Understanding oss as a self-organizing process
2020届新高考英语新题型练习01 完形填空阅读理解七选五套餐练(1)(含答案)
2020届新高考英语新题型练习完形填空阅读理解七选五套餐练（1）完形填空（山东省临沂市2020年高三上学期期末考试）Three years ago，I participated in Model United Nations(MUN)held by the Education Department，which was a mock(模拟的)UN activity．During the two days，students are separated in different groups which 21 different countries to debate and try to solve problems．MUN has 22 awards：best delegates(代表)，honorary mentions，and verbal mentions．Each time I participate in MUN，I made good 23 and undoubtedly got a few awards．But I often felt as if I’d 24 because I had never won the best delegate award．I 25 those who didn’t deserve to win the award but won it various times，and I was just filled with 26 at their success．But later I realized that it was also 27 not to get the award because I could actually 28 something，and that I shouldn’t 29 the best delegate award until I was the best delegate I could be．Failures are completely subjective—we can look at a result as a failure or a 30．Any failure can be regarded as a(n) 31 because you can always learn something from it and do 32 next time．This is supported by John Locke’s theory that we are born with blank views：knowledge and ability are learned from our 33．That’s true．If I make a mistake in the life practice，then I probably won’t 34 that next time．I believe this is 35 the best way to become better．21．A．strengthen B．condemn C．inspire D．represent 22．A．identical B．temporary C．various D．false 23．A．preparations B．predictions C．appointments D．explanations 24．A．accelerated B．failed C．exited D．succeeded 25．A．approached B．trained C．expected D．witnessed26．A．relief B．envy C．satisfaction D．delight 27．A．annoyed B．ashamed C．good D．terrible 28．A．desert B．1earn C．delete D．display29．A．win B．miss C．deliver D．value30．A．bond B．bet C．victory D．1oss31．A．aim B．benefit C．burden D．1imit32．A．funnier B．worse C．better D．slower33．A．decisions B．attitudes C．positions D．experiences 34．A．repeat B．admit C．accept D．notice 35．A．wrongly B．scarcely C．truly D．narrowly阅读理解（山东师大附中2017级第三次月考）AI was in the garden with Augie, my grandson, watching the bees. “How do they make honey?” Augie asked. “Actually, Augie, I don’t know,” I replied. “But, Grandma, you have your phone,” he said. For Augie, holding a smartphone almost means knowing everything.During my childhood I was crazy about books. Over time, reading hijacked my brain, as large areas once processing the real world adapted to processing the printed word. As far as I can tell, this early immersion (沉浸) didn’t prevent my development.Many parents worry that “screen time” will damage children’s development, but recent research suggests that most of the common fears about children and screens are unfounded. There is one exception: looking at screens before bed really disturbs sleep, in people of all ages. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) used to recommend strict restrictions on screen exposure. Last year, the organization examined the relevant science more thoroughly and changed its recommendations. The new guidelines stress that what matters is what children watch and with whom.New tools have always led to panic guesses. The novel, the telephone, and the television were all declared to be the End of Civilization, particularly in the hands of the young. Part of the reason may be that adult brains require a lot of focus and effort to learn something new, while children’s brains are designed to master new environments naturally. New technologies always seem disturbing to the adults attempting to master them, while attractive to those children likeAugie.When Augie’s father got home, Augie rushed to meet him and said in excitement. “Daddy, Daddy, look,” he said, reaching for my phone. “Do you know how bees make honey? I’ll show you…”21. Which of the following can best replace the underlined word “hijacked” in Paragraph 2?A. occupied.B. damaged.C. improved.D. relaxed.22. What do the new guidelines of AAP focus on about “screen time”?A. The harm to children.B. The content and context.C. Children’s sleep.D. People’s fears.23. What might be the author’s attitude towards “screen time”?A. Opposed.B. Doubtful.C. Disappointed.D. Favorable.BToday companies have branches around the world. More than 11% of the US employers and employees work online either full-time or part-time, and that number is continuing growing. It is believed that it is a waste of time and money to fly around the world for face-to-face meetings. An effective solution to this problem is to use Web meetings.A large group of presentations, training classes and meetings are done online without losing the face-to-face experience. Web meetings are online meetings where an organizer invites attendees to listen to or watch an online presentation by presenters. Besides, Web meetings can be recorded for later use in presentations or training projects or downloaded for on-demand playback.Presenters can take real-time surveys to study how to hold a successful meeting. Some Web meeting software programs can monitor the users’ desktop behavior to see if they become distracted from the presentation and begin working on other documents. If so, the program can tell presenters when the listeners lose their attention, and how long the distraction lasts. In this way, the presenters will know which parts of their meetings need improving.Web meetings can work well because they’re hosted on a server (服务器). Images from the presenter’s desktop are taken, uploaded to a server and then downloaded by people who have accessto the server. Web meetings require a powerful server to deal with several images a second and “serve” them back to thousands of users at the same time.Companies have two choices when it comes to these servers. They can either buy a special Web meeting server to host their meetings on-site, or they can pay for a Web meeting service every time and let the off-site provider worry about hosting the meetings. The choice depends on how frequently the company holds Web meetings, the average number of people attending the meetings, and the quality of engineering and information technology.Web meetings are an excellent example of how technology is changing the way we do business. With all the technologies today, the traditional office might soon be a thing of the past.24.What is the disadvantage of the traditional meeting?A.It needs more people to organize it.B.It is expensive and time-consuming.C.It results in traffic accidents frequently.D.It fails to meet the demands of big companies.25.How do some Web meeting software programs help improve the meetings?A.By presenting successful documents.B.By recording the frequency of distraction.C.By tracking the listeners’ state of attention.D.By taking surveys about a successful meeting.26.What do you know about Web meetings according to the text?A.Web meetings are likely to be widely used.B.Web meetings help presenters stay focused.C.Web meetings determine the quality of engineering.D.Web meetings work well without the help of a server.CEvery year, thousands of teenagers participate in programs at their local art museums. But do any of them remember their time at museum events later in life? A new report suggests that the answer is yes – and finds that alumni (毕业生) of arts-based museum programs credit them with changing the course of their lives, even years after the fact.The Whitney Museum of American Art, the Walker Art Center and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles recently asked researchers to conduct a study to find out how effective their long-standing teen art programs really are. They involved over 300 former participants of four programs for teens that have been in existence since the 1990s. Alumni, whose current ages range from 18 to 36, were invited to find out how they viewed their participation years after the fact.Among the alumni surveyed, 75 percent of alumni rated the teen program experience as the most favorable impact on their own lives, beating family, school and their neighborhoods. Nearly 55 percent thought t hat it was one of the most important experiences they’d ever had, regardless of age. And two-thirds said that they were often in situations where their experience in museums affected their actions or thoughts.It turns out that participating in art programs also helps keep teens enthusiastic about arts even after they reach adulthood: 96 percent of participants had visited an art museum within the last two years, and 68 percent had visited an art museum five or more times within the last two years. Thirty-two percent of program alumni work in the arts as adults.Though the study is the first of its kind to explore the impact of teen-specific art programs in museums, it reflects other research on the important benefits of engaging with the arts. A decade of surveys by the National Endowment for the Arts found that childhood experience with the arts is significantly associated with their income and educational attainment as adults. Other studies have linked arts education to everything from lower drop-out rates to improvement in critical thinking skills.27. What does the underlined phrase “the fact” in Paragraph 1 refer to?A. Changing the course of children’s life.B. Participating in childhood art programs.C. Organizing arts-based museum programs.D. Remembering the time at museum events.28. What does Paragraph 2 mainly tell?A. The result of the study.B. The process of the study.C. The approach to the study.D. The object and content of the study.29. What can be inferred of the study mentioned in the text?A. Passion for arts may remain long in kids’ whole life.B. No other studies exist concerning the benefits of arts.C. Age matters in how people view their art experiences.D. Most children taking part in art programs will work in arts.30. Which of the following can be the best title for the text?A. How is Art Connected to Our Life?B. Can Art Education Affect Our Income?C. What Should Art Museums do for Kids?D. Should Children Walk into Art Museums?