机械毕业设计英文外文翻译369汽车前照灯自适应发展综述 - 副本
机械类毕业设计外文翻译
外文原文Options for micro-holemakingAs in the macroscale-machining world, holemaking is one of the most— if not the most—frequently performed operations for micromachining. Many options exist for how those holes are created. Each has its advantages and limitations, depending on the required hole diameter and depth, workpiece material and equipment requirements. This article covers holemaking with through-coolant drills and those without coolant holes, plunge milling, microdrilling using sinker EDMs and laser drilling.Helpful HolesGetting coolant to the drill tip while the tool is cutting helps reduce the amount of heat at the tool/workpiece interface and evacuate chips regardless of hole diameter. Butthrough-coolant capability is especially helpful when deep-hole microdrilling because the tools are delicate and prone to failure when experiencing recutting of chips, chip packing and too much exposure to carbide’s worst enemy—heat.When applying flood coolant, the drill itself blocks access to the cutting action. “Somewhere about 3 to 5 diameters deep, the coolant has trouble getting down to the tip,” said Jeff Davis, vice president of engineering for Harvey Tool Co., Rowley, Mass. “It becomes wise to use a coolant-fed drill at that point.”In addition, flood coolant can cause more harm than good when microholemaking. “The pressure from the flood coolant can sometimes snap fragile drills as they enter the part,” Davis said.The toolmaker offers a line of through-coolant drills with diameters from 0.039" to 0.125" that are able to produce holes up to 12 diameters deep, as well as microdrills without coolant holes from 0.002" to 0.020".Having through-coolant capacity isn’t enough, though. Coolant needs to flow at a rate that enables it to clear the chips out of the hole. Davis recommends, at a minimum, 600 to 800 psi of coolant pressure. “It works much better if you have higher pressure than that,” he added.To prevent those tiny coolant holes from becoming clogged with debris, Davis also recommends a 5μm or finer coolant filter.Another recommendation is to machine a pilot, or guide, hole to prevent the tool from wandering on top of the workpiece and aid in producing a straight hole. When applying a pilot drill, it’s important to select one with an included angle on its point that’s equal t o or larger than the included angle on the through-coolant drill that follows. The pilot drill’sdiameter should also be slightly larger. For example, if the pilot drill has a 120° included angle and a smaller diameter than a through-coolant drill with a 140° included angle, “then you’re catching the coolant-fed drill’s corners and knocking those corners off,” Davis said, which damages the drill.Although not mandatory, pecking is a good practice when microdrilling deep holes. Davis suggests a pecking cycle that is 30 to 50 percent of the diameter per peck depth, depending on the workpiece material. This clears the chips, preventing them from packing in the flute valleys.Lubricious ChillTo further aid chip evacuation, Davis recommends applying an oil-based metalworking fluid instead of a waterbased coolant because oil provides greater lubricity. But if a shop prefers using coolant, the fluid should include EP (extreme pressure) additives to increase lubricity and minimize foaming. “If you’ve got a lot of foam,” Davis noted, “the chips aren’t being pulled out the way they are supposed to be.”He added that another way to enhance a tool’s slipperiness while extending its life is with a coating, such as titanium aluminum nitride. TiAlN has a high hardness and is an effective coating for reducing heat’s impact when drilling difficult-to-machine materials, like stainless steel.David Burton, general manager of Performance Micro Tool, Janesville, Wis., disagrees with the idea of coating microtools on the sma ller end of the spectrum. “Coatings on tools below 0.020" typically have a negative effect on every machining aspect, from the quality of the initial cut to tool life,” he said. That’s because coatings are not thin enough and negatively alter the rake and relief angles when applied to tiny tools.However, work continues on the development of thinner coatings, and Burton indicated that Performance Micro Tool, which produces microendmills and microrouters and resells microdrills, is working on a project with others to create a submicron-thickness coating. “We’re probably 6 months to 1 year from testing it in the market,” Burton said.The microdrills Performance offers are basically circuit-board drills, which are also effective for cutting metal. All the tools are without through-coolant capability. “I had a customer drill a 0.004"-dia. hole in stainless steel, and he was amazed he could do it with a circuit-board drill,” Burton noted, adding that pecking and running at a high spindle speed increase the drill’s effectiveness.The requirements for how fast microtools should rotate depend on the type of CNC machines a shop uses and the tool diameter, with higher speeds needed as the diameter decreases. (Note: The equation for cutting speed is sfm = tool diameter × 0.26 × spindlecan go deeper because it’s de signed to place the load on its tip when drilling. This transfers the pressure into the shank, which absorbs it.Performance offers endmills as small as 5 microns (0.0002") but isn’t keen on increasing that line’s sales. “When people try to buy them, I ve ry seriously try to talk them out of it because we don’t like making them,” Burton said. Part of the problem with tools that small is the carbide grains not only need to be submicron in size but the size also needs to be consistent, in part because such a tool is comprised of fewer grains. “The 5-micron endmill probably has 10 grains holding the core together,” Burton noted.He added that he has seen carbide powder containing 0.2-micron grains, which is about half the size of what’s commercially available, but it also contained grains measuring 0.5 and 0.6 microns. “It just doesn’t help to have small grains if they’re not uniform.”MicrovaporizationElectrical discharge machining using a sinker EDM is another micro-holemaking option. Unlike , which create small holes for threading wire through the workpiece when wire EDMing, EDMs for producing microholes are considerably more sophisticated, accurate and, of course, expensive.For producing deep microholes, a tube is applied as the electrode. For EDMing smaller but shallower ho les, a solid electrode wire, or rod, is needed. “We try to use tubes as much as possible,” said Jeff Kiszonas, EDM product manager for Makino Inc., Auburn Hills, Mich. “But at some point, nobody can make a tube below a certain diameter.” He added that some suppliers offer tubes down to 0.003" in diameter for making holes as small as 0.0038". The tube’s flushing hole enables creating a hole with a high depth-to-diameter ratio and helps to evacuate debris from the bottom of the hole during machining.One suc h sinker EDM for producing holes as small as 0.00044" (11μm) is Makino’s Edge2 sinker EDM with fine-hole option. In Japan, the machine tool builder recently produced eight such holes in 2 minutes and 40 seconds through 0.0010"-thick tungsten carbide at the hole locations. The electrode was a silver-tungsten rod 0.00020" smaller than the hole being produced, to account for spark activity in the gap.When producing holes of that size, the rod, while rotating, is dressed with a charged EDM wire. The fine-hole option includes a W-axis attachment, which holds a die that guides the electrode, as well as a middle guide that prevents the electrode from bending or wobbling as it spins. With the option, the machine is appropriate for drilling hole diameters less than 0.005".Another sinker EDM for micro-holemaking is the Mitsubishi VA10 with a fine-hole哈尔滨理工大学2008届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译jig attachment to chuck and guide the fine wire applied to erode the material. “It’s a standard EDM, but with that attachment fixed to the machine, we can do microhol e drilling,” said Dennis Powderly, sinker EDM product manager for MC Machinery Systems Inc., Wood Dale, Ill. He added that the EDM is also able to create holes down to 0.0004" using a wire that rotates at up to 2,000 rpm.Turn to TungstenEDMing is typically a slow process, and that holds true when it is used for microdrilling. “It’s very slow, and the finer the details, the slower it is,” said , president and owner of Optimation Inc. The Midvale, Utah, company builds Profile 24 Piezo EDMs for micromachining and also performs microEDMing on a contract-machining basis.Optimation produces tungsten electrodes using a reverse-polarity process and machines and ring-laps them to as small as 10μm in diameter with 0.000020" roundness. Applying a10μm-dia. electr ode produces a hole about 10.5μm to 11μm in diameter, and blind-holes are possible with the company’s EDM. The workpiece thickness for the smallest holes is up to 0.002", and the thickness can be up to 0.04" for 50μm holes.After working with lasers and then with a former EDM builder to find a better way to produce precise microholes, Jorgensen decided the best approach was DIY. “We literally started with a clean sheet of paper and did all the electronics, all the software and the whole machine from scratc h,” he said. Including the software, the machine costs in the neighborhood of $180,000 to $200,000.Much of the company’s contract work, which is provided at a shop rate of $100 per hour, involves microEDMing exotic metals, such as gold and platinum for X-ray apertures, stainless steel for optical applications and tantalum and tungsten for the electron-beam industry. Jorgensen said the process is also appropriate for EDMing partially electrically conductive materials, such as PCD.“The customer normally doesn’t care too much about the cost,” he said. “We’ve done parts where there’s $20,000 [in time and material] involved, and you can put the whole job underneath a fingernail. We do everything under a microscope.”Light CuttingBesides carbide and tungsten, light is an appropriate “tool material” formicro-holemaking. Although most laser drilling is performed in the infrared spectrum, the SuperPulse technology from The Ex One Co., Irwin, Pa., uses a green laser beam, said Randy Gilmore, the company’s director of laser technologies. Unlike the femtosecond variety, Super- Pulse is a nanosecond laser, and its green light operates at the 532-nanometer wavelength. The technology provides laser pulses of 4 to 5 nanoseconds in duration, and those pulses are sent in pairs with a delay of 50 to 100 nanoseconds between individual pulses. The benefits of this approach are twofold. “It greatly enhances material removal compared to1other nanosecond lasers,” Gilmore said, “and greatly reduces the amount of thermal damage don e to the workpiece material” because of the pulses’ short duration.The minimum diameter produced with the SuperPulse laser is 45 microns, but one of the most common applications is for producing 90μm to 110μm holes in diesel injector nozzles made of 1mm-t hick H series steel. Gilmore noted that those holes will need to be in the 50μm to 70μm range as emission standards tighten because smaller holes in injector nozzles atomize diesel fuel better for more efficient burning.In addition, the technology can produce negatively tapered holes, with a smaller entrance than exit diameter, to promote better fuel flow.Another common application is drilling holes in aircraft turbine blades for cooling. Although the turbine material might only be 1.5mm to 2mm thick, Gilmore explained that the holes are drilled at a 25° entry angle so the air, as it comes out of the holes, hugs the airfoil surface and drags the heat away. That means the hole traverses up to 5mm of material. “Temperature is everything in a turbine” he said, “because in an aircraft engine, the hotter you can run the turbine, the better the fuel economy and the more thrust you get.”To further enhance the technology’s competitiveness, Ex One developed apatent-pending material that is injected into a hollow-body component to block the laser beam and prevent back-wall strikes after it creates the needed hole. After laser machining, the end user removes the material without leaving remnants.“One of the bugaboos in getting lasers accepted in the diesel injector community is that light has a nasty habit of continuing to travel until it meets another object,” Gilmore said. “In a diesel injector nozzle, that damages the interior surface of the opposite wall.”Although the $650,000 to $800,000 price for a Super- Pulse laser is higher than amicro-holemaking EDM, Gilmore noted that laser drilling doesn’t require electrodes. “A laser system is using light to make holes,” he said, “so it doesn’t have a consumable.”Depending on the application, mechanical drilling and plunge milling, EDMing and laser machining all have their place in the expanding micromachining universe. “People want more packed into smaller spaces,” said Makino’s Kiszonas.哈尔滨理工大学2008届本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译中文翻译微孔的加工方法正如宏观加工一样，在微观加工中孔的加工也许也是最常用的加工之一。
汽车自适应前照灯系统的设计(毕业论文)..
