西方语言学流派笔记(刘润清)
刘润清教授简介
刘润清教授
刘润清，男，汉族，生于1939年，河北武强县人。
1965年毕业于北京外国语学院英语系，留校任教。
1979－1980年在北外攻读英语语言文学硕士研究生，师从许国璋，1980年获硕士学位。
1984－1986年在英国兰卡斯特大学进修，师从Mick Short 和Geoffry Leech, 1986年获该校副博士学位。
现任北京外国语大学外国语言研究所教授，北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心研究员。
兼任国家高等教育自学考试英语专业委员会秘书长。
曾任北外外国语言研究所所长, 中国外语教育研究中心主任, 《外语教学与研究》副主编，中国英语教学研究会秘书长。
刘润清教授发表了70余篇有关语言学和应用语言学论文，主持了“中国高校英语教学情况调查”和“中国英语本科学生素质调查”；“全国专业技术人员职称英语等级考试大纲”和“同等学历人员申请硕士学位英语水平全国统一考试大纲”的制定，多次获得教育部和北京市颁发的优秀科研成果奖。
主要研究方向：语言学，应用语言学，语用学，语言测试理论，科研方法。
刘润清教授主要学术著作
《语言学入门》（人教社）
《语言学教程》（第二主编）（北大社）
《语言与文化》（外研社）
《语言测试和它的方法》（外研社）
《西方语言学流派》（外研社）
《外语教学与学习》（高教社）
《论大学英语教学》（外研社）
《外语教学中的科研方法》（外研社）
《中国语言学现状与展望》（主编之一）（外研社）。
刘润清教授：语言学课如何教
刘润清 北京外国语大学
2013西安
1.语言学课的重要性 2.教什么：本科学生：语言学分支 硕士生：语言学流派（理论） 博士生： 3.如何教：本科学生 4.如何教：硕士生 5.达到目标：了解语言的本质；研究语言的 方法；基础知识；基本概念；有了兴趣。
1.介绍语言哲学的来历，“语言转向”之意义 2.分析哲学主张什么？ 3.日常语言哲学家主张什么？ 4.主要争论：语言的意义。 5.剧中关于意义的理论 6.语言哲学之争给语言学带来的意义 7.后来的语言哲学的发展
原则： 1. 深入浅出。强பைடு நூலகம்知识性，又强调趣味性。 宁可不全面，不许把学生“吓跑”。必须“接地 气”，不许“玩术语”。 有的人天天背名词、术语、定义，把学生都吓跑了。 让人家下决心一辈子不学语言学。这是犯罪呀！
如果“他昨天进城了”里的“他”是位刑警，听话 人是个罪犯，讲话人小声地讲“他昨天进城了”， 就成了警告：“你小心点。”如果大家在办公室七 嘴八舌地说是小李昨天把计算机搬回自己家去了， 有个人站起来说“他昨天进城了。”何义？ 阿呆给处长送礼时的对话：“你这是什么意 思？”“没什么意思，意思意思。”“你这就不够 意思了。” “小意思，小意思。” “你这人真有意 思。” “其实也没有别的意思。”“那我就不好意 思了。” “是我不好意思。”
2. 不论教什么概念，不要以定义开头，而是用有趣的 例子开始，从现象开始，介绍几个例子之后，再介 绍定义。学生容易懂，容易记。这就叫：先用归纳 法，后用演绎法。 例如，如何讲音位学。《教程》里没有从音位学的 定义开始，而是先说“每个人的声带是不同的，所 以发出的音也不同；同一个人两次发同一个音也会 有区别。那么，人们是如何能够理解如此不同的发 音呢？”英语
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(认知语言学)【圣才出品】
第10章认知语言学10.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学2. Categorization and categories范畴化与范畴3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy概念隐喻与转喻4. Iconicity and grammaticalization象似性与语法化常考考点：认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitive linguisticsII. Categorization and categories1. Definition of categorization2. The classical theory3. The prototype theory4. Levels of categorizationIII. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy1. Conceptual metaphor2. Conceptual metonymyIV. Iconicity1. Iconicity of order2. Iconicity of distance3. Iconicity of complexityV. GrammaticalizationI. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义)【考点：名词解释】Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。
英语语言学笔记
英语语言学笔记Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。
The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。
胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。
Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writi ng (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g.Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLan guage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo. The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort –lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.Functions of language – three meta-functions by HallidayThe ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information.The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community.The textual functionTo form a text.Functions of languagePhatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.Directive: get the hearer to do something.Informative: give information about facts.Interrogative: get information from others.Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention. V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed theirwriting systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ?new‘. In one exper iment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sentoff to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. Theyflow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cann ot create a ?new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④A linguistic theory is cons tructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studiesthe characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentratesprimarily on what speakers do with languagewhich led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In H alliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖ and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. d e Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language./doc/4215996376.