七选五（山东师范大学附属中学2020届高三第三次月考）Words have the power to build us up or tear us down. It doesn’t matter if the words come from ourselves or someone else. The positive and negative effects are just as lasting.31 We’re usually too embarrassed to admit it, though. In fact, we really shouldn’t be because more and more experts believe talking to ourselves out loud is a healthy habit. This “self-talk” helps us motivate ourselves, remember things, solve problems, and calm ourselves down. Be aware, though, that as much as 77% of self-talk tends to be negative. 32Often, words come out of our mouths without us thinking about the effect they will have. But we should be aware that our words cause certain responses in others. For example, when returning an item to a store, we might use warm, friendly language during the exchange. And the clerk will probably respond in a similar manner. 33Words possess power because of their lasting effect. Many of us regret something we oncesaid. We remember unkind words said to us as well. Before speaking, we should always ask ourselves: 34 If what we want to say doesn’t pass this test, then it’s better left unsaid.Words possess power: both positive and negative. Those around us receive encouragement when we speak positively. We can offer hope, build self-esteem and motivate others to do their best. 35 Will we use our words to hurt or to heal? The choice is ours.A.Is it loving?B.How should I say it?C.We all talk to ourselves sometimes.D.Negative words destroy all those things.E.Generally people like positive and pleasant words.F.However, critical language may cause anger and defense.G.So we should only speak encouraging words to ourselves.参考答案完型填空21-25DCABD 26-30 BCBAC 31-35 BCDAC阅读理解21-25ABD BC 26-30 ABDAD七选五CGFAD。
biddinggame
17© Shreekant W Shiralkar 2016S. W. Shiralkar, IT Through Experiential Learning , DOI 10.1007/978-1-4842-2421-2_3C ontext:C ollaborative Learning and Collective Understanding of E RPDuring our school days, my friends and I frequently engaged in discussing specific topics from our textbooks. Each one of us comprehended a specific aspect of the larger subject, and when we shared understanding or knowledge of the topic, we found that our collective understanding helped us raise each individual’s understanding much faster and deeper than individually struggling to comprehend the subject. Later, we even formalized the process during the examination period as we found the process helping learn quickly. During my college days, we practiced the technique further by forming study groups, and when having difficulty understanding a topic, we broke it into subtopics and distributed among the group for learning parts individually and then collectively sharing it with the rest of the group. The process helped each one of us in comprehending knowledge which appeared difficult and complex to us as individuals. The results of learning through a process of discussion were impressive and gave me insight into a few aspects of the concept formally known as “cooperative learning,” which defines the process of learning together rather than being passive individual receivers of knowledge (e.g., teacher lecturing and students hearing). This process allows learners to use cognitive skills of questioning and clarifying, extrapolating and summarizing.I n one of my assignments, I was engaged to train the top management of an organization on ERP and the impact of its implementation. I anticipated that it would be a huge challenge to engage top executives in this training, as most would have had some understanding already, and applying a conventional training process risked losing their attention if my co-trainer or I fell short of their expectations. While individually each top executive may have had generic knowledge of ERP , they certainly lacked comprehensive knowledge, and more specifically a seamless collective understanding of the subject, without any gaps due to individual interpretations or exposures. The task, therefore, was multifaceted: on one hand, I had to get them interested in learning aspects of which they lacked knowledge, and on the other, I had to encourage them to share their individual understandings of the subject, facilitating development of a collective learning.CHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAME18F or a top executive, it is expected that he or she needs to take calculated risks inalmost every key decision, whether it’s bidding for a large contract or establishing price point while taking a privately held organization for public trading. The process of bidding involves awareness of collective knowledge of capability, assessment about competition, and expertise to apply judgment based on rational (and some irrational) criteria. In the knowledge-driven economy, the contributions of each employee, regardless of level, add up to the collective capability of the organization.W ith a view to facilitate collective learning in the shortest possible time for these top executives, I conceived a “Bidding Game” that leveraged cooperative learning to teach the ERP solution and the impact of its implementation in one session. The result in of Bidding Game was outstanding.T his is the premise of the game that will be explained in this chapter. The game also helps induce elements of social skills like effective communication and interpersonal and group skills in learning an otherwise abstract and complex subject.T he Bidding Game is a game played by all the participants divided into two or more teams. Teams compete on the strength of their collective knowledge of the subject. The game concludes after the collective learning on a specific subject is acquired to the appropriate level on all the essential aspects. The game format provides encouragement to each participant to contribute his or her knowledge of the subject and helps the team to win. A notional value attached to the correct and complete response helps measure the level of knowledge among participants. The competition is premised on the accuracy of the initial bid, which adds a flavor of bidding.F igure 3-1will help you visualize the setting created for the participants of the Bidding Game.F igure 3-1.I nstructor inviting b idsCHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAME19In a hall, participants will be seated in a U-shaped arrangement, facing the projector screen. The hall will have two whiteboards on either side of the projector screen. One of the whiteboards will be titled “Knowledge Bid” and will display the bids by participating t eams.T he second whiteboard will record the actual earnings or the SCORE for each of the teams. The projector screen will be used to publish the question for each of the bid, and the instructor will allow the teams to respond in sequence and will record the score on the whiteboard on the basis of the accuracy and completeness of response by the team (Figure 3-2).F igure 3-2.I nstructor inviting response to q uestion In designing the Bidding Game, the elements of competition and encouraging discussion on each aspect form the core theme. The competitive aspect triggers speed, the game element induces interest without force or pressure, and finally discussions and sharing of knowledge facilitate desired coverage of the subject—for instance, technical nuances and features offered by new technology and/or processes, channelling an accelerated Learning and Collective Understanding new technology and/or p rocesses .B idding Game Design To design the Bidding Game, I recommend ensuring that the pace of learning is accelerated gradually, and that learning begins with basic aspects and moves on to the advanced and complex aspects in sequence instead of beginning with complex subjects and then concluding with basics. In the design of the sequence, care has to be exercised in segregating the basic and must-learn aspects from the “nice-to-know” aspects, andCHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAME20design should ensure accomplishing learning of basic and must-learn ones whileprovisioning for nice-to-know types based on the interest and appetite of the participants. Design the sequence in such a way that initially the participant need to spend less time and are encouraged toward the game and competition, while later parts of the sequence should ensure that participants spend more time in discussions and staying ahead of competition.T he objective—rapid development of collective learning of technology and/or new processes—necessitates a short duration of the Bidding Game.L et us now examine the task-level details of the Bidding Game beginning with preparation/planning, recommended rules, and then the process for its execution,including steps to consolidate learning after conclusion. An overview of the entire game is depicted in Figure 3-3 .C omplete details of the activities in the process flow are described in detail in the following sections.P reparation/Planning •D ivide the subject into 20 subtopics that cover the subject comprehensively. • C reate a question for each of the subtopics.