汽车自适应前照灯系统的设计摘要传统的汽车照明系统主要由前照灯系统，信号照明系统，车内照明系统三大部分组成。
随着科技的进步，传统照明系统也经历了长足的发展，但是实际的使用中，传统的前照灯系统依然存在着诸多问题，在面对复杂的道路条件和行车状况时，交通安全仍然存在巨大的隐患。
因此，如何使传统汽车照明智能化，驾车更安全，更舒适就成为一个十分紧迫而又有重大现实意义的课题。
针对传统的汽车照明灯夜间行驶在弯道时无法调节照明角度、在弯道内侧易出现盲区，在坡道无法调节照明角度等情况，提出了一种前照灯弯道自适应照明控制系统，以提高夜间行车安全性。
本文主要介绍了一种以单片机STC90C51为核心设计的汽车自适应前照灯计算机控制系统。
简要的介绍汽车自适应前照灯的产生的背景、当今国内外发展现状及趋势。
分析了该系统的组成、功能和工作原理。
在文章硬件部分，详细设计了汽车自适应前照灯左右转向计算机控制系统的主控制器及外围电路。
在软件部分，设计了系统软件的整体流程，算法程序，实现了一个可根据道路以及方向盘转角信号随动转向的控制系统。
通过最后的系统调试，保证了车辆在弯道行驶时，前照灯能根据路况调整到合适的位置给驾驶者提供照明。
表明了本设计方案的可行性和正确性。
在论文的最后，对本次毕业设计进行了总结，提出了一些尚待解决的问题，为今后的进一步完善提出了参考意见。
关键词：自适应照明，随动转向，安全驾驶，STC90C51A PROJECT OF AUTOMOTIVE ADAPTIVE FRONTLIGHTING SYSTEMABSTRACTTraditional automotive lighting system consists of three major components: headlamp system, signal lighting and interior lighting system. As technology advances, the traditional lighting system also continues to develop, but in practice, there are still many problems in the traditional headlamp system. Facing complex road conditions and driving conditions, there are colossal security bungles in the traffic safety. Therefore, how to make the traditional automotive lighting intelligent, and how to make the driving more secure and more comfortable have become a very urgent and great practically significant issue.The traditional automotive lighting drive at night may be faced some conditions, for example, inability of adjusting illumination angels at the curve, the appearance of blind section at the clip, inability of adjusting illuminati on angels at the ramp, based on which, a headlamp adaptive lighting control system at the curve is put forward in order to improve the driving safety at night. This paper introduces a Computer control system of the automotive adaptive headlamps with STC90C51 microcontroller core design. The paper will briefly introduce the background of the appearance of auto-adaptive headlamps, and its current development situations and trends at home and abroad. It will also analyze the composition, function and working theory of the system. The hardware part in the paper detailed designs the host controller and peripheral circuits of the auto adaptive headlamps left and right tuning computer control system. The software part projects the overall process of system software, algorithms program, finishing a control system that canoptional turn according to vehicle speed and steering angle signals. The final system debugging ensures that when the vehicles are driving at the curve, the headlamps can adjust itsel according to road conditions to a suitable position to light for the drivers. The project is of feasibility and correctness.At the end of the paper, a conclusion of the project is drawn to put forward some problems waiting for solving and to come up with some idea about the later improvement.Key words: adaptive lighting, tracking turning, safe driving,STC90C5目录第1章绪论 (1)§1.1 课题背景 (1)§1.2 国内外发展现状及发展趋势 (3)§1.3本课题的研究意义与主要内容 (5)第2章系统整体方案设计 (6)§2.1 系统的功能及构成 (6)§2.2 系统基本功能 (8)§2.3 系统的工作原理 (8)§2.3.1 随动转弯角度 (9)§2.3.2 车身纵倾调光 (10)§2.4本章小结 (10)第3章系统硬件设计 (11)§3.1 AFS主控制器设计 (11)§3.1.1 微控制芯片的选型 (11)§3.1.2 信号处理电路设计 (13)§3.1.3 电源电路设计 (15)§3.1.4 电机控制电路设计 (15)§3.2 执行器选择 (17)§3.3 传感器模块选择 (17)§3.4本章小结 (19)第4章系统软件设计 (20)§4.1程序思路 (20)§4.2系统分块程序设计 (21)§4.2.1 随动转弯程序 (22)§4.2.2 倾角转动程序 (23)§4.3 本章小结 (24)第5章系统调试 (25)§5.1 系统硬件调试 (25)§5.1.1 常见的硬件故障 (25)§5.1.2 硬件调试方法 (25)§5.2 系统软件调试 (26)§5.3 基于PROE的运动建模 (27)§5.4 本章小结 (28)结论 (29)参考文献 (30)致谢 (31)附录 (32)附录1原理图 (32)附录2 PCB (33)附录3 实物图 (34)附录4程序代码 (35)第1章绪论§1.1 课题背景自19世纪汽车诞生以来，已经历了一个多世纪的风雨。
毕业设计论文外文文献翻译汽车专业发动机概述中英文对照[管理资料]
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General comments of automobile engineEngine is the source of far, automotive engines are all powered by heat except for a few of automotives drived by automotive engines are called internal combustion engines because fuel burns inside the engine .The engine converts the burning fuel’s thermal energy to mechanical energy.By Cooling Systems Liquid-cooled engines and air-cooled engines are being used .Liquid-cooled engines are the most common in the diesel industry .By Fuel System Gasoline diesel and propane fuel systems are currently used in a wide variety of engines .By Ignition Method Gas engines use the spark (electrical)ignition diesel engines use the heat fro BDC to TDC ;it varies with cylinder bore size ,length of piston stroke ,and numb system injection .The calory of diesel engine come from the fuel emblazed by the compressed diesel engine’compression ration is much bigger than the gas sufficient calory is from the fuel burned by the pressed air.By valve Arrangement Four types of valve arrangements have been used in gasoline and diesel engines .Of the four types (L, T ,F ,and I heads ),the I head is commonly used on diesel engines .By Cylinder Arrangement Engine block configuration or cylinder arrangement depends on cylinder block design .Cylinders may be arranged in a straight line one behind the other .The most common in-line designs are the four-and six-cylinder engines .The V type of cylinder arrangement uses two banks of cylinders arranged in a 60°to 90°V design .The most common examples are those with two banks of three to eight cylinders each .The opposed engine uses two banks of cylinders opposite each other with the crankshaft in between .Engine’classificationAccording to the differences of the piston’movement, the piston intenal combusition engine will be classified reciprocating intenal combusition engine and rotary piston intenal combusition we will introduce working principle diagram of reciprocating internal combustion engine.Except for the wankel rotary ,engine ,all production automotive engines are the reciprocating ,or piston ,design . Reciprocating means “up and down “ or “back and forth“ .It is this up-and-down action of a piston in a cylinder that gives the reciprocating engine its name .Almost all engines of this type are built upon a cylinder block ,or engine block .The block is an iron or aluminum casting that contains the engine cylinders .The top of the block is covered with the cylinder head ,which forms the combustion chambers .The bottom of the block is covered with an oil pan ,or oil sump .A major exception to this type of engine on struction is the air-cooled V olkwagen engine .It is representative of the horizontally opposed air-cooled engines used by Porsche ,Chevrolet (Corvair ) ,and some other automobile manufacturers in years past .Power is produced by the inline motion of a piston in a cylinder .However ,this linear motion must be changed to rotating motion to turn the wheels of a car or truck .The piston is attached to the top of a connecting rod by a pin ,,called a piston pin or connecting rod transmits the up-and –down motion of the piston to the crankshaft ,which changes it to rotating motion .The connecting rod is mounted on the crankshaft with large bearings called rod bearings .Similar bearings , called main bearings ,are used to mount the crankshaft in the block.The crankshaft changes the reciprocating motion of the pistons to rotating motion .The combustible mixture of gasoline and air enters the cylinders through valves .Automotive engines use poppet valves .The valves can be in the cylinder head or in the block .The opening and closing of the valves is controlled by a camshaft .Lobes on the camshaft push the valves open as the camshaft rotates .A spring closes each valve when the lobe is not holding it open .The most common arrangements of engine cylinders and valves are discussed later .The basic single-cylinder engine consists of a cylinder (engine block ),a movable piston inside this cylinder ,a connecting rod attached at the top end to the piston and at the bottom to the offset portion of a crankshaft ,a camshaft to operate the two valves (intake and exhaust ), and a cylinder head .A flywheel is attached to one end of the crankshaft .The other end of the crankshaft has a gear to drive the camshaft gear .The camshaft gear is twice as large as the crankshaft gear .This drives the camshaft at half the speed of the crankshaft on four-stroke-cycle engines ,the crankshaft and camshaft run at the same speed .Energy ConversionThe internal combustion diesel engine is a device used to convert the chemical energy of the fuel into heat energy and then convert this heat energy into usable mechanical energy .This is achieved by combining the appropriate amounts of air andfuel and burning them in an enclosed cylinder at a controlled rate .A movable piston in the cylinder is forced down by the expanding gases of combustion .The movable piston in cylinder is connected to the top of a connecting rod .The bottom of the connected rod is attached to the offset portion is transferred to the crankshaft ,As the piston is forced down ,this offset portion of a crankshaft ,to rotate .The reciprocating (back and forth or up and down )movement of the piston is converted to rotary (turning )motion of the crankshaft ,which supplies the power to drive the vehicle .In general an average air-fuel ratio for good combustion is about 15parts of air to 1 part of fuel by weight .However ,the diesel engine always takes in a full charge of air (since there is no throttle plate in most systems ) ,but only a small part of this air is used at low or idle engine speeds .Air consists of about 20 percent oxygen while the remaining 80 percent is mostly nitrogen .This means that ,for every gallon of fuel burned ,the oxygen in 9,000 to 10,000gallons of air is required .Four-Stroke CycleGasoline by itself will not burn ,it must be mixed with oxygen (air ) .This burning is called combustion and is a way of releasing the energy stored in the air-fuel mixture .To do any useful work in an engine ,the air-fuel mixture must be compressed and burned in a sealed chamber .Here the combustion energy can work on the movable piston to produce mechanical energy .The combustion chamber must be sealed as tightly as possible for efficient engine operation .Any leakage from the combustion chamber allows part of the combustion energy to dissipate without adding to the mechanical energy developed by the piston movement .The 4-stroke engine is also called the Otto cycle engine ,in honor of the German engineer ,Dr. Nikolaus Otto ,who first applied the principle in 1876 .In the 4-stroke engine ,four strokes of the piston in the cylinder are required to complete one full operating cycle :two strokes up and two strokes down .Each stroke is named after the action it performs-intake ,compression ,power ,and exhaust :1、Intake Stroke As the piston moves down ,the vaporized ,mixture of fuel ;and air enters the cylinder past the open intake valve .2、Compression Stroke The piston returns up ,the intake valve closes ,the mixture is compressed within the combustion chamber ,and ignited by a spark .3、Power Stroke The expanding gases of combustion force the piston down in the cylinder .The exhaust valve opens near the bottom of the stroke .4、Exhaust Stroke The piston moves back up with the exhaust valve open ,and the burned gases are pushed out to prepare for the next intake stroke .The intake valve usually opens just before the top of the