3. morphology and lexicon
morphology练习部分问题详解
Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammaticalwords C. function words D. form words 2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB.free C.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB.four C. five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB.suffixes C. infixes D.stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectionalaffix C. infix D.back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB.back-formation C. insertion D. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB.clipping C. initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB.clipping C. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB.agree C. disagree D. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB.phoneme C. morpheme D. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way ofword-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations. III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with__________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root__________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largestpart of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to__________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a__________, and a word formed by compounding is calleda __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?（厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II（武汉大学，2004）I II(2) free(4) inflectionalI.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADB II.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFF III.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme 25. close, open 26.back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme 29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound root IV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective. V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4)d (5) b。
morphology练习部分问题详解
morphology练习部分问题详解Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammaticalwords C. function words D. form words 2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB.free C.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB.four C. five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB.suffixes C. infixes D.stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectionalaffix C. infix D.back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB.back-formation C. insertion D. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB.clipping C. initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB.clipping C. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB.agree C. disagree D. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB.phoneme C. morpheme D. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the basewhereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way ofword-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations. III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with__________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root__________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largestpart of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to__________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably asverbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a__________, and a word formed by compounding is calleda __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?（厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II（武汉大学，2004）I II(2) free(4) inflectionalI.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADB II.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFF III.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme 25. close, open 26.back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme 29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound root IV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective. V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4)d (5) b。
morphology练习部分答案word文本
Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammaticalwords C. function words D. form words 2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB.free C.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB.four C. five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB.suffixes C. infixes D.stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectionalaffix C. infix D.back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB.back-formation C. insertion D. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB.clipping C. initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB.clipping C. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB.agree C. disagree D. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB.phoneme C. morpheme D. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way ofword-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations. III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with__________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root__________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largestpart of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to__________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a__________, and a word formed by compounding is calleda __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word。
chapter_3__morphology ppt课件
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Auxiliaries
• Negation
• I can’t come. I wantn’t come.
• Inversion
• Is he coming? Keeps he coming?
词素——最小的意义单位
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• A morpheme is the smallest meaningful grammatical unit thatis composed of three elemments denoting sound, meaning and form---respectively phoneme, lexeme and grapheme.
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• A grammatical unit: sentence clause phrase word morpheme
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it of meaning
• It is the smallest/minimal unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be further divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical or grammatical.
m
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The morpheme (语/词素) is to the morph (形素) what a phoneme(音位) is to a phone (音素).
语言学教程第三版03Chapter_3_lexicon(2)
– burgle, commentate, edit, peddle, scavenge, sculpt, swindle
– air-condition, babysit, brainstorm, brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, househunt, housekeep, sightsee, tape-record
– Morphemes that have no specific sememe en- has no specific sememe, but may help change grammatical and semantic categories. joy (adj, quality) enjoy (verb, event) cran-: cranberry --- blueberry, blackberry, cloudberry – Function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change run: run a company (verb, event) in a short run (noun, thing) No morpheme change, but the sememe is changed: progress, fish, fat (verb, event / noun, thing / adj, quality)
3. Lexical change
• • • • • Formation of new words Phonological change Morphosyntactic change Semantic change Orthographic change
Morphology and Syntax
This ungrammaticality has to do with the fact that the special exhibitions with their definite determiners are referring expressions, whereas word constituents in non-head
2.2 Nominative-Accusative system & Absolutive-Ergative
1.Demarcation of Morphology and Syntax 1.1Definitions of Morphology and Syntax
Morphology:
• 1. Morphology is the study of the internal structure of word. For instance, the word “rainbow” is formed by “rain” and “bow”. • 2. Morphology studies the syntactical relationship of word. For instance, in the word “teacher”, “teach” and “-er” form the subject-predicate relation. While “-er” is the subject, and “teach” is the predicate. • 3. Morphology is concerned with the concept-role relationship(概念角色关系). For example, in the Chinese word “肌肉男”，“男”为领主，“肌肉”为所属，故二者为领主和所属关系。 • 4. Morphology reveals the literal meaning and the extra meaning. For example, in the Chinese word “笋鸡”，the literal meaning of“笋”is a kind of plant or a kind of food, but the extra meaning is fresh and tender. • 5. Morphology studies conceptual structure and form structure. In the word “肌肉男”，语符的字面 意义远远小于所标记的客体形成的概念范围。肌肉可以引申出强壮、经常锻炼等意义。
Morphology语言学第三章总结
Forms of conpounds
Solid
Hyphenated
Open
Types of compound The word formation
3.4.1 Blending
The definition
3.4.2 Backformation
3.3.3 Suffixation
The definition
The classification of suffixes
Noun
Adjective
Adverb
Verb
3.3.4 Conservation
Types
Noun-verb
Verb- noun
Adjective- noun
3.3.5 Compounding
3.2.2 The type of morpheme
Free morphemes
Bound morphemes: bound roots, affixes, inflectional affixes, derivational
3.2.3 Allomorphs
Root&Stem
3.3 Words-Formation
3.3.1 General remark
The three major processes: affixation or derivation, conservation, composition or compounding
3.3.2 Prefixation
The definition
The classification:
Chapter3 Morphology
3.1 Basic concepts of words, vocabulary and lexicology.
chapter 3 morphology
Morphology3.1 Definition of morphology (Q1)QI. What is morphology?Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology (also called inflection) and lexical/derivational morphology (also called word-formation).3.2 The internal structure of words (Q2 ~ Q8)Q2. Illustrate the relationship between morpheme and allomorph by examples.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes. Take disagreeable for an example, it contains three morphemes, dis-, agree and -able. A morpheme may take various shapes or forms. For instance, -ion, -tion, -sion and -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix. They do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound depending on the final phoneme of the preceding verb. They are called allomorphs. So an allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.Q3. What is morphophonology or morphophonemics?It studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology. Specifically speaking, it is a study of the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and, correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. For example, the negative morpheme is realized as in- in infirm, but as im- in imperfect. The change of /n/ to /m/ is due to /p/ after it, so the assimilation of /n/ is said to be conditioned by /p/.Q4. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morphemes may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tense morpheme in worked.Q5. What is a root? What is an affix?Morphemes may also be divided into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. In each of the following words, dance, dancing, danced and dancer, the root is dance, which is the basic unchangeable part, carrying the main lexical meaning. Roots are either free or bound.An affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Affixes are considered bound morphemes. They may be divided into inflectional and derivational types.Q6. What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. The inflectional affixes today are the plural marker, the genitive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particulargrammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivational affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.Q7. How to distinguish root, stem and base?Root is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. Thus in the word undesirables, the root is desire. Stem is the part of a word-form that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. So in the word undesirables, the stem is undesirable. Base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means that any root or stem can be termed a base. But a base differs from a root or a stem.Q8. Tell the root, stem and base of the following words.(1) Desirable: desire is the root or base; but there is no stem for it.(2) Undesirable: desire is the root; desirable is the base; there is no stem for it.(3) Undesirables: desire is the root; undesirable is the stem or base.(4) Desired: desire is the root, stem or base.3.3 Inflection (Q9)Q9. What is inflection/inflexion?Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, tense or case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached, as exemplified with boy + ' s .3.4 Word-formation (Q1O ~ Q26)Q10. What is affixation/derivation?Affixation or derivation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base. A word thus made is called derivative.Q11. What is a prefix? What is prefixation?A prefix is an affix that is placed at the beginning of a word as un-in the word unfair. Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix to the base. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base. They don’t generally alter the word-class of the base; agree-disagree is an example.Q12. What are the main classifications of living prefixes?The major living prefixes are classified into the following eight categories by their meanings:(1) Negative prefixes, like un-, non-, in-, dis-, a-.(2) Reverse prefixes, like un-, de-, dis-.(3) Pejorative prefixes, like mis- ,mal-, pseudo-.(4) Prefixes of degree or size, like arch-, super-, hyper-, ultra-, mini-.(5) Prefixes of attitude, like co-, counter, anti-, pro-.(6) Locative prefixes, like super-, sub-, inter-, trans-.(7) Prefixes of time and order, like fore-, pre-, post-, ex-.(8) Number prefixes, like mono-, tri-, poly-, mega-.Q13. What is a suffix? What is suffixation?A suffix is an affix that is placed at the end of a word, as -ness in the word happiness. Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix to the base, usually changing theword-class of the base. For example, the noun boy, by the addition of the suffix -ish, is changed into the adjective boyish.Q14. What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like heartbeat); (2) adjective compounds (like duty-free ); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).Q15. What are the criteria of a compound word?(1) Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail), hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open ( like air raid).(2) Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, a single stress on the first element, as in' space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3) Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be related to, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.Q16. Express the following in one compound word.(1) someone who writes songs----songwriter(2) someone who cleans window---window-cleaner(3) the race for arms---arms race(4) the train in the morning---morning-train(5) a mine for gold--gold mine(6) as cheap as dirt---dirt cheap(7) tanned by the sun---sun-tannedQ17. What are reduplicative compounds?Reduplicative compounds are formed by reduplication, by which a compound is created by the repetition (1)of one word like go-go; (2)of two almost identical word with a change in the vowels such as zigzag; (3)of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, as in teenyweeny.Q18. What is conversion?Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. For example, the verb attack corresponds to the noun attack. Other terms for conversion are “functional shift” and “derivation by zero suffix”.Q19. What is full conversion? What is partial conversion?There are two types of conversion, full conversion and partial conversion. The conversion is full when the converted form takes on all the features of the word from which it is converted. Take the adjective native for example. The conversion of native to noun is full, because one can say a native, two natives, the native's language, and a returned native.Partial conversion is the conversion where the converted form takes on only some of the features of the word from which it is converted. For example, some adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor; yet they do not take plural and genitive inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a, this, my, etc.Q20. What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, atechnical term, or a phrase. If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC/'bi:bi:'si:/(for British Broadcasting Corporation ); if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM/stem/(for surface-to-air missile).Q21. Illustrate the five sub-divisions of clipping respectively by examples.The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form. Examples are plane from airplane, and gym from gymnastics.Clipping may be divided into five main types:(1) Back clipping: the deletion occurs at the end of the word. This is the most common type of clipping. Examples are: ad (= advertisement), auto (= automobile), memo (= memorandum).