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondary34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BChapter 2 PhonologyLanguage is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Phonetics----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Three branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics----from the speakers‘ point of view, ―how speakers produce speech sounds‖the production of speech sounds. It is of our major concernAuditory phonetics----from the hearers‘ point ofview, ―how sounds are perceived‖the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.the physical properties of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the three cavities?Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Transcription of speech soundsA standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. ], [ pit ] ?clear [ Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:V oicing---- voiced & voiceless (Two consonants sharing the same place and manner of articulation become a pair, which is distinguished by voiceless or voiced. )Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasalAspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels and ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:The manner of articulationThe place of articulationThe manner of articulationstops/plosives: [p],? , [t], [d], [k], [g];],?], [v], [s], [z], [? fricatives: [? ], [h];?], [?], [?[];??], [?? affricates: [?liquids:? ];?[l](lateral), [];?], [?], [? nasals: [?].?glides/semivowels: [w], [The place of articulationbilabial: [p], ], [w];?, [], [v];?? labiodental: [ ?];?], [? dental: [alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l],? [r];];??], [ ??], [??], [?], [? palatal: [?velar: [k],? ?];?[g], [glottal: [h].?The place of articulation1. Bilabial;2. Labiodental;3. Dental or interdental;4. Alveolar;5. Palatoalveolar;6. Palatal;7. Velar;8. Uvular;9. Glottal.The description of English consonants Page 20 (textbook)Classification of vowelsDifferent vowels are determined by the position of the tongue and the relative opening of the lips.The criteria of vowel description1. the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back2. the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open3. the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded4. the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松)Monophthongs or pure/single vowels?Diphthongs or gliding vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front? ?]?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??vowels: [],?], [?? central vowels: [? ];?[].??], [?], [??], [?], [?? back vowels: [?According to the openness of the mouth].?], [??], [?], [?? Close: [?];??], [?Semi-close: [];?], [? Semi-open: [?],? Open: [? ];?], [??], [?], [?[According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding ];?], [??], [?], [?? rounded: [?].??], [?], [?], [??], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??unrounded: [According to the length of the vowels],??], [?? long: [? ]??], [??], [??[],?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [? short: [? ].?[Diphthongs/gliding vowels?],??], [??], [?? [? ].??], [??], [??], [??], [??[Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad? had ladA velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod?Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat patAn alveolar? consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quickA palato-alveolar? consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zipA dental consonant: lie buy? thigh thy tie ryeA glide: one war yolk rush?Underline the words that end with a sound as required:A fricative?pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave messageA nasal?train bang leaf limbA stop?drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tipAn affricate: rack such ridge booze?Underline the words that contain the sound as required:A central vowel:?mad lot but boot wordA front vowel:?reed pad load fate bit bed cookA rounded vowel:?who he bus her hit true boss bar walkA back vowel:?paid reap fool top good fatherDescribe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:vd/vl place mannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobberEitherPhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different inperspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phonemePhoneA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The? speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‘t, e.g. t ]??