Formal Semantics
教资英语理论精讲-语言学
教资英语理论精讲-语言学【说在课前】1.今天开始语言学的三堂课。
在课堂上更多涉及到理解，大家一定先跟上老师的思路来理解，单词可以课下记忆，不要课上反复刷屏单词的问题。
每一个部分需要背哪些单词老师都会总结在 ppt 上，大家课后看 ppt 进行记忆即可。
2.语言学尽量不要走神，走神了课下可以听回放。
语言学涉及到比较多的理解，大家如果没有听明白，可以继续跟着老师听，语言学知识的连续性不是很强，不要打断课堂的思路。
3.课堂上有详有略。
略的部分不是考点，课上老师不再回答非考点部分。
上课打勾的部分是需要记忆的。
4.语言学：考试不会考查概念。
研究语言的，如研究语言的结构、发生、历史、发展等。
题量 1-4 题【解析】1.语言学概述又分为三个部分。
遵循从一般到特殊的规律。
先带大家了解语言学概述，再带大家一个个了解。
2.语言学通常考查 1-4 题，即 2-8 分，能拿到的分数尽量拿。
语言学和语法不一样，只要听懂并记下需要记的单词，8 分一定可以拿到。
3.句法学不考，这里不再赘述。
修辞学和二语习得考查较少，我们会从当中挑选重点概念进行讲解。
标红部分是重点内容。
Part1 语言学概述1.语言学的分类2.语言的本质特征3.语言的主要功能【解析】语言学的分类带着大家看下即可，考试不考。
标红的两个考试考过。
01语言学的分类【解析】语言学分类：微观和宏观语言学，考试的重点是标红。
1.微观语言学：从语音到语用。
从语言的音、形、意、用四个角度进行研究的。
（1）语音学：研究元音和辅音。
（2）音系学：研究发音的内部结构和发音规律。
（3）形态学：研究单词的形，这部分是围绕单词来展开的。
（4）语义学：研究语言的意义。
（5）语用学：研究语言的使用。
2.宏观语言学：将语言学和其他学科拼在一起进行研究。
考试不会考查得这么复杂。
02语言的本质特征(Design features)语言的本质特性，指的是人类固有的，有别于任何其他动物交流系统的特质。
语义学打印——精选推荐
语义学打印1、Metalanguage is a language which is used to describe language. (p. 7)For example, if the English sentence “Snow is white”is described by “雪是⽩的”in Chinese, then “雪是⽩的”is metalanguage, and “Snow is white”is the object language.2、Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning within linguistics. It is a branch of linguistics.3、Liar paradox (说谎者悖论)The Cretans are always liars.所有的克⾥特岛⼈都说谎。
This sentence is false.这个句⼦是假的。
4、Iconicity is similarity between the form of the sign and what it signifies. (p13)5、How do you understand system-process-product trichotomy? (pp16-22)This reflects the ambiguity of the meaning of some words. Some words, such as ‘language’, can refer to their systems or their products, which is known as the system-product ambiguity. This kind of ambiguity can be extended to refer to their process. To avoid this kind ambiguity in the understanding of the word ‘language’, we should use ‘langue’(system),‘performance’(process) or ‘parole’(product) as a kind of clear and accurate metalanguage.6、Characteristic use: If a sentence is in its characteristic use, its meaning is not context-dependent, but derived from what kind of sentence it is. (p. 38)7、What are the theories of meaning? (p. 40)the referential theory 指称论the ideational theory 意念论the behaviorist theory ⾏为主义反应论the meaning-is-use theory 语境论the verificationist theory 验证论the truth-conditional theory 真值条件论8、The verificationist theory 验证论(p 40)The meaning of an expression is determined by its verifiability.The truth-conditional theory 真值条件论The meaning of an expression is its contribution to the truth-conditions of the sentences.9、What are the seven types of meaning classified by Geffrey Leech?1) Conceptual meaning (概念意义): denotation.2) Connotative meaning (内涵意义): connotation.3) Social meaning (社会意义): where words are used to establish relationships between people and to delineate social roles. For example, in Japanese, the suffix “-san”; stylistic implications.4) Affective meaning (情感意义): commendatory and derogatory meaning.5) Reflected meaning (反映意义): has to do with whenone sense of a particular word affects the understanding of all the other senses of the word. Taboo words. (erection; ejaculation)6) Collocative meaning (搭配意义)：collocationa handsome boy, a pretty girl7) Thematic meaning (主题): concerns itself with how the order of words spoken affects the meaning that is entailed. (The door was opened by Mike.)10、A lexeme is a lexical unit: a unit of the lexicon. It consists of one word or several words whose elements do not convey the meaning of the whole separately. (p. 47)11、token vs. typeThe type–token distinction is a distinction that separates a concept from the objects which are particular instances of the concept. (p. 49)For example, there are 5 types and 6 tokens in the sentence “He who laughs last laughs longest”because the two word-forms ‘laughs’belong to the same type.12、lexically simple expressions vs. lexically composite expressions (pp. 50-51)Lexically simple expressions are lexemes, whereas lexically composite expressions are phrases.For example, ‘pass muster’is a lexically simple expression, whereas ‘pass the examination’is a lexically composite expression.13、Popular etymology is also known as folk etymology. It is a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase. (p. 59)For example, many speakers assume that ‘shock1’as in ‘shock of corn’is the same as ‘shock2’as in ‘shock of hair’. Yet historically, they have different origins.14、What are the three conditions of absolute homonyms?1) They will be unrelated in meaning.2) All their forms will be identical.3) The identical forms will be grammatically equivalent.. (p. 55)15、Categorical meaning is one part of grammatical meaning: it is that part of meaning of lexemes (and other expressions) which