exhaust stroke .This 4-stroke cycle is continuously repeated in every cylinder as long as the engine remains running .Two-Stroke-CycleThe two-stroke-cycle diesel engine completes all four events:intake,compression, power ,and exhaust. in one revolution of the crankshaft or two strokes of the piston .A series of ports or openings is arranged around the cylinder in such a position that the ports are open when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke .A blower forces air into the cylinder through the open ports .expelling all remaining exhaust gases past the open exhaust valves and filling the cylinder with air .This is called scavenging .As the piston moves up ,the exhaust valves close and the piston covers the ports .The air trapped above the piston is compressed ton covers the ports .The air trapped above the piston is compressed since the exhaust valve is closed .Just before the piston reaches top dead center ,the required amount of fuel is injected into the cylinder .The heat generated by compressing the air ignites the fuel almost immediately .Combustion continues until the fuel injected has been burned .The pressure resulting from combustion forces the piston downward on the power stroke .When the piston is approximately falfway down ,the exhaust valves are opened ,allowing the exhaust gases to escape .Further downward movement uncovers the inlet ports ,causing fresh air to enter the cylinder and expel the exhaust gases .The entire procedure is then repeated ,as the engine continues to run .The differences of the two intenal combustion engineIt could be assumed that a two-cycle engine with the same number of cylinders ,the same displacement ,compression ratio ,and speed as a four-cycle engine would have twice the power since it has twice as many power .However ,this is not the case ,since both the power and compression strokes are shortened to allow scavenging to take place .Thetwo-cycle engine also requires a blower ,which takes engine power to drive .About 160 degrees out of each 360 degrees of crankshaft rotation are required for exhaust gas expulsion and fresh air intake (scavenging )in a two-cycle engine .About 415 degrees of each 720 degrees of crankshaft rotation in a four-cycle engine are required forintake and exhaust .These figures indicate that about % of crank rotation is used for the power producing events in the two-cycle engine ,while about 59% of crank rotation is used for these purposes in the four-cycle engine .Friction losses are consequently greater in the four-cycle engine .Heat losses ,however ,are greater in the two-cycle engine though both the exhaust and the cooling systems .In spite of these differences ,both engine types enjoy prominent use worldwide .Engine constructionCylinder Block:The cylinder block is cast in one piece. Usually, this is the largest and the most complicated single piece of metal in the automobile.The cylinder block is a complicated casting made of gray iron (cast iron ) or aluminum. It contains the cylinders and the water jackets that surround them. To make the cylinder block, a sand form called a mold is made. Then molten metal is poured into the mold. When the metal has cooled the sand mold is broken up and removed. This leaves the tough cylinder-block casting. The casting. The casting is then cleaned and machined to make the finished block.Cylinder blocks for diesel engines are very similar to those for spark-ignition engines. The basic difference is that the diesel-engine cylinder block is heavier and stronger. This is because of the higher pressures developed in the diesel-engine cylinders.Several engines have aluminum cylinder blocks. Aluminum is relatively light metal, weighing much less than cast iron. also ,aluminum conducts heat more rapidly than cast soft to use as cylinder wall material. It wears too rapidly. Therefore, aluminum cylinder blocks must have cast-iron cylinder liners or be cast from an aluminum alloy that has silicon particles in it.Some manufactures make an aluminum cylinder block that does not have cylinder liners, or sleeves. Instead ,the aluminum is loaded with silicon particles. Silicon is a very hard material. After the cylinder block is cast, the cylinders are honed. Then they are treated with a chemical that etches eats away, the surface aluminum. This leaves only the silicon particles exposed. the piston and rings slide on the silicon with minimum wear. Piston:The piston converts the potential energy of the fuel into the kinetic energy that turns the crankshaft. The piston is a cylindrical shaped hollow part that moves up and down inside the engine’s cylinder. It has grooves around its perimeter near the top where thering are placed. The piston fits snugly in the cylinder. It has grooves around its perimeter near the top where the rings are placed. The piston fits snugly in the cylinder. The pistons ate used to ensure a snug “air tight” fit.The piston in your engine’s cylinder are similar to your legs when you ride a bicycle. Think of your legs as pistons; they go up and down on the pedals, providing power. Pedals are like the connecting rods; they are “attached”to your legs. The pedals are attached to the bicycle crank which is like the crank shaft, because it turns the wheels.To reverse this, the pistons (legs) are attached to the connecting rods ( pedals ) which are attached to the crankshaft (the bicycle rank). The power from the combustion in the cylinders powers the from the combustion rods to turn the crankshaft. Connecting rod：The connecting rod shown in is made of forged high strength steel. It transmits force and motion from the piston to the crank pin on the crankshaft. A steel piston pin, or “wrist pin”, connects the small end of the connecting rod. Some rods have a lock bolt in the small end. As the piston moves up and down in the cylinder, the pin rocks back and forth in the hole, or bore, in the piston. The big end of the connecting rod is attached to a crank pin by a rod bearing cap.Connecting rod and rod-bearing caps are assembled during manufacture. Then the hold for the bearing is bored with the cap in place. This is called line-bring. It make each rod and its cap a matched set. Usually, the same number is stamped on the rod and cap. This prevents the caps setting mixed during engine service. If the caps are mixed, the bearing bore will not be round. An engine assembled with the rod bearing caps switched will probably lock the crankshaft. If the crankshaft turns, the bearing will probably have improper clearance and early bearing failure will result.Another reason for keeping the cap and rod matched is to prevent engine unbalance and unwanted vibration. All connecting rods in an engine must be as light as possible. But they must all weigh the same. If one rod is heavier than the other, the engine will vibrate. This could damage the engine.Crankshaft：The crankshaft then main rotating member, or shaft, in the engine. It has crank-pins, to which the connecting rod from the pistons are attached. During the power strokes, the connecting rods force the crank-pins and therefore the crankshaft to rotate. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is changed to rotary motion as the crankshaft spins. This rotary motion is transmitted through the power train to the car wheels.The crankshaft is a strong, one-piece casting, or forging, or heat-treated alloy steel. It must be strong to take the downward force of power strokes without excessive bending. It must be balanced so the engine will run without excessive vibration.Engine DisplacementThe frequently used engine specifications are engine displacement and compression ratio .Displacement and compression ration are related to each other ,as we will learn in the following paragraphs .By Displacement Engine displacement is the amount of air displaced by the piston when it moves fro .The electrical ignition system causes a spark across the spark plug electrodes in the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke ,which ignites the vaporized fuel and air mixture .m compressing the air to ignite the fuel when it is injected into the cylinder at the end of the compression ratios are much higher than gasoline engine compression ratios ,sufficient heat is generated by compressing the air to ignite the fuer of cylinders .engines are classified as low ,medium ,high ,and super high speed .Commonly used to indicate engine size ,this specification is really a measurement of cylinder volume ..The number of cylinders is a factor in determining displacement ,but the arrangement of the cylinders or valves is not .Engine displacement is calculated by multiplying the number of cylinders in the engine by the total engine displacement is the volume displaced by all the pistons .The displacement of one cylinder is the space through which the piston’s top surfa ce moves as it travels from the bottom of its stroke (bottom dead center )to the top of its stroke (top dead center ).It is the volume displaced by the cylinder by one piston stroke .Piston displacement can be calculated as follows :the bore (cylinder Diameter )by gives you the radius of the bore .the radius (multiply it by itself ).the square of the radius by (pi orπ)to find the area of the cylinder cross section .the area of the cylinder cross section by the length of the stroke .You now know the piston displacement for one cylinder .Multiply this by the number of cylinders to determine the total engine displaceme`nt .The formula for the complete procedure reads :R2*π*stroke* cylinders =displacementCompression RatioThis specification compares the total cylinder volume to the volume of only the combustion cylinder volume may seem to be the same as piston displacement ,but it is not .Total cylinder volume .The combustion chamber volume with the piston at top dead center is often called the clearance volume .Compression ratio is the total volume of a cylinder divided by its clearance volume .If the clearance volume is one-eighth of the total cylinder volume ,the compression ratio is 8 (8to1).The formula is as follows :olumeClearancev e Totalvolum =Compression ratio. In theory ,the higher the compression ratio ,the greater the efficiency of the engine ,and the more power an engine will develop from a given quantity of fuel .The reason for this is that combustion takes place faster because the fuel molecules are more tightly packed and the flame of combustion travels more rapidly .But there are practical limits to how high a compression ratio can be .Because of the unavailability of high octane fuel ,most gasolineburning engines are restricted to a compression ratio no greater than to this high ,however ,create high combustion chamber temperatures .This in turn creates oxides of nitrogen (NOx) ,a primary air pollutant .In the early 1970s ,compression ratios were lowered to around 8 to permit the use of lower octane low-lead or unleaded fuel ,and to reduce NOx formation .Advances in electronic engine control in the 1980s have allowed engineers to raise compression ratios to the 9and 10 to 1 range for optimum performance and economy发动机概述发动机是汽车的动力源。
机械毕业设计中英翻译