[ b & t]?t ], [sp?[ b & t].?[spPhonemeA? phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently t].?p] and [sp?t], [t?in [pAllophoneAllophones ---- the phones? that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic? contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. t].?t ] and [p? /b/ and /p/ in [ b Complementary? distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pairMinimal pair----when two different forms? are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonologySequential rules?Assimilation ruleDeletion rule?Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sound s in a particular language, e.g. in English, ―k b i I‖ might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.。
刘润清《西方语言学史》第四章索绪尔
发音部 位旧名 唇 音 舌 音 齿 音 重 唇 轻 唇 舌 头 舌 上 齿 头 正 齿 音 喉 音 半 舌 音 半 齿 音
发音部位新 名 双 唇 唇 齿 舌尖中 舌面前 舌尖前 舌面前 舌叶音 舌面后 喉 音 舌 根 半元音 舌尖边 鼻齿音
发 全 清
音
方
法 全 浊 次 浊
次 清
帮[ p ]b 非[ f ] 端[ t ]d
语言的层级系统
音位（phoneme） 音位是能够区别意义的最小的语音单位。 语素（morpheme） 语素是语言中最小的音义结合单位，是词的组成要素。 词（word） 词是语言中可以独立运用的最小单位。 句子（sentence） 句子是独立表达比较完整语义的语言结构单位。
言语的产生与感知过程
语言(langue) （社会的主要的） 言语活动 （langage） 言语(parole) （个人的从属的）
• 例如“人”，汉语说rén，英语说 person，俄语是человек ，相互间的 语音差别很大； • 例如 ai，汉语中表达的是哀、爱、 矮……，在英语中表达的是“我” （I）。
• 语言的音、义之间的关系是任意性 的，但为什么又说语言的音、义之 间同时也是强制性关系呢？
语言符号的任意性特点是就语言起 源时的情况来说的。 至于符号的音义关系一经社会约定 而进入交际之后，它对人们就有强制 性，每一个人都只能乖乖地接受它， 绝不能随意更改；即使皇帝、总统也 不例外，都只能接受社会已约定的符 号。
禅[
牙
见[ k ]g 影[ o ] 晓[ x ]h
溪[ k‘ ]k
群[ g ]
疑[ŋ]ng
匣[ γ ] 喻[ I ]y 来[ l ]l
日[
]r
刘润清《西方语言学史》教案(20130828)
第一章绪言【教学目的和要求】本章主要介绍什么是语言和什么是语言学等基本理论，要求学生了解其基本观点，为今后的学习打下良好的基础。
【教学重点和难点】语言学的特点【教学方法和手段】讲授法、多媒体教学。
【教学时数】1学时【教学过程和内容】一、课堂导入：介绍本课程的基本情况：本课程是语言本科专业必修课，是“语言学概论”的后续课程，在“语言学概论”课的基础上，进一步介绍西方语言学的发展历史，介绍西方语言学的主要流派、理论方法。
二、教学内容：（一）什么是语言？语言是用于人类交际的一种任意的、口语的、符号系统。
1．系统性2．任意性3．口语性4．符号性5．交际性（二）什么是语言学？语言学是对语言的科学的研究。
1．客观性2．系统性3．清晰性三、本章总结：本章是全书的绪论篇，主要介绍什么是语言和语言学。
当代著名心理学家皮亚杰曾说过：“语言学，无论就其理论结构而言，还是就其任务之确切性而言，都是在人文科学中最先进而且对其他各种学科有重大作用的带头学科。
”当今的语言学是人文科学中先进的学科。
语言学的先进性主要体现在其科学性、精密性、前沿性等方面。
学好语言学是中文系学生基本素养的体现。
四、课后思考：1．如何理解人类语言与动物交际系统的区别？2．语言学的性质有哪些？3．怎样理解“语言学家之间的分歧，与其说是谁是谁非的问题，不如说是从不同的角度观察语言、分析语言”？五、参考书目：1．索绪尔：《普通语言学教程》，商务印书馆，1980年。
2．罗宾斯：《简明语言学史》，许德宝等译，中国社会科学出版社，1997年。
3．林玉山：《现代语言学的历史与现状》，福建人民出版社，2000年。
4．乔姆斯基：《乔姆斯基语言学文集》，宁春岩译注，湖南教育出版社，2006年。
5．岑运强等编：《语言学基础理论》，北京师范大学出版社，2006年。
6．胡壮麟主编：《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社，2007年。
7．箫国政主编：《现代语言学名著导读》，北京大学出版社，2009年。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(7-12章)【圣才出品】
第7章语篇分析7.1复习笔记本章要点：1.Discourse and discourse analysis语篇及语篇分析2.Given and new information已知信息与新信息3.Cohesion and coherence衔接与连贯4.Conversational analysis对话分析常考考点：语篇及语篇分析的定义；已知信息与新信息的异同；衔接手段包括指称、替代、省略、连接与词汇衔接；语篇标记的定义与特征；对话分析中的配组会话、偏好结构及前序列；批判性语篇分析。
本章内容索引：I.Definition of discourse and discourse analysisrmation structure1.Given and new information2.Topic and comment3.ContrastIII.Cohesion and coherence1.Cohesion.(1)Reference(2)Substitution(3)Ellipsis(4)Conjunction(5)Lexical cohesion2.CoherenceIV.Discourse markers1.Definition2.Functional-pragmatic nature3.Features of discourse markersV.Conversational analysis1.Adjacency pairs2.Preference structure3.PresequencesVI.Critical discourse analysisI.Definition of discourse and discourse analysis(语篇及语篇分析的定义)1.Discourse(语篇)A general term for examples of language use,nguage which has been produced as the result of an act of communication.It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations,and interviews.泛指语言的运用，也就是说，语篇是人们进行交流的产物。
(刘润清版) chapter 2 the sounds of language
articulators
vocal organs
Vocal tract: the air passage which is above the vocal cords, and ends at the mouth and nostrils.