derives from being members of one category rather than another (nouns rather than verbs, verbs rather than adjectives, and so on). (p. 72)16、Denotation, sense and reference (pp. 77-82)Denotation (指⽰意义) relates expressions to classes of entities in the world; it is invariant and utterance-independent. Reference (所指意义) is variable and utterance-dependent.Sense (关系意义) refers to the set, or network, of sense-relations that hold between it and other expressions of the same language; it is wholly internal to the language system. It is interlexical and intralingual.17、What is ‘Fido’-Fido theory? (p. 79)‘Fido’-Fido theory of meaning holds that words are the names of things. It claims that every meaningful expression refers to or designates an extra-linguistic entity, including abstract entities, and derives its meaning from what it designates. And so a word like "Fido" has meaning by virtue of the fact that it refers to (or points to) the dog Fido.18、Object-words are words having meaning in isolation. They have been learnt by demonstration or ostension without its being necessary to have previously learnt any other words. (p. 83) Natural kinds and cultural kinds (91-94)A natural kind is a "natural" grouping. Some or all of the physical entities in the external world can be grouped into natural kinds.A cultural kind is an artificial grouping. It depends on human beings, referring to a group of things arbitrarily lumped together by a person or group of people, e. g. ‘dirt’or ‘chair’.19、Nominalism and realismNominalism is the doctrine that universals or general ideas are mere names without any corresponding reality. Onlyparticular objects exist, and properties, numbers, and sets are merely features of the way of considering the things that exist. Realism is the doctrine that universals are real —they exist and are distinct from theparticulars that instantiate them.20、Semantic prototypes (pp96-101)A semantic prototype is a typical instance of a category of lexemes that serves as a benchmark .21、The Venn diagram (p111)A Venn diagram is a diagram that shows all possible logical relations between a finite collection of sets.22、Necessarily true propositions and contingently true propositions (118)A necessarily true (or false) proposition is one that is true (or) false in all possible worlds. However, a contingently true (or false) proposition is one whose true value might have been, or might be different in other possible worlds.23、Analytic propositions and synthetic propositions (120)An analytic proposition is one which is true by virtue of its meaning---one which can be shown by semantic analysis.Any proposition that is not analytic is a synthetic proposition.24、Substitutional relations and combinatorial relationsSubstitutional relations are those which hold between intersubstitutable members of the same grammatical category; combinatorial relations hold typically, though not necessarily, between expressions of different grammatical categories, which can be put together in grammatically well-formed combinations. (p. 124)25、Is the sentence ‘My uncle is pregnant again’meaningful or meaningless, semantically usable or ill-formed? Why?It is meaningful and semantically usable. The reason for this is that in addition to natural necessity, we might recognize cultural necessity. It is easy to envisage a culture in which homosexual unions and even trilateral unions coexist with heterosexual unions peacefully by law. Furthermore, with the development of medical science and technology, even males may reproduce offspring. (123-24)26、Mark with symbols the semantic relationship of ‘good’/ ‘bad’and that of ‘buy’/ ‘sell’in the following two sentences: (pp.128-29)1) “John is better than Peter”“Peter is worse than John”.2) “John bought a car from Tom”“Tom sold a car to John”.1) f+ (x, y) g+ (y, x)2) ‘buy’(x, y, z) ‘sell’(z, y, x)27、Grammaticality, acceptability and meaningfulness (p.132)1) Some utterances are both grammatical and meaningful. e.g. Snow is white.2) Some utterances are ungrammatical and meaningless. e.g. He am tables.3) Some utterances are grammatical and meaningful, but unacceptable.e.g. My father died last night.28、Metaphor is a figure of speech that describes a subject by asserting that it is, on some point of comparison, the same as another unrelated object. (p. 136)29、Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa.30、How do you understand corrigibility as a criterion for us to decide whether an utterance is semantically well-formed or not? Give an example.The fact that an ungrammatical sentence does not necessarily imply that it is semantically unacceptable. If it is corrigible, it is semantically acceptable. Otherwise, it