《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
英语词汇学复习大纲整理
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念1.1 the definition of a word（： (1) a minimal free form of a language ； (2) a sound unity ； (3） a unit of meaning; （4） a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function 。
）1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional 。
A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.1.3 sound and form : 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇nonbasic vocabulary非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇by notion 按概念分：content words and functional words实义词和功能词by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词archaism 古语词neologism 新词neutral in style 文体上中性frequent in use 使用频繁native words本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obviouscharacteristics明显的特点(Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation betweennotions, words, etc.)2D e v e l o p m e n tIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar。
英语词汇知识点归纳
英语词汇知识点归纳英语词汇是学习英语的基础和核心部分，掌握了丰富的词汇量和相关知识点，才能更好地理解和运用英语。
本文将对英语词汇的相关知识点进行归纳，帮助读者系统地了解和学习。
一、词根与词缀词根是词汇的基本组成部分，它能够给词汇赋予一定的意义。
在英语中，许多词根来自希腊语和拉丁语。
例如，"tele-"表示远程，"bio-"表示生命，"photo-"表示光，"multi-"表示多个等。
掌握这些常见的词根，可以帮助我们理解和记忆更多的英语词汇。
另外，英语词缀是在词根基础上进行扩展和变化的部分。
常见的词缀包括前缀（如"un-"表示否定）和后缀（如"-tion"表示名词化）。
通过了解常见的词缀，我们可以推测出许多词汇的意思和用法。
二、词义辨析英语中有很多词汇在意义上非常相近，但在使用场景和语义上有一定差异。
对于这些词汇，我们需要进行准确的辨析，避免用词错误。
例如，"big"和"large"这两个词都表示"大"的意思，但"big"更常用于描述体积，而"large"则更常用于描述面积。
通过积累和比较这些词汇的用法，我们能够更准确地表达自己的意思。
三、近义词与反义词除了词义的辨析外，英语中还存在许多近义词和反义词。
近义词指的是意思相近但用法略有差异的词汇；反义词则指的是意义完全相反的词汇。
例如，"happy"和"joyful"就是近义词，"happy"强调一种普通的快乐，而"joyful"则强调更加强烈和欢乐的感觉。
"happy"的反义词是"sad"，"joyful"的反义词则是"sorrowful"。
2023年自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英语词汇学意在调查和研究英语单词和单词旳等价物旳形态构造,其语义构造、关系、历史发展、形成和使用方法。
2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（词旳定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小旳自由形式，拥有固定旳声音和意义以及句法作用。
2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3.Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一旳四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary （5）printing、standardization、dictionary—Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than itis today. 古代英语中旳口语比今天更忠实旳代表书面语—The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form。
词汇学复习
第一单元英语词汇概说1.词是语音、形态和意义的统一体，音和形是词的物质外壳，意义是词的物质内容。
Word is the combination of pronunciation, morphology and meaning.2.词是在口语和书面语中能独立、自由使用的并具备完整意义的语言最小单位。
Word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used on its own in oral and written language.3.词汇（vocabulary, lexicon）: collection of words4.词汇是语言（language）的基本要素（语音、语法、词汇）之一。
Pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary5.Active vocabulary（积极性词汇）: speaking/writing vocabularyPassive vocabulary（消极性词汇）: reading/guessing vocabulary6.词汇学（lexicology）: the science of wordsLexicology is the branch of linguistics that investigates, describes and theorizes about vocabulary. 作为语言学的一个分支，词汇学对词汇进行调查研究、描述并予以理论化。
第二、三单元英语基本构词法1.词素（morpheme）是语言中语音和语义的最小结合体。
Morpheme is the minimum unit of meaning.2.构词法（1）词缀法（affixation/derivation派生法）Prefixation 前缀法；Suffixation 后缀法Prefix do not generally change the world-class(词性) of the stem but only modify its meaning.(except “en-”, ”be-”, ”a-”) 三个可以决定词性的前缀Suffix mainly change the word-class ( except “less”)（2）复合法（compounding或composition）→复合词compound（3）转化法（conversion）也叫功能转换法（functional shift）或转移法（transmutation）（4）缩略法（abbreviation或shortening）·截短词clipped wordsapocope截除词尾，aphaeresis 截除词首front and back clipping截除首尾，syncope截除词腰·首字母缩略词initialisms·首字母拼音词acronyms·拼缀词blending e.g. stagflation = stagnation + inflation注：Acronym differ from initialism in that they are pronouncedas words rather than as sequences of letter.（5）逆生法（back formation）e.g. laser为首字母拼音词，因词尾形似后缀-er，则逆生出动词lase。
英语词汇学总结
Chapter 3Word Formation I词语结构13.1 Morphemes词素1. the morpheme is ‘ the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。
2.Suffix：-ation：-tion, -sion, -ion.后缀：ation 的多变体，当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀3.Owing to different sound environment 因为存在不同的发生环境。
3.2 Allomorphs （语素变体）同质异晶，同质异象变体1.Morphemes are abstract units.‘They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning’语素是抽象的单位,它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体.The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone:语素是一个音素发音的形素①single morphs单一语素词：bird, tree, green, sad, want, desire,Most morphemes are realized by single morphs,Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，语素与词相同叫做单一语素词.These morphemes coincide withe words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。
词汇学知识点总结
词汇学知识点总结词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究的是词汇的形成、结构和意义等方面的问题。
在学习英语等外语的过程中，词汇是其中一个重要的组成部分。
下面，本文将对词汇学的一些知识点进行总结与归纳。
一、词的形态学词的形态学是词汇学中必须掌握的一个重要方面，主要包括词的构词法、屈折变化和派生变化等。
词的构词法指的是如何通过组合原有的词来创造新词，包括派生法、合成法、缩略法、转化法等。
屈折变化指根据语法要求，变化词的形态以表示不同的格、时、数、性等。
派生变化则指通过在原有词基础上添加字母或词缀等来产生新的词。
掌握词的形态学是很有必要的，因为它和词汇的理解和使用密切相关。
二、词的分类在英语中，词可以根据其不同的语法特征被归为不同的类别，常见的类别包括名词、代词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、连词和感叹词等。
不同的词在句子中扮演着不同的角色，掌握各类别之间的区别以及它们在句子中的作用，可以帮助我们更好地理解和表达语言。
三、词义词义是从语言学的角度定义词的意义，包括原义和引申义。
原义指的是一个词最基本的意思，而引申义则是在原义基础上经过延伸、扩展而得到的新意义。
同一个词的不同意义和语言环境等也会导致其含义的变化，例如“bank”既可以表示银行，也可以表示河岸等。
在学习外语的过程中，掌握词义是十分重要的。
四、词汇的学习方法词汇的学习是英语学习中最基础也最重要的部分之一，因此选择适合自己的学习方法对于提高词汇量、扩大词汇面积至关重要。
常用的学习方法包括反复背诵、积累单词簿、整理词根词缀、阅读和听力等。
在学习方法上，以选择适合自己和有用的方法为主，同时注意与语言运用的联系，不断地推广和实践。
五、词汇的应用掌握了词汇学的知识和学习方法后，其实就迈出了学习英语的第一步。
在实际运用中，如何运用得当也是至关重要的环节。
为了提高语言的流利度，需要在口语和书面语两个方面加强实践，增强实际运用能力。
另外，可以较晚多在社交网络等平台上与外国人联系，使用所学的词汇，将知识应用到实际交流之中，效果更佳。
英语词汇学整理
大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。
其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。
区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。
第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例子)1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky第二章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words bycombining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the West ern world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词）1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。
英语词汇学知识点
