英语修辞学

Definition of Rhetoric修辞1) The art of using words in speaking or writing so as to persuade or influence others.2) The art of effectively using language in speech or writing, including the use of figures of speech.3) Rhetoric is the theory of informative and persuasive discourse.4) Rhetoric is a kind of art which deals with how to mairpulate language effectively.5) What make an effective choice between two synonymous expressions.6) Rhetoric should study the misunderstanding in human communication and find a solution to it.Historical Background of RhetoricAbout 23 centuries ago, during the time of Aristotle(亚里士多德) in Greece, rhetoric was considered as one of the few.In Aristotle’s Rhetoric it embraced only the following three subjects capable of systematic treatment, namely:1. the possible sources of proofs 2 the style 3 The right ordering of the parts of a speechIt remained so all through the Middle Ages. Even down of the 18th century it was not much changed.◆John Locke(English philosopher of late 17th century): Rhetoric was the science of oratory.What Rhetoric Treats A bout TodayRhetoric is considered to consist of the combination of two sciences, the science of logic and the science of grammar.Both logic and grammar deal with the expression of thought.1. Logic deals with the law of thinking; its aim is to determine what sequences of thought are sound and self-consistent.2. Grammar deals with the forms, inflections, and choice of words and their relation to each other in phrases, clauses(分句), orsentences.Rhetoric is therefore called the art of adaptation(适应性).Francis Christensen:✧Grammar maps out the possible; Rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective.✧Grammar is law of the language , considered as language.Two types of rhetoric:Communicative rhetoric Aesthetic rhetoricIn Chinese civilization, rhetoric has been primarily written, not oral, due to regional differences in language.Complete sentence & Sentence fragments For example: It was raining hard, he (He)kept on running in the field.Analysis● A complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period.●Punctuation●Comma, colon:●Period. Question mark?●Semicolon；exclamation mark!Types of Sentences1. Declarative(陈述), interrogative(疑问), imperative(祈使), and exclamatory(感叹) sentence (function)2. Simple, compound(复合), complex(复杂), and compound-complex sentences (structure)● A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or adverbial.有一个主语和一个predicate-verb,但它可能包含一个以上的对象、属性或状语。

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunctionor by a semicolon. 由两个或两个以上独立子句意思上彼此相关,由一个协调和联系连接或以分号。

A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more dependent clauses, with a connective word denoting the relation between thetwo parts.包含一个主句和一个或多个从属子句,表示一种连接词两部分之间的关系。

● A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause.Loose, Periodic, and Balanced Sentences (rhetorical)A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information.把主要思想在众人面前补充资料。

A periodic sentence puts the main idea at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically com plete until the end is reached.● A balanced sentence contains two or more parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning.Features●Loose sentences: easier, simple, more natural and direct.●Periodic sentences: more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.●Balanced sentences: impressive and rhythm.Unity Unity is the first quality of an effective sentence. A unified sentence express a single complete thought.Coherence Coherence means clear and reasonable connection between part.6. Looking outside of the window, the grassland stretches as far as the eye can reach.①Looking outside of the window, I saw the grassland stretches as far as the eye can reach.②Looking outside of the window, the grassland stretches endless.Concisene s Conciseness: a sentence should contain no unnecessary words.Emphatic Sentence1. Short sentences2. Sentence fragments: one-member(一个成分)The sky was overcast. A north wind was blowing. It threatened to rain at any moment. A gloomy day.3.Inverted sentences倒装句In rushed the noisy children.3. Parallel constructions and balanced sentencesThe feeling of the nation must be quickened; the conscience of the nation must be roused.4. Periodic sentences5. Imperative and exclamatory sentences6. Rhetorical questions7. Negative-positive statements●There were so many errors in the performance that the result was not a tragedy, but a comedy.9. Sentences with repeated words or phrases●Government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.Emphasis Within the Sentences1. Placing(位置): The beginning and the end, especially the end, of a sentence are the two places that attract the reader’s attention.2. Repetition(重复):Simplicity, Simplicity, Simplicity! We should make our life more simple.3. The verb and the active voice.(主动语态):The moment he saw the disorderly crowd, he knew that something bad would happen.4. Subordination: He hurried to his home and found it ruined.5. Emphatic words and phrases: The dean himself told me the news.6. Alliteration:押头韵the appearance of the same consonant sound at the beginning of two or more words.The government was faced with the choice between the ballot and the bullet.VarietyA student learning to write in a foreign language = a clown in a drifting lifeboatA lonely clown in a drifting lifeboat has a special problem. All his life he has given pleasure to audiences with his antics and his painted-on smile.Floating on the sea, though, he turns his smile to a world that cannot understand it. Suddenly he can no longer communic ate.How to help ourselves out?●Gain an understanding of the vocabulary and writing techniques of the new language.●Only when we have done this will we be able to present ourselves to best advantage in writing.To be unified统一A paragraph is unified when all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on the central thought or on a single topic.To be coherent一致的A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally and smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another.To be well-developedThere are many ways to develop a paragraph:1) By process2) By cause and effect3) By comparison and contrast, ect.Length of a paragraphParagraphs vary in length.The length of the paragraph depends on its topic, its position in the essay and its role in the development of the thesis statement.A long paragraph expresses a complex idea, and a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary.Effective paragraphs✧Unity Coherence Transition1.UnityUnity of a paragraph is concerned with its content.If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified.Topic sentence: beginning, middle, end, implied.2.Coherence✧Coherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization.✧The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural. Two keys, and a questionThe first key: TransitionGood transitions are employed to make one sentence run smoothly to another.Unity 整体Transitions Coherence连贯性Transitions can take several forms1. A group of transitional words ( thus, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, however ) or phrases ( in fact, to conclude, on the contrary,for instance )2. Pronouns: 代词refer back to antecedents in an earlier sentence3. Adjectives: first, second, etc.4. Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, etc. placed at the beginnings of sentences.5. Repeating a word or phrase from one sentence to another.6. A rhetorical question: What is student life like in our university?( It both announces what is to come in the paragraph and arouses the reader’s interest in what the paragraph’s content will be.)7. Synonyms8. Symbols: creating numerical (1, 2, 3) or alphabetical (a, b, c) listing.9. The grammatical structures of subordination and parallelism.Transitions with their usesExplanation: now, thus, for, in this case;Emphasis: indeed, certainly, above all;Qualification: but, however, yet, unless, except for;Illustration: for example, for instance, thusComparison: like, similarly, likewise, in the same way;Contrast: in contrast, on the other hand, instead, unlike;Concession: admittedly, nevertheless, of course, although, after all;Consequence: therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, hence, so, accordingly;Summation: in conclusion, to sum up, all in all, finally.The second key：subordination从属关系Subordination is the technique of putting together ideas that are unequal in weight so that the relative importance of each will be quickly apparent to the reader. Through subordination, you can focus on the central, or controlling. Idea of your sentence by placing it in the independent clause and placing the less important idea in a dependent clause or phraseWays of subordinating1. By an adverb clause.Time: before, after, when, whenever, while, until, sincePlace: where, whereverCause or reason: since, because, as, as if, as though, as long as, whereasPurpose or result: so, so that, in order thatConcession: although, though, ever though, provided that, unless, if, than.2.By an adjective clause: that, who, which, whose3.By a modifying phrase: pp4.By an appositive: beginning, middle, endThe questionWhat kind of audience is my writing directed to?Translation很难想象我们的先辈们没有现代技术带来的这么多方便那日子怎么过的。