is semanticallyunacceptable. Therefore, corrigibility can be used a criterion for us to decide whether an utterance is semantically well-formed or not.For example, “I want that he come”is grammatically incorrect, but if it were produced by a non-native speaker of English, it would probably be understood as an incorrect version of “I want him to come”. In other words, the ungrammatical utterance of “I want that he come”can be corrected into “I want him to come”. Therefore, it is semantically acceptable in spite of the fact that it is ungrammatical. (pp. 138-140)31、Logical positivism held that not just that propositions were true or false, but that statements which could not be verified were meaningless. Thus statements like "There is a God" or "There is no God" are not true or false, but meaningless.32、What is verificationism? What is its chief disadvantage?Verificationism is the view that a statement or question is only legitimate if there is some way to determine whether the statement is true or false, or what the answer to the question is.Its chief disadvantage, as Karl Popper has pointed out, lies in the fact that scientific hypotheses can’t be verified, although they may be falsified.For example, the statement that all swans are white can be falsified, by observing just a single instance of a black swan, but it can never be proved to be true on the basis of empirical investigation. (pp. 140-141)33、Sentences and propositions (pp. 157-62)1) Propositions are the bearers of a determinate and unchanging truth-value. e.g. ‘Snow is white’.2) Sentences are the bearers of an indeterminate and changing truth-value.e.g. ‘Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo in 1815’.3) Sentences in characteristic use express propositions.34、What are truth conditions? Give an example. (p. 146)In semantics, truth conditions are the circumstances that must be known to determine whether a sentence is true. Its theory is: To know the meaning of a sentence is to know the conditions under which it would be true or false.For example, “Snow is white" is true if and only if snow is white.(T) X is true iff P35、A tautology is a proposition which is true in every possible interpretation. (p. 149)For example, “Either it is raining or it is not raining”.X \ or \not XA contradiction is a proposition which is false in every possible interpretation. (p. 149)For example, “It is raining and it is not raining”.X \ and \not X36、Thematic meaning refers to the meaning that is determined by the way speakers present what they are talking about the theme in relation to particular contextual presuppositions. (p. 154) Truth functionality: the truth value of a composite proposition is fully determined the truth-values of its component propositions and the specified effect of each operation. (p. 162)37、Analyze the truth-value of “p implies q”in the logic proposition ‘If Ann has passed her driving test, her parents have bought her a Porsche’, and explain why when p is false, q is also true (‘-p & q’)?The truth-value of “p implies q”in the logic proposition ‘If Ann has passed her driving test, her parents have bought her a Porsche’can be shown in the following table:p q p →qT T TT F FF T TF F TSo the proposition is true when (i) if Ann has passed her driving test and her parents have bought her a Porsche; (ii) if Ann has not passed her driving test and her parents have bought her a Porsche; and (iii) if Ann has not passed her driving test and her parents have not bought her a Porsche.The second situation--- (ii) if Ann has not passed her driving test and her parents have bought her a Porsche--- is paradoxical. In fact, the fact that any false proposition implies every true proposition is commonly referred to as one of the paradoxes of implication.The reason for this is that in standard propositional logic, the truth-value of ‘p implies q’is totally independent of any causal connection between situations described by each of the component propositions. This kind of irrational deviation from the implied meaning of natural languages reflects one of the imperfections of propositional logic.38、Analyze the truth-value of “p∨q”in the logic proposition ‘Students who do not arrive in time or have not completed all their assignments will be refused admission to the examination’, and explain inclusive and exclusive disjunction of this proposition.The truth-value of “p∨q”in the logic proposition ‘Students who do not arrive in time or have not completed all their assignments will be refused admission to the examination’can be shown in the following table:p q p ∨qT T T p & qT F T p &- qF T T -p & qF F FSo the proposition is true when (i) students who do not