英语语言学名词解释大全
英语语言学名词解释
2009-09-30 13:54
Synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.
Duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels; meaningful units and meaningless segments .
Competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. Performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.
Langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.
Parole: the concrete utterances of speaker.
Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Inflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.
Root: refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. Stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
Acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.
Syntax: the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure. Subordination: the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Denotation: denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers.
Connotation: properties of the entity a word denote.
Synonymy: synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.
Hyponymy: the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation, is a matter of class membership. Entailment: This a logic relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second.
Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only
one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ call.
Critical Period Hypothesis
The critical period for language acquisition语言获得的关键期 Eric Lenneberg was a major proponent.
The critical period hypothesis关键期假设
It refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction. It coincides with the process of brain lateralization. Prior to this period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged
.「语言学习关键期」（the critical period）的争议。
认同「愈早开始学习外语，成效愈好」的人，在学理上常引用「语言学习关键期假说」（The Critical Period Hypothesis）来论证此项观点。1959年，神经生理学家Penfield 和Roberts从大脑可塑性的角度，提出十岁以前，是学习语言的最佳年龄。哈佛大学心理学教授David Lenneberg（1967）则从医学临床经验，以「神经生理学的观点」有系统地解释「语言学习关键期」，他认为人的大脑从二岁开始边化（lateralization）[4]，在边化完成前，人是用全脑来学习语言，约在青春期左右，大脑会完成边化，从此，语言学习主要由左边大脑负责。人脑「边化」后的语言学习不如全脑学习时期来得好。因此，语言学习最好在大脑完成边化之前，这也就是所谓的「语言学习关键期」。除了Lenneberg 外，Bickerton（1981）和Coppieters（1987）的研究结果也倾向支持「语言学习关键期」的存在。Lenneberg提出「语言学习关键期假说」主要用来解释第一语（母语）的学习。而Thomas Scovel（1969）更将此假说的解释范围扩及第一语以外的语言学习。
acculturation
n.文化传入, 文化适应
Acculturation is the obtainment of culture by an individual or a group of people. The term originally applied only to the process concerning a foreign culture, from the acculturing or accultured recipient point of view, having this foreign culture added and mixed with that of his or her already existing one acquired since birth.
However, the term now has come to mean, in addition, the child-acquisition acculturation of native culture since infancy in the household. A child's learning of its first culture is also called enculturation or merely socialization.
The traditional definition sometimes differentiate between acculturation by an individual (transculturation) and that by a group, usually very large (acculturation).
The old and the new additional definitions have a boundary that blurs in modern multicultural societies, where a child of an immigrant family might be encouraged to acculturate both the dominant also well as the ancestral culture, either of which may be considered "foreign", but in fact, they are both integral parts of the child's development.
美国文学名词解释
1. Transcendentalism The origin of it is a philosophical and literary movement centered in Concord and Boston, which marks the summit of American Transcendentalism. 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. The major features of American Transcendentalism are:It emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. It stressed the importance of the individual. To them the individual was the most important element of society. It offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. 2.Romanticism The Romanticism period stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It is a term associate with imagination boundlessness, and in critical usage is contrasted with classicism which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. The features of Romanticism are: American Romanticism was in a way derivative: American romantic writing was some of them modeled on English and European works. American romanticism was in essence the expression of "a real new experience "and contained"an alien quality".Representatives:William Cullen Bryant; Henry Longfellow and James Cooper, Washington Irving. 3.Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.The representatives are Howells, James, and Mark Twain. 4. Naturalism American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, it had come from Europe. Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century. The background of naturalism are: In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe. In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features of it are:Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives of it such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser. 5.New Criticism The New Criticism as a school of poetry and criticism established itself in the 1940s as an academic orthodoxy in the United States. The school has its beginning in the 1920s. It focus on the analysis of the text rather paying attention to external elements such as its social background, its author's intention and political attitude, and its impact on society. Then it explores the artistic structure of the work rather than its author's frame of mind or its reader's responses. It also see a literary work as an organic entity, the unity of content and form, and places emphasis on the close reading of the text. These New Critics included T.S. Eliot,I.A.Richards,John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate and some other critics. The New Criticism has tended to divorce criticism from social and moral concerns, which was to become one salient feature of the movement. 6.Imagism: Between 1912 and 1922 there came a great poetry boom in which about 1000 poets published over 1000 volumes of poetry. Indeed ,to express the modern spirit, the sense of fragmentization and dislocation, was in large measure the aim of quite a few modern literary movements, of which Imagism was one.The first Imagist theorist, the English writer T.E.Hulme. Hulme suggests that modern art deals with expression and communication of momentary phases in the poet's mind. The most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of dominant image.It is a literary movement launched American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. The representatives are Ezra pound, William Carlos Williams and some other poets.