•C reate a sequence of questions in a way that gradually raises the level of knowledge. •S egment the questions into three levels: Rookie, Advanced, and Expert.•A ssign different values to questions from the three sets, for example, $100 per question from the Rookie level, $200 perquestion from the Advanced level, and $300 per question from the Expert level. •D evelop a clear rule set for the Bidding Game that can be used to explain the game to the participants.F igure 3-3.B idding Game p rocess flowCHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAME • H ave a scoreboard that displays the bid value of the team and alsotheir score during the progress of the game (use the whiteboardmarker pens).• H ave a large clock for monitoring time and identify assistants forkeeping time and recording the score.R ecommended Rules• T he winner is chosen on the basis of two parameters: high scoreas well as that which is closest to its bid.• E ach wrong or incomplete response has a loss of value (i.e.,negative marking); for example, a $50 penalty for each wrong orincomplete response.• $50 is deducted from the value of a passed-over question or apartly answered question.• T he completeness of the response to a question can be challengedby competing teams to apply penalty and reduce the score.• T here’s a limit of 5 minutes for responding to each question. Eachround could begin sequence in a way that provides a fair chanceto all the teams.O nce all the preparation is completed, the game can begin.E xecution1. A ll the participants are told the context and rationale for thegame (i.e., what ERP is and the importance of each of themhaving a collective understanding of the subject, which wouldmaximize benefit from its implementation). Also, it shouldbe explained how playing a game such as this can increaseindividual understanding much faster and more deeply thanindividually struggling to comprehend the subject in isolation.2. P articipants are divided into teams. Team formation canbe done in any way that generates nearly equal numbers ofparticipants for each team (dividing the room, counting off bytwos, etc.)3. T he instructor/quiz master (QM) invites bids from each of theteams, which are recorded on the whiteboard for everyone tosee.4. T he instructor launches the first question on the screen andinvites the first team to take its chance, while the timekeepermonitors the time taken by the responding team.21CHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAME225. O n the basis of correctness and completeness of the response,the instructor assigns a score to the team, which is recordedon the second whiteboard.6. I n case the question is passed to the second team and they areable to respond correctly and completely, the reduced score isrecorded.7. I n case the question is not answered or is incompletelyresponded by any of the teams, the instructor shares the correctand complete answer and the subject is discussed and clarified.8. T he process continues until the subject is completely covered.9. T he instructor tallies the scores for the teams and announcesthe winner on the basis of the high score and the bid a ccuracy .O nce the game is over, observations from experience are collected and crystallized inlearning in the next section.C onclusion• T he learning gained through the game needs to be articulatedand consolidated. Debrief is a process that will aid in articulatinglearning that participants gained during the game.• T he process of debrief begins with each participant sharinglearning, specifically something that has changed theirunderstanding about the subject during the game.• E ach participant would have learned something new, be it a verybasic addition to earlier knowledge of the subject or very complexinformation that the participant hadn’t ever known before.• T he individual learnings are recorded on a whiteboard, whichhelps in crystallizing and consolidating collective understandingon the subject.• O nce the game is over, the learning can be consolidated bypresenting additional material by way of slides, videos, and so on.S ample ArtifactsW ith a view to facilitate the immediate application of the approach in the chapter, a sample list of questions on ERP and Big Data along with an illustrative score sheet with result, are provided in the following section. The correct responses from multiple choices, are identified in bold.CHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAMES ample Question Cards:ERP1. W hat is the extended form of ERP?a. E nterprise Retail Processb. E nterprise Resource Planningc. E arning Revenue and Profitd. N one of the above2. R eal time in the context of ERP relates to which of thefollowing?a. T ime shown in the computer system synchs with yourwatchb. P rocesses/events happen per transaction at the sameinstantc. B oth of the aboved. N one of the above3. W hat does “SOA” stand for in relation to ERP systemarchitecture?a. S ervice-Oriented Architectureb. S ystem of Accountsc. S tatement of Accountd. N one of the above4. W hich of these is not a packaged ERP?a. S APb. O raclec. W indowsd. J D Edwards5. I n the context of packaged ERP, do “Customization” and“Configuration” refer to the same process, or are theydifferent?a. S ameb. D ifferentc.D on’t know23CHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAME246. M aterials Management in ERP helps to/esnure ?a. I ncrease of inventoryb. I nventory is well balancedc. B oth of the aboved. N one of the above7. S ales and Distribution Module in ERP helps in which of thefollowing?a. I ncreased customer serviceb. R educed customer servicec. B oth of the aboved. N one of the above8. F inancial and Controlling Module in ERP helps in which ofthe following?a. E valuating and responding to changing businessconditions with accurate, timely financial datab. E asy compliance with financial reporting requirementsc. S tandardizing and streamlining operationsd. A ll of the abovee. N one of the above9. G ain from implementation of ERP results in which of thefollowing?a. I mproved business performanceb. I mproved decision makingc. I ncreased ability to plan and growd. A ll of the aboveS ample Question Cards:B ig Data1. W hat is Big Data?a. D ata about big thingsb. D ata which is extremely large in size (in petabytes)c. D ata about datad. N one of the aboveCHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAME2. W hich are not characteristics of Big Data?a. V olumeb.V elocityc. V irtualityd.V ariety3. W hich are key inputs for Big Data?a.I ncreased processing powerb. A vailability of tools and techniques for Big Datac. I ncreased storage capacitiesd. A ll of the above4. W hich are applications of Big Data?a. T argeted advertisingb.M onitoring telecom networkc. C ustomer sentimentsd. A ll of the above5. W hich tools are used for Big Data?a. N oSQLb. M apReducec. H adoop Distributed File Systemd. A ll of the above6. S ocial media and mobility are key contributors to Big Data:true or false?a. T rueb. F alse7. W hich is not a term related to Big Data?a. D atabasesMongoDBb. D ata T riggerc. P igd. S PARK25CHAPTER 3 ■ BIDDING GAME26B enefit Assessment After consolidation of the learning, it’s recommended to conduct a benefit assessment exercise to measure the gains from application of the game-based approach. Theassessment could be in form of a written quiz on the subject with multiple-choice answers.。
Autodesk BLD500034 项目所有权构建自主化说明书