英语原文：CAD/CAM is the technical expression, indicates the computer-aided design and the computer aided manufacturing.This is one item in the design and the production, carries out certain function technology about the use computer data.This technology is completing the design and the production direction to the place develops.In these two traditions was considered is in the production process out of the ordinary, independent function.In brief, CAD/CAM will be able to provide the technology base for the future complete computer production.Looked from the computer science angle that, the design and the manufacture process is one has, processing, the exchange and the management process about the product information.The people use the computer to take the main technical method, from forms in one's mind to the product to put in the market in the entire process information to carry on the analysis and processing, produces and utilizes each kind of numerical information and the graph information, carries on the product the design and the manufacture.The CAD/CAM technology is not the traditional design, the manufacture flow method simple reflection, also is not limits in the partial use computer takes the tool in the individual step or the link, but is unifies the computer science and the project domain specialized technology as well as human's wisdom and the experience take the modern scientific method as the instruction, in the design, in the manufacture entire process each completely manager, as far as possible use computer system completes the work which these duplication high, the labor big, the computation complex as well as depends on purely artificially completes with difficulty, but assists must replaces the engineers and technicians to complete the entire process, obtains the desired effec The CAD/CAM system as well as plans the hardware, the software for supports the environment, (subsystem) realizes through each function module to the product description, the computation, the analysis, optimized, the cartography, the technological process design, the simulation as well as the NC processing.But the generalized CAD/CAM integrative system also should include aspects and so on production plan, management, quality control.Since 1946 first electronic accounting machine has been born in US, people on unceasing computer technology Introduces the machine design? Manufacture domain.As early as in the 50's, for the first time develops successfully the numerical control engine bed, may realize through the different numerical control procedure to the different components processing Afterwards, Massachusetts Institute of Technology's servo laboratory succeeds with the computer manufacture numerical control paper tape, has realized the NC programming automation.In this foundation, the people proposed the following tentative plan: The APT software is feeds the path method realization computer assistance programming through the description, that, can not describe feeds the path, but is direct description components itself? From this has had the CAD initial concept.The entire 50's, the electronic accounting machine also is in the electron tube time, uses the machine language programming, the computer mainly uses in thescience computation, also only has the output function for it disposition graph equipment.CADCAM system basic compositionCAD/CAM system hardware dispositionCAD/CAM system software compositionCAD/CAM system software dispositionComputer aided manufacturing (CAM) may define for uses the computer system to design, to manage and controls a productive plan the movement, through direct or indirect planned production resources computer contact surface.If defines states, the computer aided manufacturing application has 2 big aspects:1) computer supervisory control.This is the direct application, the computer with the production process connection, uses in supervising directly and the control production process2) produces the support application.This is the indirect application, middle the productive plan, the computer uses in supporting the production operation, but is not the computer and the production process links directly.Charting productive forces increaseThe CAD/CAM system may undertake the one whole set new charting theory to be able to strengthen the productivity.Again completes next step, keeps firmly in mind the entire design to be possible to store up the system.When the planner receives one with has saved the blueprint specification similar work piece, he only must recollect, and adjusts it the work storage place, revises in the original blueprint not to conform to a new work piece request part, productivity enhances.The original work piece efficiency enhances, but this can enhance the next step working efficiency.This is a complete at times renewal database support, can facilitate the user to use Improve mapping analysisThe charting analysis is another important work, it can by certain synthesize the CAD/CAM system automatic operation.This in pipeline design, in particular an important application.The pipeline design paper very is usually complex moreover must conform to the precise industry specification.The other giftedCAD/CAM also can affect a company in other aspects the project system.It can enhance the entire physical process the efficiency, the permission present project plan and the report procedure appraisal.CAD/CAM can improve improves the quality of the product the guarantee technology.It can automatic accurate and the integrity document material, the maintenance partial data accurate and bill of materials accurate.DeficiencyCAD/CAM insufficient spot not that obvious, but they can destroy even the most perfect design, the biggest shortcoming is only can directly skips from the manual charting and the recordpreservation to CAD/CAM, the elephant installs a set of jet engine in the populace automobile.The automobile possibly can run quick somewhat, but if the foundation enhancement has not coordinated the heavy pressure, the entire automobile can disperse the frame.CAD/CAM applicationSKETCHPAD, the CAD/CAM technology has passed through very long chi.It is already applied in the middle of each widespread industry.It uses in each aspect, controls from the airplane to the weapon research, manufactures from the map to the movement medical service, from circuit analysis to building steel analysis.CAD/CAM is being applied in each kind of charting and the production, installs the schematic diagram from the movie to the large-scale long-distance monitoring direct set battleship, its application to is developing variously.Now CAD/CAM market.Now in the market has four kind of different CAD/CAM sellers.First is some subordinate companies sells comes from a big enterprise part or the branch CAD/CAM technology.The IBM CAD/CAM branch is an example.If belongs to Mc-Donnell-Douglas McAuto; Belongs to General Electric Lalma, with belongs to Schlumberger Applican, if the multi-large number CAD/CAM subordinate company the main corporation has the massive service intercourse, not only sale supervisory system moreover when one's position is lowly one's words carry no weight service office.When they control the massive accounts also with provides the service, these companies on in optimum condition, because they may extract the massive profits.But they must undertake the complex administrative chain of command, this obstructs in them makes the fast response to the market tendency, or their itself studies and outside the development department, the merge improves on again their new production line the new technical developmentCAD/CAM technology and the product development road of futureAfter many year promotions, the CAD technology already widely applied in professions and so on machinery, electron, astronautics, chemical industry, building.Played using the CAD technology enhanced the enterprise the rated capacity, the optimization design proposal, reduces technical personnel's labor intensity, reduction design cycle, beefed-up design roles and so on standardization.In recent years, our country CAD technology development and the application have obtained the considerable development, besides has carried on sinicizing and the re-development to many overseas softwares, but also was born many had the independent copyright CAD system, If high Chinese CAD, opens item CAD and so on, because these software price is cheap, conforms to our country national condition and the standard, therefore has received widespread welcome, has won the more and more big market share. But, our country CAD/CAM software no matter is from the product development level from the commercialization, the marketability degree all has not the small disparity with the developed country.Because the overseas CAD/CAM software appears early, the development and the application time is also long,therefore they develop quite maturely, now basically already has seized the international market.These overseas software company uses its technical and the fund superiority, starts vigorously to our country market march At present, the overseas some outstanding softwares, like UG, SolidWorks, Pro/Engineer, CATIA and so on, already have seized part of domestic markets.Therefore, our country CAD/CAM software prospect is unoptimistic.But, we also should see clearly own superiority, for instance understood our country market, provides the technical support to be convenient, price small advantage and so on.Not only under these premises, we importantly with the trend of the times, the track international newest tendency, observe each international standard, in international domestic forms the oneself unique superiority, must base the home, the union national condition, face the domestic economic development need，develops has oneself characteristic, conforms to CAD/CAM software which the Chinese is familiar with.。
(完整版)机械毕业设计外文翻译7243268
Introduciton of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the workpiece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, However, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process . For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare parts, almost the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, Machining the second purpose is the establishment of the and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its generalshape of the surface. It is only necessary precision and choose only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe : the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts -- with knives. Generally, the more the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to。
[DOC]-汽车造型毕业设计外文翻译英语原文