English Lexicology: A CoursebookChapter 1 Lexicology and WordsKnowledge Points:1. Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.2. Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components.3. The major purpose of study in morphology is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation.4. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morphemes may constitute words or parts of words.5. Semantics is defined as the study of meaning.6. Generally speaking, semantics focuses on:1) the meaning of words;2) the meaning of utterances in context;3) the meaning of sentences;4) meaning relations between sentences;5) meaning relations that are internal to the vocabulary of a language.7. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words.8. Word is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces.9. The term word is also used to refer to an intermediate structure smaller than a whole phrase and yet generally larger than a single sound segment.10. Major features of Words1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.2) A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.3) The word is an uninterruptible unit.4) A word has to do with its social function.5) A word may consist of one or more morphemes.6) Words are part of the large communication system we call language.7) A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.11. In traditional grammar, eight parts of speech are distinguished in English: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.12. Words can also be classified into lexical words and grammatical words.13. Generally speaking, lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.14. The lexical words can be used (functions):1) to represent our experience of the word;2) to refer to persons, places, things and concepts (e.g. the nouns Smith, London, pineapple, unity);3) to describe qualities and properties (e.g. the adjectives excellent, kind, high);4) to represent actions, processes or states (e.g. the verbs jump, bite, stay);5) to describe circumstances like manner (e.g. the adverbs kindly, slowly, cheerfully).Furthermore, lexical words have their own content meanings and may be meaningful when used alone. E.g. book and house have their own content meanings.15. Grammatical words are words like pronouns, prepositions, demonstrative, determiners, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and son on.16. Semantic or lexical field: A semantic field contains words that belong to defined area of meaning. Crystal (1995) defines a semantic field as a ‘named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelated and define each other in specific ways’.Chapter 2 Some Basic Concepts and Word MeaningsKnowledge Points:1. Morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the smallest meaningful units of language.2. Features of morpheme:1) A morpheme may be a complete word. E.g. the, fierce, desk, eat, boot, at, fee, mosquito cannot be dividedup into smaller units that are meaningful themselves.2) A morpheme may also be a word form such as an affix. e.g. –able, in-, -hood.3) A morpheme may be a combining form. e.g. bio-, geo, pre-.3. Phonemes are the smallest working units of sound per se, and they build up into morphemes.4. Lexeme: Lexeme or lexical item is regarded as a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain.Lexeme is considered an abstract linguistic unit with different variants (e.g. sing as against sang, sung).5. Morph: Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph. It is a physical form representing some morphemes in a language.6. Allomorphs: Morphs which are different representations of the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs of that morpheme.7. Morphemes can be classified into bound morphemes and free morphemes.8. Bound morphemes must be joined to other morphemes. e.g. the suffix –dom, is a bound morpheme.9. Free morphemes need not be attached to other morphemes and can occur by themselves as individual words.e.g. cat, chair, farm, and bug are free morpheme.10. Morphemes may also be classified into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.11. Denotation: Denotation of a lexeme is the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities external to the language system.12. Reference: The relationship of reference holds between an expression and what that expression stands for on particular occasions of its utterance.13. Sense: Sense is a relationship between the words or expressions of a single language, independently of the relationship, if any, which holds between those words or expressions and their referents.14. Leech (1981) distinguishes seven types of meaning in language: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, and thematic meaning.15. Conceptual meaning, which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.16. Connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.17. Social meaning refers to the kind of meaning a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.18. Affective meaning can be used to cover the attitudinal and emotional factors expressed in a word.19. Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.20. Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.21. Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the massage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Stem: The word to which affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word is known as the stem.23. Root: A stem consisting of a single morpheme is labeled as root. For, example, walk is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms that instantiate the lexeme walk such as walk, walks, walking and walked.24. Free morpheme: Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes. Single words like man, book, tea, sweet, cook are the smallest free morphemes capable of occurring independently.25. Bound morpheme: some roots are incapable of occurring independently. They always occur with some other word-building element attached to them. Such roots are called bound morphemes, like –mit in permit, remit, commit, admit, and ceive in perceive, receive, conceive.26. Base: A base is a lexical item to which affixes of any kind can be added.The affixes attached to a base. In other words, all roots are bases.27. Affix: A root or stem can be attached with an affix. Affixes are morphemes which only occur when attached to other morphemes. By definition affixes are bound morphemes.28. Three types of affixes: prefix, suffix and infix.1) prefix: A prefix is an affix attached before a root (or stem or base) like re-, un- and in-, as in re-make, un-kind, in-decent.2) suffix: A suffix is an affix attached after a root (or stem or base) like-ly, -er, -ist,and -ed, as in kind-ly, wait-er, interest-ing, interest-ed.3) infix: An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. According to Katamba (1993), infixes are very common in semitic language like Arabic and Hebrew.29. Other types of affixes: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.1) Inflectional affixes are used for syntactic reasons to indicate number, tense, case, and so on.2) derivational affixes can alter the meaning or grammatical category of the base.30. Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings.For instance, the noun bank is said to be polysemous because it may mean:(1) a financial institution that people or businesses can keep their money in or borrow money from;(2) a raised area of land along the side of a river;(3) a large number of things in a row, especially pieces of equipment.31. Features of polysemy:1) The concept of polysemy is complex and involves a certain number of problems. As mentioned by Jackson and Amvela (2000), we cannot determine exactly how many meanings a polysemous word has, as a word may have both a literal meaning and one or more transferred meanings.2) The is no clear criterion for either difference or sameness of meaning.3) It difficult to distinguish between polysemy (i.e. one word with several meanings) and homonymy (i. e. several words with the same shape—spelling and/or pronunciation).4) Polysemy is an essential condition for its efficiency.32. Homonymy: Homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape.33. Tow types of homonyms (Jackson and Amvela, 2000): homograph and homophone1) homograph: Homograph refers to a word which is spelt the same as another word but has a different meaning and sometimes a different pronunciation. For example, lead (metal) and lead (dog’s lead) are spelt the same but pronounced differently.2) homophone: Homophone refers to a word that sounds the same as another word but ahs its own spelling, meaning and origin. For example, right, rite and write are spelt differently but pronounced the same.34. Features of homonymy:1) There are cases in which two homonyms with totally different meanings may both make sense in the same utterance.2) Spelling will often help to differentiate between words with are identical in sound.3) Writing conventions can help remove homonymy, as English writing is more intelligible than speech.Chapter 3 The Origins of English WordsKnowledge Points:1. The Development of English:Indo-European FamilyItalic Germanic Europe the Near East North India …the North Germanic the East Germanic the West Germanicbranch branch branchEnglishEnglish belongs to the Indo-European family, which includes most of the languages of Europe, the Near east,and North India. One branch of the Indo-European family is called Italic, from which Latin and later the Romance languages developed. Another is called Germanic, which is subdivided into the North Germanic branch, the Ease Germanic branch and the West Germanic branch. English is one of the languages in the West Germanic branch.Celts are believed to be the first people who, inhabited the land that was later to become England. They came to the island around the middle of the fifth millennium BC. Their languages were yet another branch of the Indo-European language family. Most of the island of Britain was occupied by the Romans from about 43 AD until 410 AD.Two stages:First Stage (Beginning of English): After the withdrawal of the Romans, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes moved into England in about 450 AD and began to take it over. It is at this time when the English language began.Second Stage: By the 10th century, the West Saxon dialect became the official language of Britain. Written Old English is mainly known from this period. It was written in an alphabet called Runic (北欧古文字).2. The four historical periods of English:1) The language from 450 to 1066 is known as Old English.2) From 1066 to 1500 the language is known as Middle English.3) The language from 1500 to 1800 is considered the Early Modern English period.4) The language since 1800 is called Modern English.3. Old English Period (450-1066). There are many differences between the way vocabulary was used in Old English and the way it is used today.1) the Anglo-Saxon preference for expressions that are synonymous, far exceeds that found in Modern English, as does their ingenuity in the construction of compounds.2) the absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords also forces them to rely more on word-formation processes based on native elements.3) the latter period of Old English was characterized by the introduction of a number of ‘loan translations’.4) grammatical relationships in Old English were expressed mainly by the use of inflectional endings.5) Old English is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.4. The Middle English Period (1066-1500). The Middle English period was marked by extensive changes. In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain.5. Features of this period:1) The changes of this period affected English both in its grammar and its vocabulary.2) Inflections were greatly reduced in Middle English.3) The inflectional endings was due partly to phonetic changes and partly to the operation of analogy.4) Middle English is particularly characterized by intensive and extensive borrowing from other languages.6. Early Modern English Period (1500-1800). This period is the transitional period from Middle English to Modern English.1) The printing press helped to standardize the spelling of English in its modern stages.2) Throughout the modern period, written English has been quite uniform.3) In the sixteenth century, scholars began seriously to talk about their language, making observations on grammar vocabulary, the writing system and style.4) Adjectives lost all endings except for in the comparative and superlative forms.7. The Modern English Period (1800-present). Features of this period:1) Modern English is as the unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary.2) The assertion of American English is as a dominant variety of the language.3) The emergence of other varieties known as ‘New Englishes’.8. ‘New Englishes’refers to new varieties of the language that have become localized not only through the influence of the other languages of the regions where they are used, but also through being adapted to the life and culture of their speakers.9. The differences between American English and British English:1) The differences of vocabulary are the most striking;2) American spelling and British are also a bit different;3) The differences between American and British pronunciation are perhaps the most pervasive of all.10. Native English vocabulary is made up of Anglo-Saxon words. This category comprises words that were used by the Germanic tribes and are still used in Modern English.11. The Celtic language did not have any serious impact on English.1) In the Old English period, only a number of Celtic words