BLD500034Taking Ownership of Construction for Capital Project OwnersLee MullinAutodeskDescription For far too long, owners of capital projects handed off construction work to their contractors and simply got out of the way. They've left it to their contractors to complete the jobs and hand over the buildings. "Out of sight, out of mind," has been the mantra for many capital project owners. This is no longer acceptable.Capital project owners are taking back construction. And they're using high tech software, mobile devices and cloud collaboration to do it. By embedding more in the construction phase, owners of capital projects are no longer at the whims of their contractors. They're taking ownership!This means full visibility into projects, continuous communication with projects teams, rich insights tomake informed decisions, and data standards from design-through operations. By taking ownership, operations begins quickly and smoothly, increasing speed to market and revenue.Owners are taking ownership. Today.Speaker – Lee MullinTechnical Program Manager, Autodesk16 years experience in digital construction starting at NavisworksLtd. Worked with airports, transportation, healthcare, government,retail, utilities, commercial, residential clients on developing digitalconstruction strategyDefine your Business Outcomes for OwnersAny digital transformation strategy needs to be linked to business goals, with KPI’s and measurable outcomes. Often the biggest challenge can be identifying and agreeing which business outcome you want to link to. As mentioned in the class, different owners can be driven by different and contradictory drivers. Whilst some owners will want to save as much money up front, others are happy to spend more to ensure the end product will delivery for them for years to come. Some are driven by immediate resale value, others by long term operations and maintenance. Understanding how your business works and which of these outcomes is most important to any new development, refurbishment or demolition can completely change what technology you should be implementing and how.Please complete this survey to tell us more about the outcomes you are trying to achieve: - /r/FkFjvnzc8fPlease let us know what are we missing, what is specific to your industry?Identifying metrics and KPI’sOn any capital project how can you tell it’s been successful. Well traditionally it’s looking to see if you came in under budget and on time, something that happens a lot less than it should! As owners become more aware of how data can help them and how it can drive them towards more specific goals, you can use data to better measure many things on a project which can impact that top line budget, and schedule, but also many of the other challenges which you are trying to balance.I highly recommend the book Measure What Matters by John Doerr as a way to understand that whilst we can get metrics on everything imaginable nowadays, it’s important to understand which metrics are going to drive you to your goals. Whether measuring sustainability by counting skips heading to landfill, or cost predicatability by counting RFI’s or Owner Change Orders, there are often smaller measures that greatly affect the end outcome you are looking to achieve, and by better controlling them, you have a better chance to reach your end goal. Developing Capabilities to meet objectivesOnce you have identified your goals and metrics, you then need to identify how you are going to deliver against them. This is where you should look to build out capability areas. These may be areas you already have, such as document management, project management, or issue management, they may currently be paper based or on disparate IT systems. A key goal for owners is often to centralise where data is being held and being able to start doing analysis against it. We can help share what capabilities we often see needed by different industries, and help measure your current maturity in that space, and help you improve.Some sample capabilities are listed below•Document Management•Design Visualisation•Clash Detection•Estimating•Digital Twin•Bid Management•Quality Management•Safety Management•Project Management•Handover/Turnover•Facilities ManagementOf course this list is extensive depending on your industry and needs. Working with your Autodesk representative or Partner, we can help identify the most relevant capabilities, assess where they are, and start looking at how you can mature them, and find efficiencies in how they work together (see Locate a Reseller below).Increasing maturity of your capabilitiesIt’s actually likely you’ll already have some or all of these capabilities already, whether internal or through your project partners, whether paper, phone and email based, or using more mature technology systems. Dependent on the capability you will often have lots of scope to improve how you work in that space.For example, if running paper based quality inspections you can gain immediate benefits by switching out to a digital inspection routine, improving auditability and reducing duplication of work by typing up issues after they have been recorded. From there you may want to look at standardizing the data you collect so you can compare Project A in Chicago to Project B in NewYork. You may want to start looking to automate reporting to start improving how your supply chain resolves issues, and look at dashboards and data aggregators to start spotting trends. From there you may want to start using tools like Construction IQ in Autodesk Construction Cloud which will use machine learning to analyze patterns in the data collected to help surface issues that otherwise may not be prioritized and could be costly or lengthy to resolve. You may then want to cross reference this data with cost information, schedule data, and procurement information in other systems.All of this starts by digitizing a process, but without the other steps you cannot reach the potential of the technology and processes you implement. In addition, if you increase maturity of one capability in isolation, you may find that you cannot reach higher steps on the ladder, where integrated data will provide benefits.At the most basic level, having separate buckets of data that do not connect with each other means at some point you’ll need to start transferring and duplicating data, or working out how to integrate systems which can be timely and costly. By having a single common data environment where your project and company data is stored, you can start finding immediate efficiencies by enabling your workflows on top of that data rather than spending your time moving data around. For higher maturity within capabilities you want to take advantage of the API’s (Application Programming Interface’s), essentially hooks into the back end of your software, which would allow you to for example connect your ERP system, with your construction budgets, or even your 3D BIM models.Linking Business outcomes to technologyBy understanding how to link the features and functions of the tools you are using, right up to the business outcomes and the value drivers that your management teams care about.By understanding the reverse way round, it can help you understand how to turn a business strategy and goal into the useful capabilities you will need, and in turn the technologes, workflows and features you will need to learn, or work wth your supply chain to gain.Additional resourcesAutodesk solutions for Owners https:///solutions/owners/ Additional resources for Owners https:///owners-and-construction-project-managementLearn Autodesk Construction CloudRecommended AU 2021 classes•Starting Your Digital Transformation Journey (BLD500032)•Digital Twin for Building Owners 2021: Optimizing Data and Delivery (BLD500036) •The Benefits of Automated Model Checking in the Cloud (BLD500021)•Breaking down ISO 19650. A Document Controllers guide to Autodesk Docs.(CS500093)•Importance and Effect of Standards in Construction (CS500166)•Demystifying technology and standards selection for infrastructure projects (CI500005)Locate an Autodesk partner to help with your digital journey -https:///partners/locate-a-resellerDigital Builder Blog•How Owners Can Create a Winning Combination for Successful Project Delivery•Why Owners Need a Common Data Environment•How Owners Can Get What They Want at Handover•An Owner’s Guide to Project Delivery Methods — How to Choose the Right PDM •PWC report for Capital Project OwnersDigital Builder Podcasto Spotifyo Apple Podcastso Google Podcastso Stitcher。
地球系统科学：作为状态、过程和理解的科学教学模型？
地球系统科学：作为状态、过程和理解的科学教学模型？摘要：一个事件和活动的概述导致了美国国家航空航天局赞助了地球系统科学教育(ESSE) 。
该计划于1991年启动，一直延续到2006年，称为ESSE 21。
为了在ESSE计划内创建和共享跨学科教育资源的合作努力，该概述包括了向美国国家航空航天局寻求帮助的理由。
1991 年启动ESSE 计划的直接动机源于NASA 地球系统科学委员会在其演示文件“地球系统科学，近距离观察”中表达的愿景，该文件又成为美国1980 年关注全球变化的一部分。
该文件总结了上个世纪出现的几个关键事件和能力，这些事件和能力导致并促成了国内和国际对全球变化的关注。
除了社会对环境的关注之外，卫星和计算机与通信的结合首次使人类能够观察全球、区域和本地系统的状态。
本概述与ESSE 的概述示意图相结合的一个关键主题是强调在课堂上展示和学习科学的三个不可分割的要素：状态、过程和理解。
理想情况下，课堂是学生遇到ESS 多学科框架的开放性的地方，进而学会欣赏所涉及学科的相互作用，包括所有人在导致行动的社会决策中的重要性。
1.介绍本文的目的有三个；一，概述导致NASA/USRA 赞助的地球系统科学教育(ESSE) 计划的事件，该计划于1991 年启动并持续到2006 年，二提供导致NASA 关注地球系统科学的背景和愿景NASA 地球系统科学委员会在其演示文稿“地球系统科学，近距离观察”中表达了这一观点，并提出了标题中表达的一个隐含问题，即地球系统科学何时成为课堂科学教学的典范？虽然隐含的问题可能看起来很奇怪，甚至是多余的，但提出的关键问题是确保三个基本要素在课堂上得到强调的重要性。
提出和学习科学的三个不可分割的要素是：状态、过程和理解。
这三个要素的结合所暗含的是一个框架和/或模型，该框架和/或模型将所有这三个要素作为理解科学特别是地球系统科学及其跨学科层面的重要性所必不可少的内在联系起来。
学生的兴趣和动力是学习和提高学生智力能力的核心。
学术写作2
Letters for Publishing Papers
Publication is the goal of almost all academic research.
Communication for publishing papers becomes essential for researchers and scholars.
3
Lessons from Steve Jobs
佛教中有一句话：初学者的心态；拥有初学 者的心态是件了不起的事情。 There’s a phrase in Buddhism, “Beginner’s mind.” It’s wonderful to have a beginner’s mind. 成为卓越的代名词，很多人并不能适合需要 杰出素质的环境。 Be a yardstick of quality. Some people aren’t used to an environment where excellence is expected.