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[DOC]-汽车造型毕业设计外文翻译英语原文汽车造型毕业设计外文翻译英语原文Sketching, concept automotive design development and Sketching andits key role in concept design are identified, and the particular circumstances of automotive design described. A brief summary of work in the general field of concept sketching and visual thinking is presented. The particular characteristics of automotive design sketches; lines, crown lines, area lines, shading and colouring are described, and a delayering analysis undertaken. This demonstrates the primacy of form lines in the automotive design sketch. Observations, by video, of post-graduate students and six professional designers while sketching confirm the importance of the form lines in the design process, the interactive and iterative of concept development and the central role of theactivity of sketching in this process. It is proposed that the design of CAD systems to support concept development must take account of importance of sketching activity.Keywords: conceptual design, drawing, visual thinking, automotive design, computer aided designMuch of the design theory and research work on sketching in design has been based on the domains of architectural design and engineering product design. None of it has drawn directly from the activities of automotive designers with the exception of Tovey. This is a specialised activity because of the particularities of the product form and, becauseof the high level of demarcation in the design and development processin the industry. Thus …computer aided has become a current phrase in the industry, by contrast with …computer aided design? in other fields. Work on computeraided styling has tended to concentrate on providing three dimensional alternatives to sketching, such as …virtual clay modelling? or simply conventional CAD surface modelling. There are many areas of apparent similarity between the activities of automotive designers and those of designers in other fields. A key question is the extent to which the work of design researchers in the other areas will translate to this specialist discipline, and the degree to which their apparently generic conclusions apply.Our investigations have been into the use of concept sketches by designers in the automotive industry. We have undertaken a number of formal exercises to observe designers and their methods in an effort to understand their techniques, and the content of their sketches. At the concept stage they use quick informal methods to provide an initial representation of the design. This representation of their ideas depends upon rapid direct techniques grounded in conventional methods based on pen and paper. It would seem that despite the availability of computer aided techniques to design- ers, none has been accepted by them as having equivalent utility.Our investigations have been into the use of concept sketches by designers in the automotive industry. We have undertaken a number of formal exercises to observe designers and theirmethods in an effort to understand their techniques, and the content of their sketches. At the concept stage they use quick informal methods to provide an initial representation of the design. This representation of their ideas depends upon rapid direct techniques grounded in conventional methods based on pen and paper. It would seem that despite the availability of computer aided techniques to designers, none has been accepted by them as having equivalent utility.These observations indicate that production of design ideas appears to depend upon the interaction with the concept sketches (as will be seen later, this confirms the observations of several previous researchers). The sketches are produced through the initial representation of form lines, and followed by shading to modify the shapes. The intention of this piece of research was to investigate whether or not these lines could form the basis for a CAD tool to produce 3D geometry from the sketches, and to see if the shading had the potential to provide secondary information to facilitate surface modification of this geometry. Moreover, the focus is very clearly on the very early, concept development stage of products in the automotive industry, the intention being that the easy availability of three dimensional geometry very early inthis process can aid the development of concepts and speed up their communication to and evaluation by other parties in the development chain. For this reason, the types of sketches considered are those that occur in the very first stages of the automotive development process.1 Concept sketchesDesign sketches are different from …drawing from the object?.They are not drawings of something that already exists, in front of the artist, as is the case with figure drawing, still life drawing and similar. Instead the designer is involved in a process of attempting to give external definition to an imagined, or only half imagined, suggestion for a design form.Prior work towards the understanding of the role of drawing indesign was extensively summarised by Purcell and Gero4. This provides a comprehensive review of work relating to many types of drawing activity in the design process, including figures, diagrams and more general imagery. It is particularly sketches that we are concerned with here The sketches and other forms of drawing are languages for handling design ideas. The actual process of creating design ideas is usually envisaged as going on in the mind?s eye and thedrawings as attempts to reproduce the designer?s mental images.The method is one of hand-eye co-ordination to produce the physical representation as a sketch on paper. Exercising this skill can be mentally relaxing, which in turn can reduce the inhibitions to the flow of thought. Whilst the designer is drawing there is a mental sifting andsorting of information, which can lead to design ideas. As soon as the image has been manifested in some concrete form such as a drawing or model (physical or computer) it becomes part of the information being handled to produce the next idea. The process is one of interactive generation.Different types of drawings are associated with different stages of the design process with one type, the relatively unstructured and ambiguous sketch occurring early in the process. Designers place great emphasis on the sketch often because it is thought to be associated with innovation and creativity. The conceptual stages of design are characterised by vague knowledge and shifting goals.One view of the purpose of concept sketches in the engineering domain is that they are intended to provide quicker communication and retrieval at the early stages of design, by providing combined visual and factual descriptions for improved evaluation and concept selection.A wider view is reported of the function of such drawings and related diagrams in the field of architectural design. The roles that designers ascribe to such representations in design include:Generating conceptsExternalising and visualising problemsFacilitating problem solving and creative effortFacilitating perception and translation of ideasRepresenting real world artefacts that can be manipulated and reasoned withRevising and refining ideas.In the engineering context three kinds of sketch have beenidentified.(1) The thinking sketch: used to focus and guide non-verbal thinking(2) The prescriptive sketch: used to direct a draftsman in making a finished drawing(3) The talking sketch: produced during exchanges between technical people in order to clarify complex and possibly confusing parts of the drawing.In the same context five levels of complexity have been identifiedfor engineering concept sketches.Complexity level 1: Monochrome line drawing, no shading or colour, uniform line thickness Complexity level 2: Monochrome line drawing, no shading or colour.Line thicknesses vary to give emphasis. May include brief annotation. Complexity level 3: Monochrome with rough shading to suggest form.May be annotated.Complexity level 4: Line and shading, may include colour and graduation.Complexity level 5: Colour illustration to show what the productlooks like. Colour, shading, shadows, annotations, dimensions.This is similar to other codifications of levels of detail in representation for 2D models: Undetailed Diagrammatic drawings Abstract Schematic Representational Ideassketching drawingsConcept drawingsMeasured drawingsGeneral ArrangementAxonometricDetailed Parts drawingsWe have identified a concept sketch as “a collection of visual cues sufficient to suggest the design to an informed observer” .The process of moving from an initially vague concept to a detailed design proposal can be likened to moving from an out of focus image to one that is fully detailed. The concept sketch as an initial representation of the out of focus design idea is clearly essential. In this definition, along with the others quoted above, the emphasis is placed on the sketch as perceived by others, not just the designer. Its private role, as a thinking aidto the designer is also essential, and other researchers have seen this as key to a successful visual thinking activity. Some of this work is discussed below.Figure 1 Example of line usage in a sketch. Package2 Visual thinkingDesign thinking, which is directed to specifying the visual form of a designed object, will of necessity involve visual representation. As McKim has shown visual thinking is greatly facilitated by representational procedures such as drawing in a three-way interaction of seeing, imaging and drawing. For architects this has been described so as to support abstraction and problem solving in a drawing based process.Similarly the analysis undertaken by Suwa, Purcell and Gero is grounded in the architecturaldomain. Their findings may be expressed as the following insights:(1) Sketches serve as an external memory in which to leave ideas for later inspection. (2) Sketches serve as a provider of visual cues for the association of functional issues.(3) Most importantly, sketches serve as a physical setting in which functional thoughts are constructed on the fly in a situated way.Also from the field of architecture, Schon and Wiggins have investigated kinds of seeing and their relationship with the design activity. They regard designing as a conversation with materials conducted in the medium of drawing, and crucially dependent on seeing. It is characterised as a reflective conversation with materials whose basic structure—seeing—moving—seeing—is an interaction of designingand discovery. Designers draw on paper, observing the evolvingproduct of their work, employing different kinds of seeing (visual apprehensions, literal seeing), and as this is done discoveries are made. Features and relations are identified which cumulatively generate afuller understanding, or …feel for? the configurationwith which she/he is working. They conclude that this involves attending to processes that computers are presently unable to reproduce.The work of Goldschmidt in this area, also based on architecture, is telling, and contains powerful insights. She deduces that designers invariably use imagery to generate new form combinations that they represent through sketching. Crucially, she adds that theyalso work in the opposite way; they sketch to generate images of formsin their minds. She asserts that interactive imagery through sketchingis a rational mode of reasoning characterised by systematic exchanges between conceptual and figural arguments.Figure 3 Sketches producedIt is clear that the need for visualisation is recognised by almostall designers in diverse fields,from the arts to engineering. However, it is important todistinguish between that visual representation which is for the purposes of communication (with clients, colleagues or other interested parties) and that which is used for evaluation; that is to assess the quality of the design. Neither of these is what is meant by visual thinking. Ratherit is the generation of new ideas, the reasoning that gives rise to them and facilitates the creation of form in designs (as opposed to their presentation).Sketches play an important role in the creative, explorative, open-ended phase of problem solving, facilitated by lateral transformations.As Garner notes: Pictorial representations, constructed during designing and taking the form of sketches, are important to designing because they impose both order and tangibility on the one hand, while on the other hand their ambiguity stimulates re-interpretation. The very lack ofclarity may be important. It is apparent that there is a wealth ofexisting research concerning the concept sketch; the purpose it has, the media through which it is achieved and its potential for being supported by computers. There is, however, very little research directlypertaining to the automotive concept sketch and whether it is possibleto support the production and use of them using computers. In anindustry heavily committed to CAD and where there is an increasing pressure to reduce lead times it is an area full of research opportunity.。
