrast media are based on nonionic agents and there-fore preferable.Side effects are reduced,and in particular they are not irri-tant if injected perivascularly.Most commonly Iopamidol(Solutrast200Ò, Bracco-Byk Gulden,78467Konstanz,Germany)or Iohexol(AccupaqueÒ, Amersham Health,Princeton,NJ)are used at a dose of400mg iodine/kg.Thefirst radiograph should be taken30seconds after injection,as in most cases the kidney will be visible.One minute after injection kidney and theureters are visible [8].In some cases the cloaca can be demonstrated within 2minutes of contrast administration (Fig.6).Fast multiple exposures (every 0.5–2seconds)are useful,especially for angiography,but require suitably equipped radiology units.Prolonged elimination times indicate renal insuf-ficiency.Urography should be avoided in cases of severe renaldysfunctionFig.5.Radiograph of a Steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis )illustrating increased soft-tissue density in the region of the kidneys (A)and cardiomegaly (B).39M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–55Fig.6.Radiographs of a urography,2-minute postinjection of contrast media(Solutrast200) of a sparrow hawk(Accipiter nisus).In the lateral view(A)kidney and ureter(a)is clearly visible.The os pubis of the pelvis(b)should not be confused with the ureter.The ventrodorsal view(B)demonstrates the ureter and the cloacafilled with contrast media.detected by plasma chemistry.Urography is most useful in assessment of kidney morphology.Sedation or anaesthesia is recommended for the patient undergoing uro-graphy to prevent struggling and ensure intravenous injection.Overdosage and cold contrast media may cause vomiting,and stressed or weakened birds may suffer circulatory problems [8].Ketamine hydrochloride should be avoided in birds with renal insufficiency as it is renally excreted.UltrasoundUltrasonography is a familiar diagnostic tool in veterinary medicine but,due to the air sac system of birds,is not very popular in avian medicine.The outstanding advantage of this modality is its ability to view deep organ structures.Unlike endoscopy,ultrasound is noninvasive,and can be used safely in weak patients where anaesthetic risks might be high,and the bird is not stressed by handling.An ultrasound examination is recommended in cases of polyuria,polydypsia,elevated renal blood parameters,lameness,or where radiologic appearance of the kidney is abnormal.Endoscopy can follow if more information is required.A 64gray-scale computerized ultrasound system with videorecorder and videoprinter is recommended,and a 7.5-MHz,60°sector transducer is pre-ferred [30].The probe head should be very small as the contact area in birds is limited.With a probe working surface area of 1.5Â2.5cm birds of 40g up to 1kg can be examined [30].Distance from the scanner to the target organ is short so a gel pad standoffshould be used.Ultrasound gel is essential.Patients must be fasted prior to ultrasound examination.The fasting peri-od depends on the size of the bird,but should be at least 3hours to prevent interaction of food-filled intestinal slings between scanner and kidney [30].In debilitated patients liquid food might be an alternative.The fasting peri-od should be increased in birds of prey,and it is better if the bird casts prior to examination.For kidney examination the contact area is ventral between the xiphoid process and the ossa pubis [30].An assistant should hold the patient in dorsal recumbency.The normal kidneys cannot be evaluated by ultrasonography,as they lie ventral to the vertebra with a small line of air interposed [31].Air