arrive in time and have not completed all their assignments will be refused admission to the examination; (ii) students who do not arrive in time and have completed all their assignments will be refused admission to the examination; and (iii) students who arrive in time and have not completed all their assignments will be refused admission to the examination. This is an inclusive interpretation of the proposition, which is also the logical interpretation of the disjunction.An exclusive disjunction, on the other hand, is true only if either p is true and q is false or q is true and p false: it excludes the possibility of both p and q being true. Its truth-value can be shown in the following table:p q p ∨qT T FT F T p &- qF T T -p & qF F FSo the proposition is true only when (i) students who do not arrive in time and have completed all their assignments will be refused admission to the examination; and (ii) students who arrive in time and have not completed all their assignments will be refused admission to the examination. This is an exclusive interpretation of the proposition.。
语义学——精选推荐
语义学复习要点及习题1.The naming theory（命名说）is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning. According to this theory,the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.2.The conceptualist view（概念论）is one concerning meaning.According to this view, there is no directlink between a linguistic form and what it refers to.3.Behaviorism: According to this view, the meaning of a language form is the “situation in which the speakerutters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. (Bloomfield 1933: 139)讲话人的刺激和听话人的反应4.Contextualism（语境论）：is a view concerning meaning which holds that meaning should be studied interms of situation, use, context.5.Same reference but different sense:e.g. V enusThe evening star west. (sunset)The morning star east. (sunrise)Same object (same reference) but different sense (different aspect); different ways of referring to the same thing.6.Conceptual meaning 概念is also called “denotative”（外延义）or “cognitive”meaning. This refers tothe definition given in the dictionary.7.Associate meaning(关联意义) is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differsfrom the conceptual meaning in that it is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.8.Connotative meaning内涵may vary according to culture, historical period and the experience of theindividual, and thus are indeterminate and open-ended.9.Affective meaning情感indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.10.Alec ate the banana.The banana was eaten by Alec.Did Alec eat the banana?Alec, eat the banana.The common content of each utterance above is Alec ate the banana.11.Homonymy refers to cases where lexemes with the same phonological or morphological shape have differentmeanings.12.What are the three kinds of antonymy?According to the semantic语义relationship, antonyms can be loosely divided into three categories:1) Complementary antonyms互补性反义Complementary antonyms are also called non-gradable antonyms.They are lexemes or expressions whose crucial semantic features are mutually exclusive. The positive of one suggests the negative of the other.male---female; married---single; alive---dead;2) Gradable antonyms (可分等级的反义词) There are often intermediate form between the two membersof a pair of antonyms . So it is a matter of degree. “old”and “young”3) Relational antonyms（关系反义词）They are pairs of lexemes or expressions whose crucial semanticfeatures display a reciprocal (相互的) relationship.husband --- wifeMy only love sprung from my only hate! Too early seen unknown, and known too late.Antonyms can also be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions more contrastive and impressive.T o achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together, to express economically the opposite of a particular thought.13.★Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items.整体部分关系14.Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific-general semantic relationship between lexical items. (词义之间的)下义关系15.Relations between sentencesA. Entailment (蕴涵）(X) She saw a girl. (Y) She saw a child.(X) He is in love. (Y) He has a girlfriend.When we say X entails Y, we mean:If X is true, Y must be true. (because “a girl” entails “a child”)If X is false (e.g. She saw a teacher/boy), Y may be true or false.If Y is true, X may be true (e.g. a girl) and false (e.g. a boy).If Y is false (e.g. a teacher), X must be false.B. Presupposition （前提，预设）(X) Jack’s wife fell ill. (Y) Jack had a wife.(X) I lost 1 million pounds. (Y) I once had 1 million pounds.