were borrowed, and just a few have survived into modern English, sometimes in regional dialect use.2) In the seventeenth century, a few more Celtic words were introduced into English from Irish Gaelic.12. Major influences on English:1) The Scandinavian Influence2) The Norman Conquest3) The Latin Influence13. Borrowing is the process of imitating a word from foreign language and, at least partly, adapting in sound or grammar to the native language.14. Latin is not only the first major contributor of loanwords to English, but also one of the most important sources for the coinage of new English words.15. Greek borrowings have been continuous from the fifth century to the present. Borrowing from French started long before 1066.16. New English words can be created by root creation, onomatopoeic words, ejaculations and word formation (Jackson and Amvela 2000).Chapter 4 Word Formation in EnglishKnowledge Points:1. There are basically three ways of extending the word stock:1) borrowing words that already exist in other languages;2) creating entirely new words;3) forming new words from existing resources within the word stock.2. Word formation refers to the different devices used in English to build new words from existing ones.3. The basic distinction between inflection and derivation is mainly morphological. Inflection results in the formation of alternative grammatical forms of the same word, while derivation creates new vocabulary items.4. Inflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes to produce alternative grammatical forms of words.5. Inflections in English are all suffixes that occur at the very end of a word.6. Functions of InflectionInflection creates variant forms of a word to conform to different functional roles in a sentence or in discourse.1) Inflections modify the form of a word so that they can fit into a particular syntactic slot.2) Sometimes inflectional morphemes serve merely to integrate a word into its sentence.3) inflections attach grammatical information to the stem, but do not change its grammatical category.7. Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base.8. Derivation refers to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem.9. Functions of DerivationsDerivational affixes serve functions very different from those of inflectional morphemes.1) A derivational affix can change the part of speech of a word;2) Derivation affixes are so called because they are used to derive new words and meanings.3) Derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to and establish words as members of the various word classes.4) Derivational affixes do not always cause a change in grammatical class.10. Derivational affixes can be divided into two types: class-changing and class-maintaining.11. Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are added.12. Class-maintaining derivational affixes change the meaning of the derivative.13. Class-changing derivational affixes determine the word class of the stem.14. The largest group of class-changing derivatives in English is nominalizers which make nouns out of adjectives or verbs.15. Verbalizers are used to form verbs from other stems.16. Adjectivalizers are used to form adjectives when added to a given stem.17. Adverbializers form adverbs when added to a given stem.18. Class-maintaining derivations do not change the word class of the stem but its meaning. Most derivatives that are prefixes in English affect only the meaning of the root, not its syntactic class.19. Compounding refers to the method and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words.20. Compounds are stems consisting of more than one root.21. The orthographic treatment of compounds is by no means consistent.22. Characteristics of Compounds1) Phonologically, there is always a single primary stress in English words, so that compounds are often recognized by stress pattern and lack of juncture.The criterion of stress applies only to nominal compounds, and the distinction between compound and idiom becomes fuzzy for verbs and other nominal categories.2) Syntactically, compounds are single lexical units and have specific features.The grammatical relations between the constituents of the compound are sometimes obscure.3) Semantically, compounds tend to have special meanings.The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that the new meaning may be different from the meanings of the words in isolation.23. A common semantic classification yields four types of compounds: endocentric, exocentric, copulative and appositional.24. An endocentric compound consists of a head and its modifier.25. An exocentric compound does not have a head, and its meaning cannot be literally guessed from its constituent parts.26. A copulative compound has two semantic heads.27. An appositional compound has two attributes which classify the compound.28. A compound is a lexical item in which two roots combine to make one unit.29 According to constituent elements, compounds can be divided into four major types.1) Noun compounds: A noun compound can be formed by ‘N+N’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘V-ing+N’, ‘V+N’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘V+Adv’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Prep+N’, ‘Adj+V-ing’ and other combinations.2) Verb compounds: A verb compound can be formed by ‘N+V’, ‘Adv+V’, ‘Adj+V’, ‘V+V’, ‘Adv+N’ and other combinations3) Adjective compounds: An adjective compound can be formed by ‘Adj+Adj’, ‘Adj+N’, ‘Adj+N-ed’, ‘N+Adj’, ‘Adj+V-ing’, ‘Adj+V-ed’, ‘N+V-ing’, ‘N+V-ed’, ‘Adv+V-ed’, ‘Adv+Adj’, ‘Prep+N’and other combinations.4) Pronoun compounds: A pronoun compound can be formed mostly by the combination of some/any/no with thing/body/one and my/your/her/him/our/them/it + self/selves.30. Conversion: A change in word class without the addition of an affix is known as conversion. In other words, conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any change in form.31. There are four major kinds of conversion: from noun to verb, from verb to noun, from adjective to noun and from adjective to verb.Noun →verb: to air, to arm, to bottom, to cup, to fish, to mouth, to tooth.Verb →noun: a call, a command, a count, a go, a guess, a book, a walk.Adjective →verb: to better, to blind, to bold, to brave, to dirty, to empty.Adjective →noun: best, poor, rich, blind, convertible, daily, double.32. Auxiliary verbs, adverbs, modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and even affixes can all act as bases for conversion.33. Blending refers to the process of combining parts of two