sacs are found laterally,preventing visibility.In the rec-ommended ventromedial approach intestinal loops might cause problems,but in cases of increased kidney size including neoplasia,structures become more visible.Renal neoplasia can be seen more frequently in budgerigars.If lameness is evident an ultrasound exam might help indicate a renal mass.They appear as heterogeneous structures (Fig.7).According to Kraut-wald-Junghanns and Enders,cysts may also be diagnosed using this tech-nique [30].They can be demonstrated as round anechoic structures with marked posterior acoustic enhancement.If the kidney can be demonstrated the bony fossa renalis appears as a white ‘‘W’’-shaped line [32].41M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–55EndoscopyEndoscopy is invaluable in diagnosing visceral organ disease.It allows direct visualization and interpretation.In particular the kidney size,color,shape,and surface appearance can be assessed.Filling of the ureter can be estimated and,if parts of the kidney are abnormal,visually guided bio-psies can be taken.In general,the routine endoscopic approach into the left caudal thoracic air sac is recommended [33].With the limb retracted caudally,the insertion point is the middle of the triangle formed by the last rib,the iliotibial muscle,and the caudal border of the synsacrum.The abdominal air sac can be entered by puncturing its wall,allowing a direct view to the kidneys.Not only the urinary system can be assessed,but so too can most of the other organs.Visceral gout on the pericardium or liver capsule can be detected.Primary diseases causing radiologic changes can be seen.Anatomical differences between species must be considered during assess-ment of the renal system.Size,shape,and surface vary between species.Small yellow or white spots within the kidney are signs of gout or a dis-turbed excretion process (Fig.8).A filled and swollen ureter might be duetoFig.7.Ultrasonogram of a soft tissue mass,later diagnosed as a renal adenocarcinoma (b)in a budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus ).The white line (a)represents the spine bone and the fossa renalis.The hypoechoeic areas represent cystic and necrotic lesions (c).(Courtesy of Prof.M.E.Krautwald-Junghanns.)42M.Lierz /Vet Clin Exot Anim 6(2003)29–55。
肉鸡肾脏疾病的病因及防治措施
肾衰竭的原因可能是由于慢性 肾盂肾炎、肾小球肾炎等。
肾结石
肾结石是肉鸡肾脏疾病的另一 种病理变化。
肾结石通常表现为肾脏内部或 表面有钙化灶或结石。
肾结石的原因可能是由于高钙 血症、慢性肾盂肾炎等。
肾炎
肾炎是肉鸡肾脏疾病的另一种病理变化。
肾炎通常表现为肾脏组织炎症，肾小球和肾小管损伤。
肾炎的原因可能是由于细菌感染、病毒感染、药物过敏等。
检查鸡只排泄物
肾脏疾病可能导致排泄物中带血或呈现酱油色。
病理学诊断
要点一
观察肾脏病变
肉眼观察肾脏是否肿大、充血、出血等，以及是否有尿 酸盐沉积。
要点二
观察其他脏器病变
如肝脏、心脏等是否有异常变化。
实验室诊断
进行尿液分析
收集鸡只的尿液进行化验，观察尿液成分是否有异常。
进行血清学检测
通过检测血清中的相关抗体、抗原等来判断是否有肾脏 疾病。
药物因素
药物使用不当
长期或过量使用某些药物，如磺胺类、氨基糖苷类等，可能对肉鸡的肾脏造成损害。
药物残留
饲料中药物残留过高，可能导致肉鸡的肾脏损伤。
环境因素
饲养环境不良
饲养环境卫生条件差、通风不良、湿度过 高等因素可能导致肉鸡的肾脏疾病。
VS
环境应激
运输、转群、疫苗接种等环境应激因素可 能对肉鸡的肾脏功能造成影响，使其易患 肾脏疾病。
因导致。
防治建议
加强饲养管理，保证环境卫生 和饮水卫生，定期进行疫苗接 种和驱虫，及时诊断并治疗原
发病。
其他症状
症状描述
除了上述症状外，肉鸡肾脏疾病还可能表现为其 他症状，如脱水、贫血、腹泻等。
可能原因
这些症状可能是由于肾脏疾病导致的全身性症状 ，也可能是其他疾病引起的。
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矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及审查大纲
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及《矿产资源开发利用方案》审查大纲一、概述
㈠矿区位置、隶属关系和企业性质。
如为改扩建矿山, 应说明矿山现状、
特点及存在的主要问题。
㈡编制依据
(1简述项目前期工作进展情况及与有关方面对项目的意向性协议情况。
(2 列出开发利用方案编制所依据的主要基础性资料的名称。
如经储量管理部门认定的矿区地质勘探报告、选矿试验报告、加工利用试验报告、工程地质初评资料、矿区水文资料和供水资料等。
对改、扩建矿山应有生产实际资料, 如矿山总平面现状图、矿床开拓系统图、采场现状图和主要采选设备清单等。
二、矿产品需求现状和预测
㈠该矿产在国内需求情况和市场供应情况
1、矿产品现状及加工利用趋向。
2、国内近、远期的需求量及主要销向预测。
㈡产品价格分析
1、国内矿产品价格现状。
2、矿产品价格稳定性及变化趋势。
三、矿产资源概况
㈠矿区总体概况
1、矿区总体规划情况。
2、矿区矿产资源概况。
3、该设计与矿区总体开发的关系。
㈡该设计项目的资源概况
1、矿床地质及构造特征。
2、矿床开采技术条件及水文地质条件。