(X) I opened the door. (Y) The door was shut.When we say X presupposes Y, we mean:If X is true, Y is also true.If X is to be true, Y must be true;If X is false (e.g. Jack’s wife went to work), Y can still be true;If Y is false (i.e. Jack had no wife), X must be false.C. Inconsistency （矛盾）(X) Jack is in town. (Y) He is away on business.(X) Tom is married to Mary. (Y) He is a bachelor.(X) John passed the exam. (Y) He was failed by the teacher.When we say X is inconsistent with Y, we mean:Either X is true or Y is true.Either X is false or Y is false.X and Y cannot be true or false at the same time.D. Synonymy （同义）(X) Jack is still single. (Y) He is a bachelor.(X) The boy killed the dog. (Y) The dog was killed by the boy.(X) Jack sits on the left of Tom. (Y) Tom sits on the right of Jack.When we say X is synonymous with Y, we mean:When X is true, Y must be true.When X is false, Y must be false.X and Y share the same truth conditions. (真值条件）练习题：Ⅰ.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English andAmerican English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. (F)2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldof experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. (F)3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. (T)4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physicalworld of experience. (F)5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning toobservable contexts. (T)6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which thespeaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. (T)7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. (F)8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to theirdegree of formality. (T)9. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of asentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. (T)10.The naming theory is also called ideational theory.(F)Ⅱ.There are four choices f ollowing each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:11. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth12. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviourism13. Which of the following is not true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.14. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes15. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis16. “alive”and “dead”are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above17. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world ofexperience.A. Ref erenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense18. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy19. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms20. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features2. How do words get meaning?。
第十讲 语义与翻译
Tom is a tiger.像老虎一样精力充沛； 像 像老虎一样精力充沛； 像老虎一样精力充沛 老虎一样残忍 She is a lovely duck. That problem is an albatross. 望子成龙： 望子成龙：instead of using “dragon”, we render: to hope one’s son will get somewhere / will be successful to sow dragon’s seed撒下不和的种子 撒下不和的种子
5.The doctor introduced a long tube into the sick man’s throat so he could breathe. 导入） （导入） 6.Television and space travel are introducing many new words into our language.（带来） （带来） 7.I introduced my country cousin to the big city by showing him the sights. 带领，引导） （带领，引导）
Connotative meaning
Connotation: the suggesting of meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly names or describes. Connotative meaning: refers to the implied meaning that is over and above its pure conceptual meaning
她醉心于这美丽的景色。 她醉心于这美丽的景色。 He is infatuated with the beautiful scene. He is engrossed in the beautiful scene.
学术formal用词
学术formal用词
学术formal用词主要是指在学术研究、论文写作和学术交流中使用的正式、专业的词汇和表达方式。
以下是一些常见的学术formal用词：
1. Hypothesis（假设）
2. Methodology（方法学）
3. Data analysis（数据分析）
4. Conclusion（结论）
5. Literature review（文献综述）
6. Abstract（摘要）
7. Experiment（实验）
8. Theory（理论）
9. Empirical（经验的）
10. Quantitative（定量的）
11. Qualitative（定性的）
12. Validity（有效性）
13. Reliability（可靠性）
14. Significance（意义）
15. Interpretation（解释）
16. Limitation（限制）
17. Citation（引用）
18. Peer-reviewed（同行评审）
19. Academic journal（学术期刊）
20. Research methodology（研究方法）
以上仅为一些常见的学术formal用词，实际上学术领域的专
业术语非常丰富多样，根据具体的学科领域和研究主题会有更多的专业术语和表达方式。
在使用这些词汇和表达方式时，需要注意使用准确、精练的语言，避免语法错误和模糊不清的表达。
同时，在学术写作中也要注意避免使用过于口语化或者主观判断的词汇和表达方式，保持客观、中立的立场。
语言学第五章
Semantics
Semantics: the study of meaning Some views concerning the study of meaning: The naming theory The conceptualist view Contextualism Behaviorism
Chapter 5
The naming theory:
Semantics
1) The oldest and the most primitive 2) Greek scholar Plato 3) The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. Words are just names or labels for things. Limitations: 1)It seems applicable to noun only. 2)We can not use words to name the nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.