words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part. Blends are compounds that are less than compounds.34. Structurally, ELL (2006) divides blends into four common types.1) The first type of blends is a full word followed by a splinter. Blends can also begin with a splinter, followed by a full word.2) The second type of blends consists of two splinters. There are two subtypes.A) In some cases, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another.B) In other cases, both splinters are the beginning of words.3) The third type of blends consists of complete overlap, in which a part of the blend belongs to both words.4) The fourth type of blends involves the embedding of one word in another.35. Blending often results in the creation of new morphemes or in the addition of new meanings to old ones.36. Shortenings include clipping and initialisms.37. Clipping is the process by which a word of usually three or more syllables is shortened without a change in meaning or function.38. Features of clipping:1) Clipped words tend to be casual but very useful.2) Clipping often ignores morphemic boundaries.There are three major types of clippings: fore clipping, hind clipping, and midclipping.3) On some rare occasions, clipping may affect both ends of the source with the middle part retained.There are three types of phonetic clippings: phonetic fore clipping, phonetic midclipping, and phonetic hind clipping.39. Initialisms are the results of putting together the initial letters, or occasionally the first two letters, of the orthographic words in a phrase and using them as words.40. Alphabetisms: When initialisms are pronounced with the names of the letters in them, they are called alphabetisms.41. Acronyms: When two words are pronounced like individual words, they are acronyms.42. Backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative.43. Communization of proper names: The English vocabulary is also characterized by the number of words that derive from the names of people, place, books or brands. This process is called the communization of proper names.44. Metanalysis refers to an analysis of a word into parts, in the course of which the original structure of the word is altered.Chapter 5 Sense RelationsKnowledge Points:1. Sense is an internal meaning relation. Sense relations are relations between word meanings and hold between words within the vocabulary.2. Characteristic of Sense Relations(1) The meaning of one item can be related to the meaning of others.(2) Synonyms are items that mean the same, or nearly the same.(3) Antonyms are items that mean the opposite.3. According to Jackson and Amvela (2000), synonymy is of two types: strict synonymy and loose synonymy.4. Strict synonymy refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all their possible contexts of use.5. Actually, many words have similar senses and denotation without having exactly the same meaning.6. Loose synonyms may be substitutable in particular contexts, but are not substitutable across a range of contexts.7. In synonymy, we can find not only a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but also some contextswhere they cannot substitute for each other.8. Difference among synonyms:1) Synonym pairs may differ in different geographical varieties of English.2) Synonym pairs may differ in the style or formality of the context in which a word may be used.3) Synonym pairs may differ in connotations. Two words may refer to the same entity, but they may have different associative or emotive meanings.4) Synonym pairs may differ in the use of registers.5) Synonym pairs may differ in etymology.6) Synonym pairs may differ in collocation. They occur in different environments.9. Antonymy refers to the relationship of oppositeness of meaning between words.1) Antonymy is typically found among adjectives but it can be extended to other word class.2) Antonymy covers a number of different types of oppositeness of meaning.10. There may be no true synonyms, but there are several kinds of antonyms. Three types are commonly identified: gradable antonyms, contradictory or complementary antonyms, and converses.11. Gradable antonyms represent a more/less relation and can be viewed as terms at the end-points of a continuum.12. Complementary antonyms, also called contradictory antonyms or non-gradable antonyms, are in an either/or relation of oppositeness.13. Converse antonyms represent two-way contrasts that are interdependent. They are also called reciprocal antonyms or relational opposition, in which one member presupposes the other.14. Hyponymy refers to the notion of inclusion whereby we can say that ‘an X is a kind of Y’. It is the class-inclusion relation.15. A hyponym includes the meaning of a more general word and serves as specific examples of a general concept. The more general term is called the superordinate or hypernym.16. Hyponymy is one of several relationship types with which language users organize the lexicon.17. Meronymy is the part-whole relation in any pair of items. This is an important hierarchical relationship that is found in pairs of words.18. According to Cruse (2000), the notion of meronymy is relational rather than absolute.19. Meronymic relationships are not a property of pairs of words.20. Collocation is concerned with meaning arising from co-occurrence, more specifically to meaning arising from predictable co-occurrence of two or more than two words.21. Collocation is the meaning relations that a word contracts with other words occurring in the same sentence or text.22. Collocator: A word with a certain meaning which occurs in a collocation along with a given word is called a collocator of that word.23. Collocations differ from free combinations. In collocations, the components are not freely interchangeable.24. Collocations are of several types. Those relating to syntax are grammatical collocations, and those relating to expression are lexical collocations.25. Grammatical collocation refers to any kind of syntactic element that must accompany a particular word (usually verb, noun or adjective in English).26. Lexical collocations consist of groups of words with a certain meaning that often occur together.27. The lexical collocations usually consist of words that are in a relation of mutual expectancy of habitual association.28. Other features of collocation1) Collocation often occurs between words in structures;2) Collocations can also cut across part-of-speech or sentence boundaries.3) Collocation is as a cohesive device, because collocation is one of the factors on which we build our expectation of what is to come next in text.29. A metaphor is an extension of the use of a word beyond its primary meaning to describe referents that bear similarities to the word’s primary referent. It refers to cases where a word appears to have both a literal and a。