(2) Front clippings: the deletion occurs at the beginning of the word, like bus (= omnibus), phone (= telephone), quake (= earthquake).(3) Front and back clipping: the deletion occurs at both ends of a word, like flu (= influenza), fridge (= refrigerator), and tec (=detective).(4) Middle clipping: the deletion occurs in the middle of the word, like maths(= mathematics), mike (= microphone).(5) Phrase clipping: this involves the shortening of a phrase, like perm (= permanent wave) and pop (= popular music).Q22. What is blending?Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch).Q23. Why is back-formation a productive way of forming verbs in ME?Backformation is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix of a longer form already present in the language. For example, the verb edit was formed from editor by dropping the supposed derivational suffix -or.The majority of backformed words are verbs, for verbs have a peculiar property to develop around them a number of deverbal nouns, such as the agent noun and the noun of action, like edit from editor. Verbs also generate various types of participial adjectives, such as creating and created. Hence people expect to find a family of derivatives attached to a verb. On the other hand, when people come across one or more apparently deverbal nouns, they often take for granted that there must be a corresponding verb, and they simply create the verb base from which the original word seems to be derived.Q24. What is analogy?Analogy means making a new word or phrase by making an analogy between the word to be made and an existing corresponding one. The following words are coined by analogy: earthquake---youthquakesunrise---earthriseoverpopulation---underpopulationQ25. What is onomatopoeia?Onomatopoeia is the oldest device of word-formation used to name a thing or an action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it. In other words, onomatopoeic words are echoic words whose sound suggests sense. In Modem English people often coin new words for thepurpose of vividness and imagination. The typical example is meow (or mew, miaow), a word used to refer to the sound made by a cat.Q26. Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsat (from communication+ satellite, by blending )motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)lase (from laser, by back-formation)memo (from memorandum, by back clipping)nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN (from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy )ROM (from read-only memory, by initialism)bit (from binary + digit, by blending)babysit (from babysitter, by back-formation)cock-a-doodle-do (from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia)grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)3.5 Word and word classification (Q27 ~ Q30)Q27. What is word? What is lexicon? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary?Word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. A word is the unity of sound, form and meaning.Lexicon, in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, it deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations.Lexeme is an abstract unit which refers to the smallest semantic unit that can be distinguished from other smaller units. It is applied for the purpose to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word”.A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken and written texts. For example, write is the lexeme of the following words: write, wrote, writing, written.V ocabulary refers to the whole load of words used or understood by a person.Q28. How does morphology classify words?According to the number and type of morphemes they contain, words can be classified into:(1) simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme, such as man, work, kind.(2) derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process. Such words usually consist of a free morpheme and one or more than one bound morpheme, such as carefully.(3) compound word: those which are composed of two or more free morphemes, such as firewall.Q29. What are grammatical words and lexical words?Words are divided into grammatical and lexical words in terms of meaning. Those words which serve to link different parts together, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words. Those words which refer to substance, action and quality, such as, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words. So lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical words as function words.Q30. What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.ExercisesI. Fill in the blanks.1. Take is the _______ of taking, taken and took.2. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: _______ and _______root.3. An _______ is pronounced letter by letter, while an _______ is pronounced as a word.4. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _______.5. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: _______, _______, and ______.6. All words may be said to contain a root _______.7. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belongs to _______class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to _______class.8. _______ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.9. _______ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.10. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the _______level.11. A word formed by derivation is called a _______, and a word formed by compounding iscalled a _______.12. The poor is an example of _______ conversion.II. Choose the best answer.13. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words14. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _______ morpheme.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD.derivational15. There are _______morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB.fourC.fiveD.six16. In English -/se and -tion are called _______.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes17. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and _______.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root18. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and _______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation19. _______ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words bysubtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. AffixationB. Back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition20. The word TB is formed in the way of _______.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending21. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned”isknown as a(an) _______.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form22. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by _______.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformationD. acronymy23. The stem of disagreements is _______.