英语语言学名词解释(2)
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
内科学名词解释
内科学名词解释 1.肺源性呼吸困难：是指呼吸系统疾病引起病人自觉空气不足，呼吸费力，并伴有呼吸频率、深度和节律的改变。 2.三凹征：胸骨上凹、锁骨上凹和肋间隙。 3.咯血：指喉以下呼吸道或肺组织的出血经口咯出，可以从痰中带血到大量咯血。 4.体位引流：是利用重力作用使肺、支气管分泌物排出体外，又称重力引流。 5.急性上呼吸道感染：是鼻腔、咽、喉部急性炎症的总称，是呼吸道最常见的传染病。 6.急性气管、支气管炎：是由感染、物理、化学因素刺激或过敏反应等引起的气管、支气管黏膜的急性炎症。 7.慢性支气管炎：是指气管、支气管黏膜极其周围组织的慢性非特异性炎症。以慢性反复发作的咳嗽、咳痰或伴有喘息为临床特征。 8.慢性阻塞性肺气肿：是指终末细支气管远端（呼吸细支气管、肺泡管、肺泡囊、肺泡）的气道弹性减退、过度膨胀、冲气和肺容积增大，或同时伴有肺泡壁破坏的病理状态，是肺气肿中最常见的一种类型。 9.缩唇呼吸：用鼻吸气用口呼气，呼气时口唇缩拢似吹口哨状，持续慢慢呼气，同时收缩腹部。 10.慢性肺源性心脏病：是由于肺、胸廓或肺动脉血管慢性病变所致的肺循环阻力增加，肺动脉高压，进而使右心肥大、扩大、甚至发生右心衰竭的心脏病。 11.支气管哮喘：是一种慢性气道炎症性疾病，以嗜酸性粒细胞、肥大细胞反应为主的气道变应性炎症和气道高反应性为特征。 12.支气管扩张症：是由于支气管极其周围肺组织的慢性炎症和阻塞，导致支气管管腔扩张和变形的慢性支气管化脓性疾病。临床表现为慢性咳嗽伴大量脓痰和反复咯血。 13.肺炎：指肺实质的炎症。 14.肺炎球菌肺炎：指又肺炎球菌索引起的肺实质的炎症。 15.肺炎支原体肺炎：是由肺炎支原体引起的呼吸道和肺组织的炎症。 16.军团菌肺炎：事由革兰染色阴性嗜肺军团杆菌引起的一种以肺炎为主的全身性疾病。 17.病毒性肺炎：是由于上呼吸道病毒感染向下蔓延，侵犯肺实质而引起的肺部炎症。 18.肺脓肿：是由于多种病原体引起的肺部化脓性感染，早期为肺组织的感染性炎症，继而坏死、液化、外周有肉芽组织包围形成脓肿。临床特征为高热、咳嗽、咳大量脓臭痰。 19.肺结核是由结核杆菌侵入人体引起的肺部慢性感染性疾病。 20.原发性支气管肺癌：是最常见的肺部原发性恶性肿瘤，起源于支气管黏膜及腺体。 21.气胸：任何原因使空气进入胸膜腔造成胸腔积气和肺萎陷。 22.人工气胸：用人工方法将滤过的空气注入胸膜腔所引起的气胸。 23.外伤性气胸：由胸外伤等引起的气胸。 24.自发性气胸：在没有外伤或认为的因素下，因肺部疾病使肺组织和脏层胸膜自发破裂，空气进入胸膜腔所致的气胸。 25.呼吸衰竭：指各种原因引起的肺通气和或换气功能障碍，不能进行有效的气体交换，造成机体缺氧伴或不伴二氧化碳潴留，因而产生一系列病理生理改变的临床综合症。 26.I型呼吸衰竭：即有缺氧不伴有二氧化碳滞留或二氧化碳降低。 27.II型呼吸衰竭：即有缺氧又有二氧化碳滞留。 28.ARDS：是指病人原心肺功能正常，由于肺内、外致病因素（如严重感染、休克、创伤、大手术、DIC）而引起肺微血管和肺泡上皮损伤为主的肺部炎症综合症。 29.机械通气：是借助呼吸机建立气道口与肺炮间的压力差，给呼吸功能不全的病人以呼吸支持，即利用机械装置来代替、控制或改变自主呼吸运动的一种通气方式，30.心力衰竭（心功能不全）：是指在静脉回流正常的情况下，由于原发的心脏损害导致心排血量减少，不能满足机体代谢需要的一种综合症。临床上以肺循环和或体循环淤血及组织血液灌注量不足为主要特征。 31.急性心功能不全：指由于某种原因使心排血量在短时间内急剧下降，甚至丧失排血功能，导致组织器官供血不足和急性淤血的综合症。 32.心律失常：是指心脏冲动的频率、节律、起源部位、传导速度与激动次序的异常。 33.窦速：
美国文学史复习提纲 名词解释
I. Explain the following literary terms(名词解释). 1. Romanticism The most profound and comprehensive idea of romanticism is the vision of a greater personal freedom for the individual. Appeals to imagination; Stress on emotion rather than reason; optimism, gen iality. Subjectivity: in form and meaning. 2 American transcendentalism American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century (about 1836-1860). For the transcendentalists, the soul of each individual is identical with the soul of the world and contains what the world contains. 3 Realism: ―nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material.‖ the Civil war a. verisimilitude of details derived from observation b. representative in plot, setting and character c. an objective rather than an idealized view of human experience or（American Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.） 4. Modernism like modernism in general is a trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation, and is thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic. The general term covers many political, cultural and artistic movements rooted in the changes in Western society at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. American modernism is an artistic and cultural movement in the United States starting at the turn of the 20th century with its core period between World War I and World War II and continuing into the 21st century. 