ⅰDialectal synonyms- synonyms used in different regional dialects ⅱ Stylistic synonyms- synonyms differing in style . ⅱⅰSynonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning. ⅳ Collocational synonyms ⅴ Semantically different synonyms.
Formal & Functional
Noam Chomsky Institute Professor; Professor of Linguistics Linguistic Theory, Syntax, Semantics, Philosophy of Language
Chomsky has changed his theory over the years. The most well-known version was published in his book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965. It is often referred to as the Aspects Model or Standard Theory （ 标 准 理 论 ） . This model consists of four main parts: a. The Base Component(基础部分)， which produces or generates basic syntactic structures called Deep Structures（深层结构）. b. The Transformational Component（转换部 分）, which changes or transforms these basic structures into sentences called Surface Structure （表层结构）.
The transformational component is something new in the theory. It has transformational rules, which change the deep structures generated by the phrase structure component into surface structures. In Chomsky’s opinion, sentences like the active and the passive, the declarative and the interrogative, and the positive and the negative are each derived from the same deep structure. The difference between them simply comes from the operation of relevant transformations. Example 1: Jack beat Mary. Deep structure: NP1 + V + NP2. Transformational rule: NP2 + be + en + V + by + NP1 Mary was beaten by Jack.
语言学4
Lexical semantic structure:
Syntactic process:
Semantic process:
Lexical semantic structure:
Syntactic process:
Semantic process: Semantic Rule II [VPV NP]
Metaphor
• When what appears to be an anomaly is nevertheless understood in terms of a meaningful concept, the expression becomes a metaphor. • The understanding a concept in term of another. • Metaphor has a strong cultural component. • Metaphor is one of the factors in language change
Idioms
• Some phrases whose meanings are not predictable on the basis of the meanings of the individual words. • These phrases typically start out as metaphors and are repeated so often that they become fixtures in the language. • the semantic rules for combining meanings do not apply on idioms
• Truth-conditional semantics is an approach to semantics of natural language that sees meaning as being the same as their truth conditions • Knowing the meaning tells you how to determine the truth value. Knowing the meaning of a sentence, then, means knowing under what circumstances it would be true or false according to your knowledge of the world—truth conditons • Truth conditions: what obtain precisely when a sentence is true
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1.What is semantics？什么是语义学？Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。