Letters for submitting a paper Letters about review and modification Letters about acceptance and copyright
8
Cover letter for submission (p. 230)
I enclose two copies of my paper entitled “Model-Based Automatic Programming for Plant Control”. I should like to have it published in your journal. Thank you for your consideration.
language and cognition
认知也可以称为认识。是指人认识外界事物的过程，或者说是对作 用于人的感觉器官的外界事物进行信息加工的过程。它包括感觉、 知觉、记忆、思维、想象、言语，是指人们认识活动的过程，即个 体对感觉信号接收、检测、转换、简约、合成、编码、储存、提取、 重建、概念形成、判断和问题解决的信息加工处理过程。
Consequently, this description tends to apply to processes such as
memory, association, concept formation, pattern recognition, language, attention, perception, action, problem solving and mental imagery.
人类的大脑和认知功能的演变是由不同的网络或反馈过程的遗传和环境系 统底层。
Psychology 心理学
When the mind makes a
generalization such as the
concept of tree, it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking.
1)Acquisition
2)Comprehension
3)Production 4)Disorder 5)Language and thought 6)Neurocognition
An introduction of language acquisition
土木工程应用英语教学参考书Unit8
Unit 8 Project ManagementSectionI Talking Face to Face1. Terminology:1) management of construction projects 建设项目管理2）knowledge of modern management 现代管理知识3）technology domains 技术领域4）mission-oriented nature 以任务（目标）为导向5）general management 宏观管理6）predetermined objectives 预定目标7）continuity of operations 经营连续性8）decision support systems 决策支持系统9）linear programming 线性规划10）network analysis 网络分析11）Specification of project objectives 项目目标说明12）setting performance requirements 设定绩效目标2. Explaining some words and expressions in the dialogue:Dialogue one:brief account of : 简要介绍，简要说明turn-key plant : 成套工厂undertake single items : 承接单项工程subcontractor: 分包商provide labor services: 提供劳务服务quality, time, cost and safety: 质量、工期、造价和安全evaluate sth. by sth/doing sth.. : 通过……对……进行评估project engineer, design engineer, schedule engineer : 项目工程师设计工程师计划工程师cooperate for our mutual benefits: 为了我们共同的利益而合作Dialogue two:construction schedule: 工程进度come into force: 开始生效estimating of cost and construction schedule : 成本估算及工程进度估算civil work: 土木工程acceptance: 交工验收SectionII Maintaining a sharp eyePassage 1 what is project management?Important words1. specific: adj .特定的；特有的；ex: a specific style 特有的类型；具体的；明确的；ex: according to specific circumstances 根据具体的情况；n. 特效药；ex: a specific for (against) dysentery 一种治疗痢疾的特效药2. relevant：adj. 有关的，相关的；ex: relevant to the present questionrelevant technology3. `in common with: 有相同之处ex: In common with everyone else I hold that we must develop effective communications and mechanisms for resolving conflicts among the various participants (同大家一样，我也认为我们必须在项目和参与方之间建立有效的沟通机制以化解冲突。
研究生英语听说教程（1-6单元）答案.doc
听写填空—单元、P5 Outrageous shopping bills are a familiar1 ・ suffer that nightmare 2. genders 3. unaffordable4. sufferers5. more than 1 in 20 adults6. expensive electronics7. such a high number of compulsive shoppers inthe general population8. make finding a cure a priority二单元、P20 Tree-lighting Ceremony1 ・ Location: Rockefeller Centre, New York2. Time: right before the Christmas Season3. Height of the tree: nearly 9 storeys4. Audienee: people from all around the country5. Number of the lights on the tree: 300006. Size of the star topper: nearly 10 feet in diameter7. Material of the star topper: crystal8. Source of the tree: a home in Connecticut二单元、P29 Post-vacation depression includes1. sleeplessness2.1oss of appetite3. irregular heartbeat4. feelings of despair5・ tiredness 6・ stomachache 7・ trouble breathing8.anxiety 9・ nervousness10. Space the month-long vacation out11. blow it all at once 12. retur ning on a Mon day13. such blues are temporary14. don't make important decisions15. a new period in life 16. personal growth三单元、P34 Reporter: In Vail, Arizona, a new school1 ・ in this case involves 2. impact 3单元、available 4. resources 5. Whafs the point 6. medium7. reasoning 8. normal 9. from their perspective10. opposed to just the one angle四单元、P51 Beijing opera is largely seen as a dying art 1 • devote d 2. computer animator 3. discipline4. heart-stopping5. explanation in English6. much-loved legend7. supernatural8. challenge9・ thafs within the rules of the opera・10. wins good reviews from both Western andChinese audienee members11. expressing the more acceptable way12. But the popularity of Beijing Opera is fading fast四单元、P53 I hear Jill will make her presentation in class today1 ・ That can't be true 2.for certain3. Thafs impossible4. might be5. ifs likely that6. Quite possibly7」know that for sure 8. No wonder五单元、P67 Thank you very, very much. Well, I just have1 ・ challenge 2.beat 3. figure out4. definition5. recognize6. disability8. tolerate discrimination7. committed9. that is tearing down barriers, both in architecture and in attitude10. who are helping people with disabilities live independent lives六单元、P82 Damage from acid rain isEarth and Sky”.1 ・ widespread 2. falling on 3. exactly4. to reliably measure 5・ assume 6. pollutants7. Electrical utility plants 8. react with9. to get showered 10. with wind currents11. leach nutrients 12. combine with13. from fossil fuels 14. dedicated to听对话Listening to a conversation—单元、P3 1.A)She thinks Internet addiction is as serious as drug and smoking adiction 1 ・A She thinks Inter net addicti on is as serious as drug and smoking addicti on.2. B Inter net addicts in elude both childre n and adults ・3. B Some may get into trouble over money issues・4. D Internet addiction needs to be taken seriously and treated properly.二单元、P20 1 ・A)Tourism is a big and amazing business.1 .B One can learn a lot about other people and customs through traveling.2. D To make a comparison so as to make his point clear.3. A They have some language problems and feel a bit afraid・三单元、P32 1 .A)He thought it was a useful course.1 ・B He thought one could simply practice writi ng by on eself ・2. A A person's thinking patter ns are show n in his writing ・3. D The writer's reading ability.4. D How to put writing skills into practice・5. B He will register for an essay-writing course・四单元、P49 1 .A)He hoped he could write as well as his father.1 ・D He feared his handwriting would not impress his son.2. C Children spend a lot of time on the computer.3. A To call on more people to focus on handwriting.4. B Most people's handwriting is worse than their parents.五单元、P65 1 .A)Finding a place to live in Habitat for Humanity.1 ・C Getting information about Habitat for Humanity・2. A It brought about a lot of changes in her life・3. B Its a unique chance to perform a citizen s duty to help others・4. C To do one’s share for others is to make our world a better place to liv e.5. A Because Wilbur chose to ask her for the information needed.六单元、P81 1 .A)Getting closer to the animals in the zoo.1 .B Seeing a wild animal in the zoo.2. C Today’s zoos are good habitats for wild animals・3. D To prevent endangered animals from extinction.听短文—<7E> P4 1. A)He feels ashamed about his son’s incompete nee.1 ・B He feels the other boys are too competitive・2. D He thinks dancing is a way to relax in ones spare time・3. A Hobbies are supposed to bring pleasure to people・4. A The speaker simply wants to have a good time・二单元、无三单元、P34 1 .A)She will be 100 years old on Wednesday.1 .D She will celebrate her 95th birthday on Wednesday.2. B She is seeking a BA degree in religion.3. C She completed some of her courses on the Inter net.4. B Her son and others will hold a birthday party for her.5. A Nola Ochs has set up a remarkable example as a lifetime learner.三单元、P43 1.A)Because they were homeless children.1 .C Because they took part in a special hardship camp・2. B Growing vegetables・3. A Mountains that are far away.4. D Hardship camps can be an important part of an education for children.5. A They like the idea of organizing hardship camps and support it.四单元、P50 Barbie 1 .A)The old-fashioned design.1 ・D The decreasing sales worldwide・2. A Toys need to be magical and creative.3. B Because Burbie stands for an outdate image of women.4. A Barbie dolls may disappear from the market.5.C The Barbie brand will expand to other en tertai nment fields.五单元、P66Mike Teeley.. .in terviewl .A)He was well mann ered whe n talking with the speaker.1 .B He was able to share the speaker's feelings.2. D To tell the speaker that he was always ready to offer help・3. C One act of kindness can bring warmlh to those in need・六单元、P81 1.A)They are becoming extinct.1 ・C They are the threats to species・2. D It can show the importance of protecting the animals・3. B Doing comm unity service remi nds a citizen of their resp on sibility to protect animal.短对话Listening to short conversations一单元、p 12 1 .A)He has only one hobby and no bad hobbies.1 ・B He thinks he can learn skills from good hobbies.2. C Stephen learns to be systematic from his hobby.3. D Roys real interest in fishing is sitting alone and doing nothing.4. B The farmer has held on to his hobby even though he met with great difficulties.5. D She thinks every addiction is as bad as the other.