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement24. All of them are meaningful except for _______.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphIII. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F].__ 25. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.__ 26. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.__ 27. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.__28. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.__ 29. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.__ 30. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.__ 31. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.__ 32. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes. __ 33. Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.__ 34. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.__ 35. We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.__ 36. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.IV. Explain the following terms.37. Morphophonology 38. Allomorph39. Bound morpheme 40. Back clipping41. Derivation 42. Morphological rule43. Closed-class word 44. Analogy45. Full conversion 46. Blending47. Base 48. HybridV. Answer the following questions.49. Of all the word-formations, which involve the process of addition? Which the process ofsubtraction? And which the process of transition?50. Illustrate the axiom, “The actual grammatical classification of any word is dependent upon itsuse.”KeysI. Fill in the blanks.1. lexeme2. affix; bound3. initialism; acronym4. vocabulary5. solid; hyphenated; open6. morpheme7. close; open 8. Backformation9. Conversion 10. morphemic11.derivative; compound 12. partialII. Choose the best answer.13. A 14. A 15. C 16. B 17. C 18. B19. B 20. C 21. C 22. A 23. D 24. BIII Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F].25. [F] Phonetically, a compound usually has a single stress on the first element, or a main stresson the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.26. [T]27. [F] Stem is the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.28. [T] 29. [T]30. [F] Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating a same word or an almost identical word.31. [T]32. [F] The number of syllables of a word is not necessarily the same as that of morphemes.33. [F] Backformation is productive way of forming verbs in Modem English.34. [F] Inflection and word-formation are two sub-fields of morphology.35. [F] The meaning of a compound cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its componentparts, and sometimes is idiomatic.36. [F] Roots are divided into free roots and bound roots, so they are not always free.IV. Explain the following terms.37. Morphophonology: Morphophonology or morphophonemics is a branch of linguisticsreferring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and, correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. At any rate, it studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology.38. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position oradjoining sounds.39. Bound morpheme: It is a morpheme which cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. Itmust appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tense morpheme in worked.40. Back clipping: It means one or more syllables are deleted from the end of a word. It is themost common type of clipping, like auto from automobile.41. Derivation: Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process bywhich new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.42. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of baseto form a new word, e.g. -ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.43. Closed-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.44. Analogy: It is way of making a new word or phrase by making an analogy between the wordto be made and an existing corresponding one. Based on earthquake, youthquake is coined.45. Full conversion: It means the converted word takes on all the features of the original word.For example, the noun natural, converted from adjective natural, can be used in the sentence He is a natural for the job. The conversion of natural is a full one.46. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining themeanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch).47. Base: It is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means that any root orstem can be termed a base. But a base differs from a root or a stem.48. Hybrid: It is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages. Hybrids arevery common in English. For example, the root of the word rewrite is English, but the prefix re- is from Latin.V. Answer the following questions.49. The process of addition includes derivation, compounding, reduplication, because derivation isa process of adding affixes, and compounding and reduplication are processes of addingwords. The process of subtraction involves acronymy, clipping, blending and back-formation, because they shorten words in various ways either by choosing initial letter (or letters), deleting syllable (or syllables), combining words, or by subtracting a supposed affix. The process of transition involves conversion and onomatopoeia. Conversion is a transition from one word class to another, while onomatopoeia is a transition from sound to word.50. Sometimes a word may undergo multiple conversion, which enables it to function as amember of several word-classes, but the actual grammatical classification of any word depends upon its use in a sentence. Notice how the word-class of round varies in accordance with its use in the following sentences:The second round was exciting. (n.)Any round plate will go. (adj.)Some drivers round comers too rapidly. (v.)。
课件3._morphology
Word Structure: morphology
The Structure of Words: Morphology
Fundamental concepts in how words are composed out of smaller parts The nature of these parts The nature of the rules that combine these parts into larger units What it might mean to be a word
Basic Units
Remember that in phonology the basic distinctive units of sound are phonemes In morphology, the basic unit is the morpheme Basic definition: A morpheme is a minimal unit of sound and meaning
An Additional Point: Regular and Irregular
In the examples above, the different allomorphs have a distinct status. One of them is regular. This is the default form that appears in e.g. Wug-test environments. For other allomorphs, speakers simply have to memorize the fact that the allomorph is what it is. Example: It cannot be predicted from other facts that the plural of ox is ox-en. Demonstration: The regular plural is /z/; consider one box, two box-es. Or a Wug-test scenario. Default cases like the /z/ plural are called regular. Allomorphs that have to be memorized are called irregular.
现代语言学3.4.7.8
Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivationalThe English inflectional affixes include:-(e)s,名词复数-(e)s,单三-(e)d, -ing, -er,比较级-est,最高级-…s,所有格Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.Tolerate toler- + -ate Quickly quick +-lyAffixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixesPrefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word. Features of compounds1 Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。