5、American Puritanism: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the Puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the Protestant Church. The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of them. They were a group of serious, religious people, advocating highly religious and moral principles. As the word itself hints, Puritans wanted to purity their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace form God. As a culture heritage, Puritanism did have a profound influence on the early American mind. American Puritanism also had a enduring influence on American literature. 6、Transcendentalism: In New England, an intellectual movement known as transcendentalism developed as an American version of Romanticism. The movement began among an influential set of authors based in Concord, Massachusetts and was led by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Like Romanticism, transcendentalism rejected both 18th century rationalism and established religion, which for the transcendentalists meant the Puritan tradition in particular. The transcendentalists celebrated the power of the human imagination to commune with the universe and transcend the limitations of the material world. They found their chief source of inspiration in nature. Emerson’s essay Nature was the major document of the transcendental school and stated the ideas that were to remain central to it. 7、Free verse: free verse is the rhymed or unrhymed poetry composed without attention to conventio nal rules of meter. Free verse was first written and labeled by a group of French poets of the late 19th century. Their purpose was to deliver poetry from the restrictions of formal metrical patterns and to recreate the free rhythms of natural speech. Walt Whitman was the precursor who wrote lines of varying length and cadence, usually not rhymed. The emotional content or meaning of the work was expressed through its rhythm. Free verse has been characteristic of the work of many modern American poets, including Ezra Pound and Carl Sandburg. 8、Naturalism: A more deliberate kind of realism in novels, stories and plays, usually involving a view of human beings as passive victims of natural forces and social environment. Naturalism was a new and harsher realism. It
美国文学名词解释
Allegory is a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world. Alliteration is a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds. The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place. Aside is an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. Gothic is a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad fro m the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view. CATHARSIS is an emotional discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragic artistic work. IMAGERY: A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Surrealism is an artistic movement doing away with the restrictions of realism and verisimilitude that might be imposed on an artist. In this movement, the artist sought to do away with conscious control and instead respond to the irrational urges of the subconscious mind. From this results the hallucinatory, bizarre, often nightmarish quality of surrealistic paintings and writings. Sample surrealist writers include Frank O'Hara, John Ashberry, and Franz Kafka.
英语语言学名词解释
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.