二单元、P27 1.A) Husband and wife.1. A Husband and wife・2. D A vacation is even more exhausting.3. D The woman is packing for her bus tour.4. B The bus was too worn out and uncomfortable.5. A 3 hours or so.三单元、P41 1 .A)He is taking an extanee examination.1. D He is at a job interview・2. A He suggests the woman keep trying until she gets it right.3. B To receive assistance from the teacher.4. D He wants to keep learning all his life.5. C The man's idea is not feasible at all.四单元、P58 1 .A) The woman is unhappy about ......1 .A The woman is unhappy about too many advertisements on TV.2. C He is interested in the history of cities shown in pictures.3. D It is about personality evident in an individuaPs gestures・4. A The man is a Brazilian.5. A He wants to make his body stronger.五单元、P74 1 .A)She didn't go to the party yesterday・1 ・A She didn't go to the party yesterday・2. C The engine started as soon as they got on the plane.3. C Jas on can take the test on ano ther day ・4. C Cheer up and you would be able to get a job soon.5. D He was criticized by the woman5 s mother all the way.六单元、P87 1 .A)How to turn off taps properly.1 ・D How to protect water and trees in nature・2. C It is a good idea for people to make voluntary contributions.3. B Louisiana tornado killed 50 people4. C He feels it necessary to use animals in medical researches・5. D The two speakers have different opinions about the biggest pollution problem.长对话一单元、P13 1.A) Mark is a porker addict・1 .D Mark is addicted to online games・2. C Ron is not a serious garni ng addict.3. C Gloria hopes mark can control himself playing games・4. A Ron thinks gambling is more harmful than playing games.5. A Some gaming addicts make friends when playing together.二单元、P28 1 .A) There are a lot of restrictions on tourists.1 .B There is a large variety of animals there・2. D Tourists are not allowed to take pictures of wild animals there.3. D Go horseback riding.4. D It must be a famous geyser.5. B Putting out the campfire・三单元、P42 1.A) Hearing.1. B Smelling.2. D It means acquiring knowledge in one's favourite way3. A Ted enjoys discussion with others・4. C Because mike once took a computer apart Io make observations.5. C Different people should develop their own suitable leaning styles.四单元、P59 1 .A)Culture shock is caused by .........1 ・B Culture shock is caused when you feel unfamiliar with the social environment.2. C He might feel anxious, uneasy and frustrated・3. D He thinks one cannot learn about local culture well enough through a class.4. A Most local customs are learned through social life・5. B One can learn to be involved in a new culture step by step.五单元、P75 1 .A)He is now a United States senator.1. D He was the oldest astronaut in space.2. B To do research on how and why people get old.3. C His trip implies what attitude the aged should take towards life.4. B He likes drinking very much・5. A The significance of Mr. GlenrYs shuttle trip into space・六单元、P88 1.A)There will be a lot of troubles to protect the environment. 1 ・D Many things can be done to protect the environment.2. A Driving steadily will help protect the ozone layer.3. D Because they use much too many disposable products・4. C To buy a special u low-flow M shower head・5. B Things people can do to reduce pollulion.。
CRUST
Learning: Knowledge Representation, Organization, and AcquisitionDanielle S. McNamara and Tenaha O’ReillyOld Dominion UniversityKnowledge acquisition is the process of absorbing and storing new information in memory, the success of which is often gauged by how well the information can later be remembered, or retrieved from memory. The process of storing and retrieving new information depends heavily on the representation and organization of this information. Moreover, the utility of knowledge can also be influenced by how the information is structured. For example, a bus schedule can be represented in the form of a map or a timetable. On the one hand, a timetable provides quick and easy access to the arrival time for each bus, but does little for finding where a particular stop is situated. On the other hand, a map provides a detailed picture of each bus stop’s location, but cannot efficiently communicate bus schedules. Both forms of representation are useful, but it is important to select the representation most appropriate for the task. Similarly, knowledge acquisition can be improved by considering the purpose and function of the desired information. This article provides an overview of knowledge representation and organization, and offers five guidelines to improve knowledge acquisition and retrieval.Knowledge Representation and OrganizationThere are numerous theories of how knowledge is represented and organized in the mind including rule-based production models (Anderson & Lebière, 1998), distributed networks (Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986), and propositional models (Kintsch, 1998). However, these theories are all fundamentally based on the concept of semantic networks. A semantic networkFigure 1: Schematic representation of a semantic networkis a method of representing knowledge as a system of connections between concepts in memory. This section explains the basic assumptions of semantic networks and describes several different types of knowledge.Semantic NetworksAccording to semantic network models, knowledge is organized based on meaning, such that semantically related concepts are interconnected. Knowledge networks are typically represented as diagrams of nodes (i.e., concepts) and links (i.e., relations). The nodes and links are given numerical weights to represent their strengths in memory. In Figure 1, the node representing DOCTOR is strongly related to SCALPEL, whereas NURSE is weakly related to SCALPEL. These link strengths are represented here in terms of line width. Similarly, some nodes in Figure 1 are bolded to represent their strength in memory. Concepts such as DOCTOR and BREAD are more memorable because they are more frequently encountered than concepts such as SCALPEL and CRUST.Mental excitation, or activation, spreads automatically from one concept to another related concept. For example, thinking of BREAD spreads activation to related concepts, such as BUTTER and CRUST. These concepts are primed, and thus more easily recognized or retrieved from memory. For example, in a typical semantic priming study (Meyer &Schvaneveldt, 1976), a series of words (e.g., BUTTER) and nonwords (e.g., BOTTOR) are presented, and participants determine whether each item is a word. A word is more quickly recognized if it follows a semantically related word. For example, BUTTER is more quickly recognized as a word if BREAD precedes it rather than NURSE. This result supports the assumption that semantically related concepts are more strongly connected than unrelated concepts.Figure 2: Schematic representation of ideas (propositions) in a semantic network.Network models represent more than simple associations. They must represent the ideas and complex relationships that comprise knowledge and comprehension. For example, the idea “The doctor uses a scalpel” can be represented as the proposition USE(DOCTOR,SCALPEL) consisting of the nodes DOCTOR and SCALPEL and the link USE (see Figure 2). Educators have successfully used similar diagrams, called concept maps, to communicate important relations and attributes amongst the key concepts of a lesson (Guastello, Beasley, & Sinatra 2000).Types of KnowledgeThere are numerous types of knowledge, but the most important distinction is between declarative and procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge refers to our memory for concepts, facts, or episodes, whereas procedural knowledge refers to the ability to perform various tasks. Knowledge of how to drive a car, solve a multiplication problem, or throw a football are all forms of procedural knowledge, called procedures or productions. Procedural knowledge may begin as declarative knowledge, but is proceduralized with practice (Anderson, 1982). For example, when first learning to drive a car, you may be told to put the key in the ignition to start the car, which is a declarative statement. However, after starting the car numerous times, this act becomes automatic and is completed with little thought. Indeed, procedural knowledge tends to be accessed automatically and require little attention. It also tends to be more durable (less susceptible to forgetting) than declarative knowledge (Jensen & Healy, 1998).Knowledge AcquisitionThis section describes five guidelines for