[VIP专享]汽车专业 机械 毕业设计翻译外文翻译
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集成式发动机辅助混合动力系统摘要本论文介绍了用于设计和开发 Honda Insight 发动机的技术方法，一种新的发动机辅助混合动力汽车，其总开发目标是在广泛的行驶条件下达到当今Civic 消耗量的一半，实现 35km/L （日本 10-15 模式），3.4L/km（98/69/EC）的消耗量。
为了达到这个目标，加入了许多用于包装和集成发动机辅助系统以及改善发动机效率的新技术，开发了一种新的集成式发动机辅助混合动力发动机系统。
这是结合了一种低空气阻力的新型轻稆车身开发的。
环境性能目标也包括了低排放（日本 2000 年标准的一半，EU2000 标准的一半），高效率和杨回收性。
对消费的关键特性全面考虑，包括碰撞安全性能，操纵性和运行特性。
1．绪论为减小汽车对社会和环境的冲击要求其更干净并且能量效率更高更节能，空气质量更好。
降低 CO2 排放问题作为全球环境焦点提出，解决这些问题的方法之一就是混合动力汽车。
Honda 已开发并向遍及全球的几大市场输入Insight，新一代车辆设计。
Insight 将混合动力系与先进的车身技术特性相结合以符合取得实际的最高燃油经济性的总目标。
混合动力系是发动机的辅助并联平行结构，把 IMA 叫做集成式发动机辅助。
此动力系将把一个高效电动机与一个新型小排量VTEC 发动机结合起来，很轻的铝车身，改良的空气动力学以实现 3.4L/100km(CO2：80g/km)98/69/EC 燃油经济性。
低排放性能也已达到 EU 排放水平为目标。
除减速能的重用之外，集成式发动机在典型的市区行驶加速时提供大助力扭矩，显著地减小了发动机拜师，提高了发动机效率。
接近 56kW 每吨的功率/质量比保证了稳定的爬坡能力和高速的常速行驶能力。
机械设计制造及其自动化 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 智能照明控制系统
Key words: intelligent lighting control bus transfer protocol green energy
1、Introduction
With the continuous development of our economy, rapidly rising living standards, people working and living environment have become increasingly demanding, while the lighting system requirements have become more sophisticated, the traditional lighting technology has been a strong blow. On the one hand because of information technology and computer technology changes in lighting technology, providing technical support; the other hand, due to energy shortage, the state more and more attention on energy-saving lighting, new lighting control technology to develop rapidly to meet with By energy conservation, comfort, convenience requirements. Lighting control lighting control from the traditional manual method, automated lighting control to today's intelligent lighting control.
机械类毕业设计外文翻译_New
机械类毕业设计外文翻译外文原文Options for micro-holemakingAs in the macroscale-machining world, holemaking is one of the most— if not the most—frequently performed operations for micromachining. Many options exist for how those holes are created. Each has its advantages and limitations, depending on the required hole diameter and depth, workpiece material and equipment requirements. This article covers holemaking with through-coolant drills and those without coolant holes, plunge milling, microdrilling using sinker EDMs and laser drilling.Helpful HolesGetting coolant to the drill tip while the tool is cutting helps reduce the amount of heat at the tool/workpiece interface and evacuate chips regardless of hole diameter. But through-coolant capability is especially helpful when deep-hole microdrilling because the tools are delicate and prone to failure when experiencing recutting of chips, chip packing and too much exposure to carbide’s worst enemy—heat.When applying flood coolant, the drill itself blocks access to the cutting action. “Somewhere about 3 to 5 diam eters deep, the coolant has trouble getting down to the tip,” said Jeff Davis, vice president of engineering for Harvey Tool Co., Rowley, Mass. “It becomes wise to use a coolant-fed drill at that point.”In addition, flood coolant can cause more harm than good when microholemaking. “The pressure from the flood coolant can sometimes snap fragile drills as they enter the part,” Davis said.The toolmaker offers a line of through-coolant drills with diameters from 0.039" to 0.125" that are able to produce holes up to 12 diameters deep, as well as microdrills without coolant holes from 0.002" to 0.020".Having through-coolant capacity isn’t enough, though. Coolant needs to flow at a rate that enables it to clear the chips out of the hole. Davis recommends, at a minimum, 600 to 800 psi of coolant pressure. “It works much better if you have higher pressure than that,” he added.To prevent those tiny coolant holes from becoming clogged with debris, Davis also recommends a 5μm or finer coolant filter.Another recommendation is to machine a pilot, or guide, hole to prevent the tool from wandering on top of the workpiece and aid in producing a straight hole. When applying a pilot drill, it’s important to select one with an included angle on its point that’s equal t o or larger than the included angle on the through-coolant drill that follows.The pilot drill’s diameter should also be slightly larger. For example, if the pilot drill has a 120° included angle and a smaller diameter than a through-coolant drill with a 140°included angle, “then you’re catching the coolant-fed drill’s corners and knocking those corners off,” Davis said, which damages the drill.Although not mandatory, pecking is a good practice when microdrilling deep holes. Davis suggests a pecking cycle that is 30 to 50 percent of the diameter per peck depth, depending on the workpiece material. This clears the chips, preventing them from packing in the flute valleys.Lubricious ChillTo further aid chip evacuation, Davis recommends applying an oil-based metalworking fluid instead of a waterbased coolant because oil provides greater lubricity. But if a shop prefers using coolant, the fluid should include EP (extreme pressure) additives to increase lubricity and minimize foaming. “If you’ve got a lot of foam,” Davis noted, “the chips aren’t being pulled out the way they are supposed to be.”He added that another way to enhance a tool’s slipperiness while extending its life is with a coating, such as titanium aluminum nitride. TiAlN has a high hardness and is an effective coating for reducing heat’s impact when drilling difficult-to-machine materials, like stainless steel.David Burton, general manager of Performance Micro Tool, Janesville, Wis., disagrees with the idea of coating microtools on the smaller end of the spectrum. “Coatings on tools below 0.020" typically have a negative effect on every machining aspect, from the quality of the initial cut to tool life,” he said. That’s becaus e coatings are not thin enough and negatively alter the rake and relief angles when applied to tiny tools.However, work continues on the development of thinner coatings, and Burton indicated that Performance Micro Tool, which produces microendmills and microrouters and resells microdrills, is working on a project with others to create a submicron-thickness coating. “We’re probably 6 months to 1 year from testing it in the market,” Burton said.The microdrills Performance offers are basically circuit-board drills, which are also effective for cutting metal. All the tools are without through-coolant capability. “I had a customer drill a 0.004"-dia. hole in stainless steel, and he was amazed he could do it with a circuit-board drill,” Burton noted, adding th at pecking and running at a high spindle speed increase the drill’s effectiveness.The requirements for how fast microtools should rotate depend on the type ofCNCcharged EDM wire. The fine-hole option includes a W-axis attachment, which holds a die that guides the electrode, as well as a middle guide that prevents the electrode from bending or wobbling as it spins. With the option, the machine is appropriate for drilling hole diameters less than 0.005".Another sinker EDM for micro-holemaking is the Mitsubishi VA10 with afine-hole jig attachment to chuck and guide the fine wire applied to erode the material. “It’s a standard EDM, but with that attachment fixed to the machine, we can do microhole drilling,” said Dennis Powderly, sinker EDM product manager for MC Machinery Systems Inc., Wood Dale, Ill. He added that the EDM is also able to create holes down to 0.0004" using a wire that rotates at up to 2,000 rpm.Turn to TungstenEDMing is typically a slow process, and that holds true when it is used for microdrilling. “It’s very slow, and the finer the details, the slower it is,” said , president and owner of Optimation Inc. The Midvale, Utah, company builds Profile 24 Piezo EDMs for micromachining and also performs microEDMing on a contract-machining basis.Optimation produces tungsten electrodes using a reverse-polarity process and machines and ring-laps them to as small as 10μm in diameter with 0.000020" roundness. Applying a 10μm-dia. electrode produces a hole about 10.5μm to 11μm in diameter, and blind-holes are possible with th e company’s EDM. The workpiece thickness for the smallest holes is up to 0.002", and the thickness can be up to 0.04" for 50μm holes.After working with lasers and then with a former EDM builder to find a better way to produce precise microholes, Jorgense n decided the best approach was DIY. “We literally started with a clean sheet of paper and did all the electronics, all the software and the whole machine from scratch,” he said. Including the software, the machine costs in the neighborhood of $180,000 to $200,000.Much of the company’s contract work, which is provided at a shop rate of $100 per hour, involves microEDMing exotic metals, such as gold and platinum for X-ray apertures, stainless steel for optical applications and tantalum and tungsten for the electron-beam industry. Jorgensen said the process is also appropriate for EDMing partially electrically conductive materials, such as PCD.