英语词汇学知识点总结
Word-formationWord-formation Word-formation or or or word-building word-building word-building is is that that branch branch branch of of of lexicology lexicology lexicology which which which studies studies studies the the the patterns patterns patterns on on which a language, in this case, the English language, coins new words. Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after World War The three major processes of word formation: Composition or CompoundingDefinition : Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or or more more more bases bases bases to to to form form form a a a new new new unit, unit, unit, a a a compound compound compound word. word. word. Compounding Compounding Compounding is is is the the the most most productive word-formation process in contemporary English . Identity crisis 个性危机stand-up collar 竖领hit-and-run tactics 打了就跑的战术spoon-feed 填鸭式灌输，娇养糊里糊涂muddle-headed/minded 笨嘴笨舌heavy-tongued 无忧无虑carefree 饱经风霜weather-beaten/worn 令人心碎heart-breaking 半死不活dead-alive/dead-and-alive 不合时宜ill-timed/badly-timed 批量生产mass-produce Compounds are very often used because of their brevity and vividness. For example, A schoolboy is more concise than “a boy attending school ”; “U p-to-the-minute information information” ” is more vivid than “the latest information ”; “The The old old old man man man would would would sit sit sit for for for hours, hours, hours, thinking thinking thinking sadly sadly sadly of of of all all all the the might-have-beens ” ” is is is more more compact and expressive than “…thinking sadly of the desirable things that could have happened in the past .”The relative criteria of a compound wordOrthographic criterion (书写标准) : Compounds are written in three ways, e.g. solid: airmail ;hyphenated: air-conditioning ; open: air force, air raid.Phonological criterion (语音标准) : Compound accent: a single stress on the first element; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element. E.g. 'blackboard, 'blue ‘bottle (a large buzzing fly with blue body ) ) Normal phrase accent : : a a a secondary secondary secondary stress stress stress on on on the the the first first first element element element and and and a a a main main main stress stress stress on on on the the second element. E.g. ‘ blue 'bottle (a bottle which is blue) Semantic criterion (语义标准) : A compound is a combination forming a unit expressing a a single single single idea. idea. idea. The The The lexical lexical lexical meaning meaning meaning of of of the the the components components components are are are closely closely closely joined joined joined together together together to to to create create create a a compound compound with with with a a a meaning meaning meaning which which which one one one can can can easily easily easily recognize, recognize, recognize, e.g. e.g. e.g. backdoor, backdoor, backdoor, sunset, sunset, sunset, workday. workday. However, the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts, e.g. dog days, flatfoot ( a policeman), greenhouse, greenback (美钞)，green-hand(生手), greenroom （演员休息室）, mother wit （天生的智力）, Indian paper （字典纸）. More examples:home letters(家信), home voyage （归程）, home life （家庭生活）, home affairs （家庭事务），home bird （不爱外出的人）（不爱外出的人）, home economics （家政学）, home front （大后方）, home games （在本地举行的比赛）, home help （家务女佣）（家务女佣）, homemaker （主妇）（主妇）, home plate（棒球的本垒打）, home sickness （思家病）（思家病）. Word order: A flower pot (花盆) a pot flower (盆花) tiptoe(脚尖) deaf-mute （聋哑者）（聋哑者）Some of them were influenced by French : court martial(军事法庭) ; president elect （当选总统）; ambassador designate （尚未上任的大使）（尚未上任的大使）Classification of compoundsCompounds can be classified according to parts of speech of the compounds . noun compounds : airplane , flower potadjective compounds: w eather-beaten weather-beaten , snowwhite verb compounds: p roof-read, proof-read, baby-sit proposition compounds: notwithstanding, alongside of conjunction compounds : whenever ,whereas pronoun compounds: a nother another , myselfThe three commonest types are noun compounds, adjective compounds, andverb compounds.noun compounds• Noun + nounrainwater 雨水; ; springwater springwater 泉水; ; houseplants houseplants 室内植物;fireball 火球火球 ; ; firecracker firecracker 鞭炮 ; spacecraft/spaceship 太空船；spacesuits 太空服；mousemat ； 鼠标垫鼠标垫 Dream Team ；bar code 条形码；条形码； lip service 口头上说得好听的话；口头上说得好听的话； information highway 信息高速公路； science fiction 科幻小说；科幻小说； sugar cane 甘蔗；gaslight 煤气灯；煤气灯；• Noun + verbdaybreak 拂晓； nightfall 夜幕降临；sunset/sunrise 日落， earthquake 地震；landslip/landslide (山体滑坡)； headache toothache ；stomachache ；heartbeat drumbeat ； footbeat 脚步节拍 ； wingbeat 翅翼振动 ； window-dress 布置橱窗；布置橱窗； water-supply 自来水自来水 ； snowfall 降雪量； toothpick 牙签；牙签； haircut ； pickpocket ； scarecrow 稻草人稻草人 ( scare the crow) • V erb + noun cry baby (爱哭的婴儿)； playboy (花花公子) ；glowworm (发光虫)； watch-dog (看家狗), swearword （骂人话）, breakwater （防波提）（防波提）, driveway （车道）, jump suit （伞兵跳伞服，连衣裤工作服）；rattle snake(响尾蛇响尾蛇) • V erb + adv / prep changeover (转变进程) ； setback (挫折挫折)； breakdown (崩溃)， show-off(炫耀), slip-up（疏忽，不幸事故）, put-off （推迟，搪塞）, follow-up （连续广告法）（连续广告法）sit-in, dropout, breakdown, walk-on, walkout, setback, take-off• Adjective + nounclear-way(超速道路), easy-chair, deadline, hard disk, soft disk ，red tape(官样文章官样文章) • adverb + noununder-clothes(内衣), after-effect （后效，副作用）（后效，副作用）, upgrade（升级）, overburden • V+ing + nounchewing gum(口香糖), baking powder （发酵粉）, reading lamp （台灯）, lodging house （分间出租供人休息用的房屋），leading article(社论), working party （作业队）（作业队）• Adverb + verb outlet(出口), upset （颠覆）（颠覆）, downfall （垮台，陷落）（垮台，陷落）, upstart （暴发户）（暴发户）, onflow （滚滚向前）前）adjective compounds• Pre-modifier VS. Post-modifier Post-modifier ( ( ( describe describe describe a a a noun noun noun phrase phrase phrase or or or restrict restrict restrict its its its meaning meaning meaning in in some way) • Compound modifiers, because of their expressiveness and brevity, are used quite flexibly in current English, especially in journalistic writings. • noun + adjective• skin-hungry, power-hungry, news-hungry, career-hungry (急于成名的) , bloodthirsty • duty-free, tax-free, fat-free, toll-free, maintenance-free, dust-free, interest-free, care-free, ice-free, danger-free, nuclear-weapon-free • water-proof, fire-proof, bullet-proof, rain-proof, bomb-proof, vibration-proof • air-sick, seasick, car-sick, home-sick, heartsick (沮丧的) • user-friendly, reader-friendly • profit-conscious,time-conscious, class-conscious, environment-conscious, security-conscious • slap-happy(被打得晕头转向的) boxer ， trigger-happy (嗜杀成性的)gangster ， travel-happy(对旅游入迷的) • accident-prone, crisis-prone (危机四伏的)，error-prone, • air-tight(不透气的)，water-tight, light-tight(不透光的), rain-tight • work-shy(不愿工作的)，camera-shy(怕上镜头的)， publicity-shy (不愿出头露面的) • color-blind, night-blind • blood-weary (厌战的)，travel-weary(旅途劳累的) •stone-deaf, skin-deep, snow-white, ice-cold, knee-deep, paper-thin, mirror-bright, feather-light, fire-hot, crystal-clear, waist-high, shoulder-high, life-long, grass-green, dog-tired, threadbare （穿旧的）（穿旧的） • college-bound/preparatory (准备考大学的)，labor-short (缺乏劳动力的)，top-heavy(头重脚轻的)，penny-wise(小事聪明的) ， oven-fresh (刚出炉的) line-dry(一晾就干的一晾就干的)，world-famous • adjective + adjectivewet-cold, wet-cold, icy-cold, icy-cold, icy-cold, red-hot, red-hot, red-hot, white-hot, white-hot, white-hot, bitter-sweet, bitter-sweet, bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, deaf-mute, deaf-mute, shabby-genteel(shabby-genteel(穷酸的)，dead-alive(半死不活的)，dark-blue, dark-blue, deep-blue, deep-blue, deep-blue, light-blue, light-blue, light-blue, pale-blue, pale-blue, pale-blue, bright-red, bright-red, bright-red, bloody-red, bloody-red, yellow-green, yellowish-green ，social-political• V+ing + adjectivesteaming-hot/smoking-hot steaming-hot/smoking-hot ((滚烫的，热气腾腾的)，soaking-wet/wringing-wet(湿淋淋的，湿得可拧出水来的)，biting-cold/freezing-cold (冷得刺骨的，冰冷的) • Adverb/Prep + adjectiveever-victorious (战无不胜的)，over-cautious, all-round (全面的全面的)， far-reaching (深远的，广泛的)，evergreen (tree), wide-awake (机警的)，over-sensitive, over-anxious, under-ripe (不成熟的)，too-rapid • noun +V+ingpeace-loving, time/space/energy/labor-saving, time-consuming, summer-flowering(夏季开花的), ocean-going (远洋的)， fault-finding, record-breaking, heart-breaking, hair-raising, side-splitting (令人捧腹的)，thirst-quenching (解渴的)，man-eating• noun + V+edheart-felt(衷心的), air-born （空降的，（空降的，空运的）, home-made, travel-worn （旅行得疲乏的）, hen-pecked, book-filled, poverty-stricken, weather-beaten, thunder-struck, suntanned • adjective/adverb + V+ingfresh-frozen(速冻的), easy-going(随和的), familiar-sounding (听起来熟悉的)，hard-working, ever-lasting (永恒的) • adjective/adverb + V+ednewly-developed, well-balanced, far-fetched (牵强附会的)，half-baked(烤得半生不熟的，肤浅的), hard-won (来之不易的)，quick-frozen (速冻的), new-laid (eggs), so-called, fresh-caught, newly-built, well-informed, well-organized • noun + Noun+edhot-tempered(急性子的)，chicken-hearted (胆怯的，软弱的)，honey-mouthed, paper-backed (平装本的)， eagle-eyed(目光尖锐地) • adjective/adv. + Noun+edshort-sighted, short-sighted, tender-hearted, tender-hearted, tender-hearted, sweet-hearted(sweet-hearted(性情温和的), ), green-fingered(green-fingered(擅长园艺的)，open-handed, single-handed, bald-headed, empty-headed, hot-headed, kind-hearted, light-hearted, whole/half-hearted, absent-minded, narrow/broad-minded, double-faced, straight-faced, blue-eyed, muddle-minded/headed muddle-minded/headed ((糊里糊涂) ) , , , commercially-minded, commercially-minded, commercially-minded, heavy-tongued heavy-tongued heavy-tongued ((笨嘴笨舌的)，middle-aged, middle-aged, cold-blooded, cold-blooded, cold-blooded, strong-bodied, strong-bodied, strong-bodied, rosy-cheeked, rosy-cheeked, rosy-cheeked, apple-cheeked, apple-cheeked, apple-cheeked, close/tight-fisted(close/tight-fisted(吝啬的)， bare-footed, white-haired, high-heeled, ill-intentioned, weak-kneed (易屈服的)，long-legged, close/tight-lipped (嘴紧的), ill-mannered, thick/thin-skinned (脸皮厚/薄)，high-spirited, iron-willed, iron-willed, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, glib-tongued glib-tongued glib-tongued ((油嘴滑舌的)，loose-tongued(嘴不严的) • adjective + Nounlong-distance, full-length （未删节的），white-collar, red-letter(喜庆的), ，full-time, first-rate, high-speed, high-level, low-frequency, left-hand, real-time(实时的)， long-range, deep-sea (fish) • Verb + Nounbreak-neck (危险的)， telltale(搬弄是非的)， cut-rate (减价的，次等的减价的，次等的)• Phrases or sentencesat-risk （处境危险的）, in-your-face （明目张胆的）, devil-may-care(不顾一切的), dog-eat-dog （狗咬狗的）, round-the-clock, on-the-spot, cards-on-the-table, matter-of-fact, never-to-be-forgotten, once-in-a-life-time, off-the-cuff (临时想起的意见)opinion, back-up (备用) a stand-up collar (竖领), a walk-in closet (走入式大壁橱)，a see-through shirt （透明的衬衫）（透明的衬衫）（透明的衬衫） take-home pay ，cross-border raid ，a keep-fit class （保健班）（保健班）（保健班） verb compoundsThe common way to form a compound verb is by means of back-formation. The back-formation back-formation is is is a a a process process process of of of word word word formation formation formation by by by which which which a a a word word word is is is created created created by by by dropping dropping dropping the the supposed or imagined affixes Housekeeping → housekeep, test-drive(试车)，machine-gun, nickname, spotlight, honeymoon, honeymoon, outline, outline, outline, speed-read, speed-read, speed-read, soft-land, soft-land, soft-land, vacuum-clean, vacuum-clean, vacuum-clean, mass-produce, mass-produce, mass-produce, sight-see, sight-see, sight-see, proof-read, proof-read, tape-record, chain-smoke, ghost-write, air-condition, baby-sit, window-shop, spoon-feed, hen-peck, snowball, middle-road(走中间道路), chain-react, face-harden(使表面硬化), wire-pull (幕后操纵)，daydream, skyrocket, sleepwalk, highlight, safeguard, whitewash, sweet-talk，job-hop A compound verb can also be formed by means of analogy1.chain-drink: from chain-smoke 2.bottle-feed: feed from a bottle. from breast-feed:• feed from a mother's breast A compound verb can also be formed by means of verb phrasesoverwork, withhold(扣留), cross-question(盘问)，upbuild (建立建立), uplift, uproot, fast-talk(花言巧语地企图说服)，off-load(卸货)，outeat(吃得比……多)，outgo, outgrow , ill-treat, overhear, overtake, undergo, underline, undermine, undertake, Affixation or DerivationIt is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix, or combining form, to an already existing word. A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek, such as auto-（from GK a utosautos self）. 