knowledge acquisition that emerge from how knowledge is represented and organized.Process the material semantically. Knowledge is organized semantically; therefore, knowledge acquisition is optimized when the learner focuses on the meaning of the new material. Craik and his colleagues were among the first to provide evidence for the importance of semantic processing(Craik & Tulving, 1975). In their studies, participants answered questions concerning target words that varied according to the depth of processing involved. For example, semantic questions (e.g., Would the word fit appropriately in the sentence?: "He met a____ on the street"? FRIEND vs. TREE) involves a greater depth of processing than phonemic questions (e.g., Does the word rhyme with LATE?: CRATE vs. TREE), which in turn have a greater depth than questions concerning the structure of a word (e.g., Is the word in capital letters?: TREE vs. tree). They found that words processed semantically were better learned than words processed phonemically or structurally. Further studies have confirmed that learning benefits from greater semantic processing of the material.Process and retrieve information frequently. A second learning principle is to test and retrieve the information numerous times. Retrieving, or self-producing information can be contrasted with simply reading or copying it. Decades of research on a phenomenon called the generation effect has shown that passively studying items by copying or reading them does little for memory in comparison to self-producing, or generating, an item (Slamecka & Graf, 1978). Moreover, learning improves as a function of the number of times information is retrieved. Within an academic situation, this principle points to the need for frequent practice tests, worksheets, or quizzes. In terms of studying, it is also important to break up, or distribute retrieval attempts (Melton, 1967; Glenberg, 1979). Distributed retrieval can include studying or testing items in a random order, with breaks, or on different days. In contrast, repeating information numerous times sequentially involves only a single, retrieval from long-term memory, which does little to improve memory for the information.Learning and retrieval conditions should be similar. How knowledge is represented is determined by the conditions and context (internal and external) in which it is learned, and this in turn determines how it is retrieved: Information is best retrieved when the conditions of learning and retrieval are the same. This principle has been referred to as encoding specificity (Tulving & Thompson, 1973). For example, in one experiment, participants were shown sentences with anadjective and a noun printed in capital letters (e.g. The CHIP DIP tasted delicious.) and told that their memory for the nouns would be tested afterward. In the recognition test, participants were shown the noun either with the original adjective (CHIP DIP), a different adjective (SKINNY DIP), or without an adjective (DIP). Noun recognition was better when the original adjective (CHIP) was presented than when no adjective was presented. Moreover, presenting a different adjective (SKINNY) yielded the lowest recognition (Light & Carter-Sobell, 1970). This finding underscores the importance of matching learning and testing conditions.Encoding specificity is also important in terms of the questions used to test memory or comprehension. Different types of questions tap into different levels of understanding. For example, recalling information involves a different level of understanding, and different mental processes than does recognizing information. Likewise, essay and open-ended questions assess a different level of understanding than do multiple-choice questions (McNamara & Kintsch, 1996). Essay and open-ended questions generally tap into a conceptual or situational understanding of the material, which results from an integration of text-based information and the reader’s prior knowledge. In contrast, multiple-choice questions involve recognition processes and typically assess a shallow or text-based understanding. A text-based representation can be impoverished and incomplete because it consists only of concepts and relations within the text. This level of understanding, likely developed by a student preparing for a multiple-choice exam, would be inappropriate preparation for an exam with open-ended or essay questions. Thus, students should benefit by adjusting their study practices according to the expected type of questions. Alternatively, students may benefit from reviewing the material in many different ways, such as recognizing the information, recalling the information, and interpreting the information. These latter processes improve understanding and maximize the probability that the various ways thematerial is studied will match the way it is tested. From a teacher’s point of view, including different types of questions on worksheets or exams ensures that each student will have an opportunity to convey their understanding of the material.Connect new information to prior knowledge. Knowledge is interconnected; therefore, new material that is linked to prior knowledge will be better retained. A driving factor in text and discourse comprehension is prior knowledge (Bransford & Johnson, 1972). Skilled readers actively use their prior knowledge during comprehension. Prior knowledge helps the reader to fill in contextual gaps within the text and to develop a better global understanding or situation model of the text. Given that texts rarely (if ever) spell out everything needed for successful comprehension, using prior knowledge to understand text and discourse is critical. Moreover, thinking about what you already know about a topic provides connections in memory to the new information – the more connections that are formed, the more likely the information will be retrievable from memory.Create cognitive procedures. Procedural knowledge is better retained and more easily accessed. Therefore, one should develop and use cognitive procedures when learning information. Procedures can include short cuts for completing a task (e.g., using "fast 10s" to solve multiplication problems) as well as memory strategies that increase the distinctive meaning of information. Cognitive research has repeatedly demonstrated the benefits of memory strategies, or mnemonics, for enhancing the recall of information. There are numerous types of mnemonics, but one well-known mnemonic is the method of loci. This technique was invented originally for the purpose of memorizing long speeches in the times before luxuries such as paper and pencil were readily available (Yates, 1966). The first task is to imagine and memorize a series of distinct locations along a familiar route, such as a pathway from one campus buildingto another. Each topic of a speech (or word in a word list; Crovitz, 1971) can then be pictured in a location along the route. When it comes time to recall the speech or word list, the items are simply "found" by mentally traveling the pathway.Mnemonics are generally effective because they increase semantic processing of the words (or phrases) and render them more meaningful by linking them to familiar concepts in memory. Mnemonics also provide “ready-made” effective cues for retrieving the information. Another important aspect of mnemonics is that mental imaging is often involved. Images not only render the information more meaningful, but they provide an additional route for "finding" information in memory (e.g., Paivio, 1990). As mentioned earlier, increasing the number of meaningful links to information in memory increases the likelihood it can be retrieved.Strategies are also an important component of metacognition (Hacker, Dunlosky, & Graesser, 1998). Metacognition is the ability to think about, understand and manage one’s learning. First one must develop an awareness of one's own thought processes. Simply being aware of thought processes increases the likelihood of more effective knowledge construction. Second, the learner must be aware of whether or not comprehension has been successful. Realizing when comprehension has failed is crucial to learning. The final, and most important stage of metacognitive processing is fixing the comprehension problem. The individual must be aware of and use strategies to remedy comprehension and learning difficulties. For successful knowledge acquisition to occur, all three of these processes must occur. Without thinking or worrying about learning, the student cannot realize whether the concepts have been successfully grasped. Without realizing that information has not been understood, the student cannot engage in strategies to remedy the situation. If nothing is done about a comprehension failure, awareness is futile.ConclusionKnowledge acquisition is integrally tied to how the mind organizes and represents information. Learning can be enhanced by considering the fundamental properties of human knowledge as well as the ultimate function of the desired information. The most important property is that knowledge is organized semantically; therefore, learning methods should enhance meaningful study of the new information. Learners should also create as many links to the information as possible. In addition, learning methods should be matched to the desired outcome. Just as using a bus timetable to find a bus stop location is ineffective, learning to recognize information will do little good on an essay exam.2,161 wordsDanielle S. McNamaraTenaha O'ReillyBibliographyAnderson, J. R. 1982. Acquisition of a cognitive skill. Psychological Review89:369-406. Anderson, J. R., and Lebière, C. 1998. The Atomic Components of Thought. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Bransford, J., and Johnson, M. K. 1972. Contextual prerequisites for understanding some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and VerbalBehavior11: 717-726.Craik, F. I. M., and Tulving, E. 1975. Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General194:268-294.Crovitz, H. F. 1971. The capacity of memory loci in artificial memory. Psychonomic Science24: 187-188.Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., and Graesser, A. C. 1998. Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Guastello, F., Beasley, M., and Sinatra, R. 2000. Concept mapping effects on science content comprehension of low-achieving inner-city seventh graders. Rase: Remedial & Special Education 21: 356-365.Glenberg, A. M. 1979. Component-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition. Memory & Cognition 7: 95-112.Kintsch, W. 1998. Comprehension: A Paradigm for Cognition. New York: Cambridge University Press.Jensen, M. B., and Healy, A. F. 1998. Retention of procedural and declarative information from the Colorado Drivers' Manual. In M. J. Intons-Peterson & D. Best (Eds.), MemoryDistortions and their Prevention (pp. 113-124). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Light, L. L., and Carter-Sobell, L. 1970. Effects of changed semantic context on recognition memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior9:1-11.McNamara, D. S., and Kintsch, W. 1996. Learning from text: Effects of prior knowledge and text coherence. Discourse Processes 22: 247-287.Melton, A. W. 1967. Repetition and retrieval from memory. Science 158: 532.Meyer, D. E., and Schvaneveldt, R. W. 1976. Meaning, memory structure, and mental processes.Science192:27-33.Paivio, A. 1990. Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach. NY: Oxford University Press.Rumelhart, D. E., and McClelland, J. L. 1986. Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition (Vol. 1: Foundations). Cambridge, MA: MIT press. Slamecka, N. J., and Graf, P. 1978. The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory4: 592-604.Tulving, E., and Thompson, D. M. 1973. Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review80: 352-373.Yates, F. A. 1966. The Art of Memory. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.。
从混沌到有序
从混沌到有序--BPP业务流程平台白皮书混沌的业务流程业务流程就像是血管，维系着企业这个生命体的运转。
他们可能是一个复杂采购流程，涉及多个部门、跨越数个系统。
也有可能是一个简单的部门内部文件的签字流程，只有两个人参与。
这些业务流程数量众多，将企业的业务、人员、资源等全部串联在了一起。
但请设想一下，企业中的某些业务流程出现了断点，可能是由于人员的离职，也能是由于职责的模糊、生产资料的缺乏。
或者流程过于繁琐、冗余占用了企业大量资源。
就像血管出现了阻塞，供血不足。
这个时候企业会面临怎样的局面？在当今瞬息万变的商业环境中，企业的战略不断在调整，而业务流程的调整更是从没有停止过。
但这些变化的过程中是不是每个业务流程的关系人都被充分告知并明确新的业务流程是怎样的？答案是否定的。
每个员工的工作会涉及到很多个流程，他们往往会熟悉自己主要的一些流程，其余的时间则是根据自己主观的判断去完成工作。
而管理者也很难清楚的看到那些业务流程执行的状况，即使他们希望能够梳理出一套高效、可行的业务流程，但是他们缺乏数据依据。
业务流程管理所谓业务流程指的是在企业运行过程中使用的各种流程。
企业的业务流程包括一个或者多个主流程，每个主流程有很多子流程，各个流程节点可能还会包括作业流程。
而从功能上交易流程、管理流程等。
随着信息技术在企业中不断被应用，管理这些纷繁复杂的业务流程正逐步变得可能。
业务流程信息化管理的过去在最初期，满足不同业务需求的信息化系统被部署到企业的内部，这些系统有时只提供流程节点上的功能，而流程是通过人工在线下完成。
或者他们会在系统中固化一个符合该系统业务的流程，准确的说这还不是业务流程只能说是工作流程。
而固化的流程显然不能满足企业发展的需要，为了应对流程的不断变化，系统的供应商们纷纷在自己的系统内部增加了“流程引擎”。
通过他们企业、用户可以自己定义该系统中的业务流程，并让系统照此运行。
灵活度被大大提高了，但是业务流还是仅仅局限于该系统的内部。
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Understanding OSS as a Self-Organizing Process Greg Madey University of Notre Dame Computer Science & Engineering University of Notre Dame 574-631-8752 gmadey@nd.edu Vincent Freeh University of Notre Dame Computer Science & Engineering University of Notre Dame 574-631-9131 vin@nd.edu Renee Tynan University of Notre Dame Department of Management University of Notre Dame 574-631-6764
rtynan@nd.edu
ABSTRACT We hypothesize that open source software development can be modeled as self-organizing, collaboration, social networks. We analyze structural data on over 39,000 open source projects hosted at SourceForge.net. We define two software developers to be connected — part of a collaboration social network — if they are members of the same project, or are connected by a chain of connected developers. Project sizes, developer project participation, and clusters of connected developers are analyzed. We find evidence to support our hypothesis, primarily in the presence of power-law relationships on project sizes (number of developers per project), project membership (number of projects joined by a developer), and cluster sizes.
Categories and Subject Descriptors D.2.2 [Software Engineering]: General.
General Terms Management, Measurement
Keywords Self-organization, emergence, open source, power laws
1. INTRODUCTION Several research streams converge to provide us with a number of tools and models for analyzing the open source software movement: social network theory, small world phenomenon, power-laws, self-organization, and graph theory. Social network theory models persons as nodes of a graph and their relationships as edges of the graph [1-4]. Thus two persons are directly connected if they have a relationship (e.g., friendship) with each other; they then are one link away from one another. More distant relationships are modeled as paths through the graph; a “friend of a friend” is two links away. Several studies reveal an interesting phenomenon present in many of these social networks; most persons are very few links from any other person – the Small World Phenomenon [3, 4]. This idea was popularized in the play (and movie) Six Degrees of Separation [5] which claims that all persons in the world are at most six friendship links away.
2. SOCIAL NETWORK THEORY Collaborative networks are variations of social networks, where the relationships are collaborations, e.g., actors in movies [3, 6], or co-authors on research papers [7, 8]. Often entire populations are connected into one large cluster with characteristic cluster
coefficients, maximum degrees of separation (diameter) [3]. Highly prolific actors or authors are linchpins in collaborative networks. Linchpin actors or researchers play key roles in bridging disparate groups into one large cluster.
Social networks, collaborative networks, and other self-organizing systems (e.g., the Internet, WWW pages, U.S. firm sizes, cities, economic systems, word usage in languages, ecosystems) often have another interesting property; they have highly skewed distributions, which under a log-log transformation results in a linear relationship. This is called a power-law relationship. Power-law relationships have been reported for the Internet [9-13], sizes of U.S. firms [14], city size distributions [15], ecosystems [16], word rank in languages and writing [17] and many others.
Why such systems have power-law relationships is an open research question. Some speculate that self-organizing processes, when modeled as growing networks, display non-random attachment of nodes (sometimes called preferential attachment) [8, 12, 18].
We analyze the open source movement by modeling it as a collaborative social network. The developers are nodes of a graph and joint membership on an open source project is a collaborative link between the developers. The open source software development movement is highly decentralized and is a volunteer effort where developers freely join projects that they find appealing – all attributes of typical self-organizing systems. We hypothesize that the open source movement displays power-law relationships in its structure. Our empirical analysis of structural data collected from SourceForge suggests that this is the case. If this is supported by more detailed investigations, and as additional general theories are developed about social and collaborative networks (e.g., distributions in networks with non-random growth), that theory may then be applied to the open source software development process.