“The customer normally doesn’t care too much about the cost,” he said. “We’ve done parts where there’s $20,000 [in time and material] involved, and you can put the whole job underneath a fingernail. We do everything under a microscope.”Light CuttingBesides carbide and tungsten, light is an appropriate “tool material” formicro-holemaking. Although most laser drilling is performed in the infrared spectrum, the SuperPulse technology from The Ex One Co., Irwin, Pa., uses a green laser beam, said Randy Gilmore, the company’s director of laser technologies. Unlike the femtosecond variety, Super- Pulse is a nanosecond laser, and its green light operates at the 532-nanometer wavelength. The technology provides laser pulses of 4 to 5 nanoseconds in duration, and those pulses are sent in pairs with a delay of 50 to 100 nanoseconds between individual pulses. The benefits of this approach are twofold. “It greatly enhances material removal compared to other nanosecond lasers,” Gilmore said, “and greatly reduces the amount of thermal damage done to the workpiece material” because of the pulses’ short duration.The minimum diameter produced with the SuperPulse laser is 45 microns, but one of the most common applications is for producing 90μm to 110μm holes in diesel injector nozzles made of 1mm-thick H series steel. Gilmore noted that those holes will need to be in the 50μm to 70μm ra nge as emission standards tighten because smaller holes in injector nozzles atomize diesel fuel better for more efficient burning.In addition, the technology can produce negatively tapered holes, with a smaller entrance than exit diameter, to promote better fuel flow.Another common application is drilling holes in aircraft turbine blades for cooling. Although the turbine material might only be 1.5mm to 2mm thick, Gilmore explained that the holes are drilled at a 25° entry angle so the air, as it comes out of the holes, hugs the airfoil surface and drags the heat away. That means the hole traverses up to 5mm of material. “Temperature is everything in a turbine” he said, “because in an aircraft engine, the hotter you can run the turbine, the better the fuel economy and the more thrust you get.”To further enhance the technology’s competitiveness, Ex One developed apatent-pending material that is injected into a hollow-body component to block the laser beam and prevent back-wall strikes after it creates the needed hole. After laser machining, the end user removes the material without leaving remnants.“One of the bugaboos in getting lasers accepted in the diesel injector community is that light has a nasty habit of continuing to travel until it meets anothe r object,” Gilmore said. “In a diesel injector nozzle, that damages the interior surface of the opposite wall.”Although the $650,000 to $800,000 price for a Super- Pulse laser is higher than a micro-holemaking EDM, Gilmore noted that laser drilling doesn’t require electrodes. “A laser system is using light to make holes,” he said, “so it doesn’t have a consumable.”Depending on the application, mechanical drilling and plunge milling, EDMing and laser machining all have their place in the expanding microm achining universe. “People want more packed into smaller spaces,” said Makino’s Kiszonas.中文翻译微孔的加工方法正如宏观加工一样，在微观加工中孔的加工也许也是最常用的加工之一。
机械类外文文献翻译机械类英文翻译机械专业毕业设计中英文翻译机械专业中英文翻译机械专业英文翻译(优.选)
中英文翻译原文：Comment on medicines and chemical reagents package machineryconceptual designIn recent years, Carry out GMP (medicines and chemical reagents produces specifications of quality) attestation system because of sustained our country economic situation rise and country to pharmacy industry mandatory. Medicines and chemical reagents package machinery has got quite great progress. The new product increases by gradually. Engineering level has had very big improvement. But be returning very big gaps back to existence compared with international standards. Level being close to 60%'s product cannot to reach upper developed country century eighties. Large-scale advanced equipment is dependent on entrance mainly. Low our country medicines and chemical reagents package machinery engineering level is that the design designing personnel low level from our country enterprise arouses to a great extent.One, our country medicines and chemical reagents package machinery current situation analysesOur country medicines and chemical reagents package machinery still has bigger gap compared with advanced international level. What time is insufficient on domestic medicines and chemical reagents package machinery design under main existence1) Backward domestic mechanical performance medicines and chemical reagents package machinery mostly, accuracy low velocity, is slow, stationarity dispatches package machinery travel process to contain large amount of dyadic complicated intermittence motion. Come to come true mainly from the cam, the connecting rod. But, many design that the personnel is unable to require that the independence designs the parameter calculating cam bar linkage kinematics and dynamics according to job cycle picture and accuracy. Be only the surveying and mapping carrying out a piecemeal that the abroad model machine cam connecting rod part is dismantled down simplely. Bring about actuating mechanism error is very big. That domestic medicines and chemical reagents package machinery runs speed mostly is more general than hanging down according to cutting frequency if the aluminium moulds bubble coverpacker's for 100 one 300 mins, full-automatic medicine box packer dress box speed 50- 200 boxes/ ms in. But, on the international, the advanced aluminium moulds rushing steeping cover packer cutting frequency be able to reach 600 mins. Full-automatic medicine box packer dress box speed is able to reach 600 ~ 800 box/ mins. Not only working speed of domestic medicines and chemical reagents package machinery is slow. And, the partner has bigger noise.2) Is under the control of horizontal backward. Domestic medicines and chemical reagents package machinery controls low, automation of level difference mostly , the malfunction leads height. (Main package machinery finger box dress controls domestic medicines and chemical reagents with drinking wine holding machinery with) adopt PLC to do a scene mostly. But, advanced medicines and chemical reagents package machinery realizes supervisory control abroad mostly from computer system. Under the control of horizontal relatively backward. Great majority domestic medicines and chemical reagents package machinery automation sex is relatively poor. Adopt a single to produce a pattern first commonly. The full-automatic production line is few. Two is that full-automation works cannot to achieve. Require that the manpower feeds in raw material. Hand movement enchases. If in a little paper box packer, Page, paper box all needs medicine board , specifications paper to move charging personally. And require specially-assigned person to pay attention to if specifications, medicine board, paper box already finish using at any time. Happen to avoid bringing about machine racing or bringing about incomplete specifications, medicine board, and medicine box phenomenon. Other, domestic medicines and chemical reagents package mechanic failure rates are higher. Control a component (if the relay, electromagnetic valve, contactor, breaker etc.) etc. are often easy to damage. Halt also to frequently occur the malfunction.3) Functions are unitary, expansion sex is bad. Medicines and chemical reagents package machinery is that the form designs that specifically for specially appointed package. The general specification range inner in regulation is adjustable. But, a lot of our country medicines and chemical reagents package machinery considers insufficiency when designing that. Be not that reforming going a step further sets apart sufficient space. Cause the machinery designing that to be able to only adapt to the form board in several kinds simplicities. Change not adapting to wrapping material or the form board dimension. Fit in with even. The package finished product mass giving birth to a child is neither nice.4) Considers deficiency synthetically. Resource does not fully utilize. Our country medicines and chemical reagents there exists the chaos phenomenon in package machinery design. A lot of machinery designs that the personnel drags to the electric motor moving the synchrony technology, the servo drive technology do not knows. The problem simple electrical equipment available is resolved uses complicated mechanism to come to come true but. Some though the control organ works to come having adopt the synchrony electric motor to wait for a device. But choose block of wood ding-dang. The maximum having brought about resource not only wastes this condition. And make machinery function designing that low.5) Model is inflexible. Model seldom considering machinery time medicines and chemical reagents of our country package machinery design. Many machine molding that the manufacturer produces is not beautiful do not have model even. Give person feeling to rigid, to inflexible, not to have vigor. A few medicine box packers are middle. The nut all assembles screw on the machine outside board. But, the oil cup and flow nipple that a little lubrication uses also can be seen everywhere. Be stained fully with a greasy dirt easy to use machine everywhere time oiling. Impression is rough to person. No beautiful.Two, medicines and chemical reagents package machinery conceptual design contentPeople long-term study passes. Define conceptual design being: "Have been ascertaining the mission queen. Pass abstract-relation. Design the function structure. Explore appropriate effect principle and their combination waiting. Ascertain out basic finding the solution approach. Reach find the solution scheme. This part of the conceptual design designing that the job is called conceptual design is referred to make the queen who designs purpose and now has condition clear. The designer searches for many-sided knowledge. Analysis abstracts the solution on generating dyadic broad frame significance the day after tomorrow. Medicines and chemical reagents package machinery conceptual design demands according to each product life cycle stages. Carrying out the product function creates , the function breaks up as well as the function and son are functional physical design: That conception and systematization carrying out the scheme satisfying the operating principle that the function and structure demand finding the solution and carrying out the operating principle carrier realizing the function structure's design the conceptual design process is that one finds the solution realizing a function's , satisfies the various technologyand various there existing in economic target's , possibility scheme well ultimate for sure synthetically optimum scheme process. The conceptual design effect embodies in the product design early phase stage mainly. Chief architect is based on functional need of product but primitive conception and impulsion sprouting out form the product main body frame. And, it responds to every main module and module including. In order to accomplishing overall layout and the exterior, the first step designs that. And then carry out the optimization appraising a sum. Ascertain the overall design plan. Design that the personnel carries out the chief architect design thought going to designing middle concretely again from every part. Detail designs realization. The conceptual design putting medicines and chemical reagents package machinery into practice demands to design that the personnel reinforces the cognition to medicines and chemical reagents package first. Deepen the connotation understanding