2.Some views concerning the study of meaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)The naming theory 命名论It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。
该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。
2)The conceptualist view 意念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
图记单词：词根form-（形式，形成）
图记单词：词根form-（形式，形成）含义：形态，形式；形成来源：拉丁语名词forma（形态，形式），及所衍⽣的动词formare（形成）form：[fɔrm]n.形式，形状；形态v.形成；构成；排列；塑造formal：['fɔrml]adj.正式的。
结构分析：formal=form（形式）+al（形容词后缀）→形式的→正式的informal：[ɪn'fɔrml]adj. ⾮正式的；不拘礼节的；随便的；⽇常使⽤的结构分析：informal=in（否定前缀）+formal（正式的）→⾮正式的formality：[fɔr'mæləti]n.礼节；拘谨；仪式；正式⼿续结构分析：formality=formal（正式的）+ity（名词后缀）→礼节，拘谨format：['fɔrmæt]n.格式；版式v.使格式化；规定…的格式；设计版式结构分析：format=form（形成）+at（过去分词后缀）→形成的结果→格式formation：[fɔr'meʃən]n.形成；构造；编队结构分析：formation=form（形成）+ation（动名词后缀）→形成，构造，编队formative：['fɔrmətɪv]adj.形成的；造型的；格式化的n.构词要素结构分析：formative=form（形成）+ative（形容词后缀）→形成的formula：['fɔrmjələ]n.公式，准则；配⽅结构分析：formula=form（形成，构成）+ula（指⼩名词后缀）→构造好的⼩东西，规定好的东西→公式，准则，配⽅formulate：['fɔrmjə'let]vt.⽤公式表⽰；精确地表达；构想，规划结构分析：formulate=formul(a)（公式）+ate（动词后缀）→⽤公式表⽰→精确地表达→构想，规划formulation：[,fɔrmjə'leʃən]n. 构想，规划；公式化；简洁陈述结构分析：formulation=formulat(e)（构想，规划）+ion（名词后缀）→构想，规划conform：[kən'fɔrm]v.（使）遵守；符合；使⼀致；（使）顺从；适应结构分析：conform=con（⼀起）+form（形成）→⼀起形成→使形态⼀致→遵守，使⼀致conformity：[kən'fɔrməti]n. ⼀致，适合；符合；相似结构分析：conformity=conform（使⼀致）+ity（名词后缀）→符合，⼀致conformation：[,kɑnfɔr'meʃən]n.⼀致，符合；构造；构象结构分析：conformation=conform（使⼀致）+ation（动名词后缀）→⼀致，符合deform：[dɪˈfɔrm]vt.使变形；使成畸形vi. 变形；变畸形结构分析：deform=de（向下，远离）+form（形态）→（使）远离（正常）形态→（使）变形，（使）变畸形deformity：[dɪ'fɔrməti]n.畸形；畸形的⼈或物；道德⽅⾯的缺陷结构分析：deformity=deform（变畸形）+ity（名词后缀）→畸形deformation：['difɔr'meʃən]n. 变形；畸变结构分析：deformation=deform（变畸形）+ation（动名词后缀）→变形，畸变uniform：[junəˌfɔrm]adj. 统⼀的；⼀致的；始终如⼀的n.制服vt.使⼀致，配以制服结构分析：uniform=uni（同⼀的）+form（形式）→形式统⼀的（⾐服）→⼀致的；制服uniformity：[,jʊnə'fɔrməti]n. ⼀致；同样结构分析：uniformity=uniform（⼀致的）+ity（名词后缀）→⼀致inform：[ɪn'fɔrm]vt.通知；告诉；报告vi.告发；告密结构分析：inform=in（使）+form（形成）→使形成（知识体系）→教导，使知道→通知，报告information：['ɪnfɚ'meʃən]n.信息，资料；知识；情报；通知结构分析：information=inform（教导，使知道）+ation（动名词后缀）→信息，资料informative：[ɪn'fɔrmətɪv]adj. 教育性的，有益的；情报的；见闻⼴博的结构分析：informative=inform（教导，使知道）+ative（形容词后缀）→教育性的，情报的transform：[træns'fɔrm]v.改变，使…变形；转换；转化结构分析：transform=trans（跨越，从⼀端到另⼀端）+form（形态）→换成另⼀种形态→变形，转化transformer：[træns'fɔrmɚ]n.变压器；促使转化的⼈结构分析：transformer=transform（转化）+er（者）→转化者transformation：[,trænsfɚ'meʃən]n.转化；转换；改⾰；变形结构分析：transformation=transform（转化）+ation（动名词后缀）→转化，转换reform：[rɪ'fɔrm]n.改⾰，改良；改正v.改⾰，⾰新；重组结构分析：reform=re（再次）+form（形成）→再次形成→改⾰reformation：[,rɛfɚ'meʃən]n. ⾰新；改善结构分析：reformation=reform（改⾰）+ation（动名词后缀）→⾰新reformative：[rɪ'fɔrmətɪv]adj. 改⾰的；改良的结构分析：reformative=reform（改⾰）+ative（形容词后缀）→改⾰的reformatory：[rɪ'fɔrmətɔri]adj.改⾰的；感化的；⾰新的n. 少年管教所；妓⼥教养所结构分析：reformatory=reform（改⾰，改良）+atory（形容词后缀）→改⾰的，改良的（场所）→管教所，教养所。