据统计下列14个词根和20个词缀出现在词典里10，000多个英语单词中词根词前缀前缀 词根Precept pre- (before) capere (take, seize) detain de- (away, from) tenere (hold, have) intermittent inter- (between) mittre (send) offer ob- (against) ferre (bear, carry) Insist in- (into) stare (stand) monograph mono- (alone, one) graph (write) epilogue epi (upon) egein (say, study) 词根词前缀前缀 词根aspect ad- (to, toward) spicere (see) com- (together) plicare (fold) uncomplicated un- (not); c omnonextended non- (not); e x ex- (out of) tendere (stretch) reproduction re- (back, again); pro- (forward) ducere (lead) dis- (apart from) ponere (put, place) indisposed in- (not); d isoversufficient over - (above); s ub sub - (under) facere (make, do) mistranscribe mis - (wrong); t rans trans - (across) scribere (write) Number-related prefixes from Latin prefix meaning examples uni- one uniform duo- two duet (二重唱二重唱/奏）奏） tri- three trio (三人组）三人组）三人组） quad-, quart- four quadruplets (四胞胎）四胞胎）四胞胎） quint- five quintuplets sext six sexet (六人组）六人组）六人组） sept seven september (7th month, Roman calendar) oct- eight october nona nine nonagenarian (90-99岁的人）岁的人）Number-related prefixes from Latin deca- ten decade cent- hundred centigrade (一百度的）一百度的）一百度的） multi- many multiply prim-, prin- first primary secund second secondary ambi both (双）双）双） ambivalent (两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的）两种价值观的，有矛盾心理的） equi- equal equidistant (等距离的）等距离的）等距离的） omni- all omnipotence (全能）全能） semi-, sem half semester (half a year 学期）学期）demi- half demitasse (half a cup for serving coffee (一小杯清咖啡）一小杯清咖啡）Number-related prefixes from Greek prefix meaning examples Mono- one monologue duo-, di- two dialogue tri- three triangle tetra- four tetrameter (四音步诗）四音步诗） penta- five pentameter ，pentagon hexa- six hexagon hepta- seven heptagon deka-, dec- ten decathlon hemi- half hemisphere pan- all pandemic (大流行病）大流行病）I.Prefixation The definition of prefixation Prefixation Prefixation is is is the the the formation formation formation of of of new new new words words words by by by adding adding adding prefixes prefixes prefixes to to to stems. stems. stems. Prefixes Prefixes Prefixes do do do not not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, there is an insignificant number of class-changing prefixes Non-class-changing prefixes: n atural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfair natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfairClass-changing prefixes: force-enforce, danger-endanger , form-deform, little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollegeThe classification of prefixes In some reference books, prefixes (and suffixes) are classified according to their source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. view. It seems It seems more helpful to classify the most important productive prefixes by their meaning into the following ten categories: The most productive prefixesPrefixes which are negative a-, dis-, in-, non-, un- Prefixes which are reversative or privative de-, dis-, un- Prefixes which are pejorative mal-, mis-, pseudo-Prefixes which are of degree or size arch-, arch-, extra-, extra-, extra-, hyper-, hyper-, hyper-, macro-, macro-, macro-, mini-, mini-, mini-, out-, out-, out-, over-, over-, sub-, super, sur-, ultra-, under- Prefixes which are of attitude anti-, co-, contra- counter-, pro- Prefixes which are locative extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, super-, tele-, trans-, Prefixes which are of time and order ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re- Prefixes which are of number semi-, uni-, mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly- Prefixes which are of a miscellaneous category Auto-, neo- pan-, proto-, vice-1.Negative prefix a-/an- amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy, dis- dishonest, discontent, disobey, disagree in- Incomplete, Incomplete, inconsistent, inconsistent, inconsistent, incorrect, incorrect, incorrect, invulnerable, invulnerable, invulnerable, illogical, illogical, illogical, illegal, illegal, impolite, immoral, imbalance, irrational, irregular non- nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholic un- uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrest 2.Reversative or privative prefix 含“消除”意思意思 de- defrost, deregulation, degeneration, denationalize ，dehydrate depollute, devalue, decentralize un- undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmask dis- disconnect, dishearten, disinterested(公正的，无私的), disambigulate 3.Pejorative prefix mis- misguide, misapplication, misbehavior, mischoice, mal- maladjustment, maldigestion, malfunction, maldevelopment,maltreat, malodorous, malnutrition pseudo- pseudonym, pseudoscience, pseudoclassic, pseudo-friend, pseudodemocratic, 4) Prefixes of degree or size hyper- hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperaggressive, hypercautious ultra- ultramodern, ultrasecret, ultraclean, ultrasonic, ultraconservative mini- minibus, minicamera, miniskirt out- outdo, outgrown, outlive over- overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overabundance, overburden under- underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduate super- supermarket, superpower, superstar sub- subadult, subtitle, subbreed, subatom 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude co- Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperation counter- Counterexample, counterclaim, counteractive, counterattack, counterculture, counterpart anti- anti-abortion, anti-art, antiwar, antibacterial, antisocial, anticancer, antibody pro- pro-American, pro-American亲美的, pro-Communist, pro-student, proslavery 6) Locative prefixes fore- forearm, forehead inter- international, intergovernmental, interdisciplinary, intercollege trans- transatlantic, transoceanic, transform, transplant tele- telephone, telegram, telecommunication U.S. intercontinental missile洲际导弹洲际导弹 是指射程在8000千米以上的导弹。
《英语词汇学》串讲笔记2
Chapter 4Word Formation II一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：词缀法，复合法，转类法，拼缀法，截短法，首字母缩略法，逆生法，专有名词普通化。
通过对本章的学习，考生应该了解现代英语的主要构词法，这些构词法在英语词汇发展中的地位，提高构词能力，自觉扩大词汇量。
在历年考试中：常常以选择题，名词解释，填空题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。
二、【知识串讲】重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are writtenseparately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning. Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”‟is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other‟s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5Word Meaning一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：“意义”的意义，词义的理据，词义的类别。
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《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
1.单词的构成：单词由不同的字母组合而成，可以包括前缀、词根、
后缀等。
2.词根和词义：词根是单词中带有基本词义的部分，在单词形态变化
时不会改变。
词根可以是一个字母、一个词或一个词组。
词根可以通过前
缀和后缀的添加，以及音变等形式进行变化。
3.前缀和后缀：前缀是加在词根前面的一种字母或几个字母，可以改
变单词的意义或词类。
后缀是加在词根后面的一种字母或几个字母，可以
改变单词的意义、词类或语法功能。
4.同义词和反义词：同义词是意义相近或相同的词，可以在表达时相
互替换。
反义词则是意义相反的词，通常用来表达对立或对比的关系。
5.词义的变化：词义可以根据语境和用法的不同而发生变化，有时一
个词也可以具有多个意义。
6.词义的分类：词义可以分为字面意义（词义的最基本的意义）、引
申义（从原来的字面意义发展而来的新的意义）和隐喻义（使用一个词来
暗示或比喻另一个概念）。
7.词义的搭配：词义可以和其他词搭配使用，形成固定的词组或短语，这些搭配可以帮助我们更好地理解和运用单词。
8.词法关系：词汇学研究不同词之间的关系，如近义词、反义词、属
于关系等。
9.词源学：词源学研究词语的起源和发展，并追溯词汇的历史和语言
渊源。
10.词汇扩充：词汇学研究如何通过学习和运用词汇扩充词汇量，如学习词根、前缀和后缀的意义和用法，以及拆解和分析复杂单词的方法。