medicines and chemical reagents packages. Introduce modern package idea. Be in line with the international conventions actively. Modern package is to ensure the product safety not only. Make product transportation convenient. And be getting up propagate, environmental protection, defends against false. Attractive looks waits for the many-sided effect. Wrap up contents additional information. The medicines and chemical reagents package machinery design personnel should show solicitude for development of package system closely. Go deep into the handicraft studying package. Know demand of development of wrapping material and the person to machinery product very well. Only when such ability designs that out satisfy the high tone machinery product that the consumer demands. Medicines and chemical reagents package machinery conceptual design content has mainly:1) Makes the design mission clear. Be ready for feasibility analysis. The designer designs initial stage working in being in progress. Respond to the feasibility considering a product sufficiently. One aspect is the marketplace thinking. Include the production marketing, product raw material, the fabricating cost thinking: Another aspect is thinking that the product processes. Include thinking now having a working ability, processing handicraft, processing the function and periphery supporting industry. Periphery supporting environment thinking points to the local enterprise working ability mainly processes level, heat treatment handicraft and the infrastructural facilities construction etc.2) Function design. Great majority our country medicines and chemical reagents package machinery is the same kind model copying to abroad. But peculiar nationalconditions because of our country existence. Must carry out appropriate reforming on the product. To satisfy request of our country. But fault blindly copy blindly. The machinery designing that is packed in, irrigates the dress function outside except needing to satisfy a box. We must consider the additional function packing machinery. If in package box should add a counting cup. The medicine spoon waits an utensil down. Be put into use with convenience of customers. In machine, kind of aspect developing can design comparatively advanced machinery. If sterile pack machinery, the package machinery retaining freshness etc.Can develop the corollary equipment selling complete sets of equipment and the post-processing at reduced prices in the medicines and chemical reagents package front.3) Functions decomposition. Medicines and chemical reagents package machinery belongs to the integration of machinery with electronics product. Should consider every function all round time design. Sort Er Yan. The medicines and chemical reagents package machinery function may divide 3 major parts being that organization moves, monitors biography feel, the information processing and controlling a function basically. The function subdivides organization motion according to may not kind with machine , packer may be molding , heat-seal , pressure trace mark, according to cutting 4 big functions if the aluminum moulds bubble cover. But, paper box package machinery may be that the box opens, paper box transfers, breaks tongue , functions such as inserting tongue , flattening and putting a batch number up mark poison board under paper folding, deducing paper feed. Want to consider machinery lubrication, safe functions such as running, packing hygiene of machinery too in the process of design. This demands the technology designing that the personnel considers detecting sufficiently. Brightness, machine, electricity integration technology, computer art. Intersection between the pneumatic technology, the logistics technology connection.4) Organization is designed. Be to realize the predetermined function. We need to use different organization. This needs the part synthesizing each considering a complete machine among one process. Use the product designing that while satisfying the usage request. Structure is simple, pragmatic. Medicines and chemical reagents package machinery organization designs time. Respond to the principle choosing appropriate organization motion and constituting. Think sufficiently to realize what specially appointed motion needs organization. If cam organization. Bar linkage. Cam bar linkage. Respond to the technology wielding separation drive at the same time.Think that the transmission shaft designs a problem (if castellated shaft and ladder axis etc.) and drive are systematic synthetically. Design that process middle should cut down the effect that the uncertainty factor brings about to the full. Messenger organization operation is stable. Design that machinery carries out kinetic methods of analysis answering now and then. With lifting, machinery runs speed and stationarity. Should think that various packing machinery, adjustable, holds the mistake, but expansion, stationarity as well as beautiful-rization besides. Run after machinery is deft but stable. Design process but consult package machinery design of all kinds strong point. Draw other machinery (if plastic machinery, prints machinery) merit at the same time. Design the outside except carrying out organization. Return approach back to the realization should think that every function is other. If vacuum, electrical equipment waits under the control of. To expect that optimum combination is a product's turn.5) System under the control of schemes design. In medicines and chemical reagents package machinery, a very important part is that real time detecting is back-off to every organization. To ensure that equipment operation is smooth. Now many machinery products has selected and used large amount of photo electricity switch being the detecting component. Equipment has such as PC detecting bubble cover system on some machinery and the like system. This need all designs that meticulously. And, the general naval company is an integral whole.Three, concluding remarksThe thought a concept is designed melts to enter medicines and chemical reagents package machinery design being able to fall off designing a fault. Shorten a design cycle. Accelerate the product exploitation. Make the product designing that more rational, have affinity, more suitable man-machine project more. It is also that the main means costing down and improving enterprise competition is short of passive competition aspect backward for improving medicines and chemical reagents package machinery design at the same time. To adapt to the challenge that "queen GMP times" brings about. Design that the personnel must take product conceptual design seriously. Deepen the significance understanding conceptual design's.译文论药品包装机械的概念设计近年来，由于我国经济形势的持续高涨和国家对制药行业强制性推行GMP(药品生产质量规范)认证制度，药品包装机械取得了长足的进步。
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附 录 附录 A: 英文文献与中文参考译文 Automobile lamps adaptive development and reviewed in this paper
With the development of the society and the continuous improvement of people's living standard, people on the requirements of the car has not only confined to performance, cost, but more and more requirements modern car safer, more environmental protection and more human. Car manufacturers are using more security, more environmental protection, design is more elegant and more province oil advantages to attract users. And at the same time, the new car should also must comply with the latest regulation, this has led to a new technology to get the application. As the big three auto safety thing, automobile lighting systems is one of the main active safety device, to the traditional automobile lighting system improvement and innovation also has become a hot spot in the study of the world automobile manufacturers.
Therefore, how to make automotive lighting, driving more intelligent safety, more comfortable will become a very urgent and has the important practical significance of the subject. The traditional automobile lighting system mainly by the headlamps system, lighting system, signal car lighting system composed of three. With the progress of science and technology, traditional lighting system also experienced rapid progress, the corresponding traffic regulations also more and more perfect, headlamps system has gone through a kerosene lamp from the original to incandescent lamp, halogen lamp to now discharge lamp of the development process, the signal from the first portable lighting system development now widely applied to a kerosene lamp LED lights, the car lighting system is more and more kinds, more and more humane. But the actual use of traditional headlamps system, there are many problems. For example, the existing in the light of the close on lighting effect is very bad, especially in the urban traffic is more complex, often have a lot of drivers in the evening nearly light, and front fog lamps entirely open headlights; Vehicles in turning the corner, there are also lighting dark areas, the serious influence the driver on the corners on the judgment of the obstacles; Vehicles driving on a rainy day, the ground water reflected the headlights, produce light reflected glare, and so on. According to statistics, about 50% of the night accident happened without lighting facilities of the dark road, road lighting the poor, the greater the likelihood of accident. The night accounted for 33.1% of the total number of accidents accident (although driving at night accounts for only 1/5 of the rate during the day). The death toll is about 50%, compared to 12.4% during the day, the death rate from the accident, and the night for 33, 7%. The night and high death rate from multiple accident, and the reason is the eyesight of the driver and the lower than about 1/2. In addition the rain and fog will also make vision loss, glass and dirty water before not only reduced vision, still can make the distance distortion, which must be the attention of the driver. European car lighting research institutions in the once a special investigation, the results showed that the most wants to improve the European drivers of the wet weather is the lighting of the water came in second, a rural road lighting, the next is in turn corners lighting, highway lighting and urban lighting. The above of these problems, make developing a DuoZhong lighting function with the lighting system become necessary, and the function of switching, for security reasons, and must be automatically, thus, adaptive lighting system (ALS) will emerge as The Times require.
At present, our country of all motor vehicle testing lines are equipped with headlamps inspection instrument, many experts and scholars are many important is also discussed in the paper. But, through the test of a station exploits the year two thousand Taiwan client survey analysis, vehicle headlamps a total qualified by only 45%, and these qualified vehicles and most of all foreign imports of the vehicle. Is Cause the situation are the main reasons: (1) the car factory products do not meet the national standards, and many of the car factory in just when examination is not qualified, headlamps But others just a factory qualified,