Speech organs: three important areas
The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:
glides/semivowels: [w], [j].
the description of English consonants
Place Voic manner -ing Stops or plosives Fricatives Affricates Nasals VL VD VL VD VL Bilabial LabioAlveoGlotta Dental Palatal Velar lar l dental
phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, esp. those sounds used in speech (i.e. speech sounds), and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels Consonants
刘润清《西方语言学史》第三章历史比较语言学
四、19世纪中外语言研究对比
西方 研究方法 历史比较法 研究内容 构拟共同语—亲属 关系—描写语言历 史演变 研究视角 以“句”（形式、 意义）为单位，以 语法为主体
中国 以客观材料为依据，使 用严谨的科学考究法 音韵（古音校订古书）、 训诂（诠释经典著作）、 文字（研究汉语词源） 以“字”为单位，以字 的形、音、义结合为主 体
• 19世纪中西语言研究，无论在宏观上，还 是微观上，都存在着很大差距，尽管中国 语言研究历史比国外早；中国古代语言研 究也作出了不少贡献，但由于中国长期处 于封建统治之下， 闭关锁国，致使中国现 代语言学的产生比国外晚了一百年，直到 1898年马建忠的《马氏文通》诞生才宣告 中国现代语言学的产生。
• 社会条件：18c末19c初，西方资本主义迅速发展，自 然科学突飞猛进，出现比较解剖学、比较植物学、比 较自然地理学等比较学科，引发了比较语言学。 • 直接条件：（1）广泛收集世界各种语言材料 • [德]帕勒斯《全世界语言的词汇对比》三百八十多种 • [德]阿迪龙《米特里德Mithridates》五百种语言方言 （2）认识到梵语在语言比较中的地位和作用 [英] 威廉·琼斯：梵语和拉丁语、希腊语有亲缘关系。
• 4.[德]施莱歇（ Schleicher 1767-1835）
日耳曼语族的谱系图Language Family Tree
• 2.[德] 格里姆（Grimm1785-1863） 著作：《德语语法》 “语音演变规律”（音变） “格里姆定律”（Grimm‘s Law）： 印欧语（希腊语、日耳曼语） 不仅有共同的词汇和共同的形 态，语音的变化很有规律。
语言学第一章笔记和习题
Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。
The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentMonthly examExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。
胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。
Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLanguage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.The pooh-pooh theoryLanguage arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.To sum up:The divine-origin theory: language is a gift of god to mankind.The invention theory: imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.The evolutionary theory: the result of physical and psychological development.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intendedmeaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words. Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Productivity/Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‗new‘. In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cannot create a ‗new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.g. human vocal tractFunctions of language (3+6+7+3)1. Three main functionsthe descriptive function: the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.the expressive function: it supplies information about the user‘s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. the social function：also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people2. The Russian-born structural linguists Roman Jakobson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function. That is, in conjunction of the six primary factors of any speech event, he established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication in his famous article: Linguistics and PoeticsAddresser—Emotive (intonation showing anger)Addressee—Conative (imperatives and vocatives)Context—Referential (conveys a message or information)Message—Poetic (indulge in language for its own sake)Contact—Phatic communion (to establish communion with others)Code—Metalinguistic (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)3. In the early 1970s the British linguist M.A.K. Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions, namely, instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, and imaginative. This system contains three macrofunctions—the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual function.three meta-functions proposed by M. A. K. Halliday(1) The ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information. It constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations(2) The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community. It enacts social relationships(3) The textual functionTo form a text. It creates relevance to context.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentrates primarily on what speakers do with language which led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In Halliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the public ation of F. de Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psych ological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。
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高思畅西方语言学流派笔记（刘润清）一、什么是语言?语言是用于人类交际的一种任意的、口语的、符号性系统。
任意的：词汇的声音序列与它们所代表的的客观实体或者抽象概念之间没有内在的必然的联系。
是约定俗成的。
口语的：语言的根本渠道是声音，文字是辅助手段。
文字是口头语言的记录。
符号：语音是一种象征，本身没有实际价值。
语言是人类特有的。
二、语言学的方法论归纳法induction：由个别到一般的论证方法。
通过许多个别的事例，或分论点，归纳出他们共有的特性，得出一个一般性的结论。
提供假说，证明假说和理论，确定家说的支持度，对未来情况进行预测。
归纳法容易犯经验主义的错误，连着八天看到老张跑步，不能得出“老张每天跑步”结论。
“归纳法是自然科学的光荣，却是哲学的耻辱。
”演绎法deduction：是从普遍性结论或一般性事理推导出个别性结论的论证方法，普遍性结论是依据，个别性结论是论点。
运用演绎推理时，所根据的一般原理，即大前提必须正确。
实证法verification：研究要有根有据，是应用极广的研究范式。
知识必须建立在观察和实验的经验事实上。
有定性也定量之分。
证伪法falsification：科学的本质在于他的可错性。
新理论得到确认，但还不能说已被证实，而只是暂时没有被证伪。
三、心理语言学语言成了每个人的社会标志。
心理语言学试图从知觉、记忆、智力、动机等角度来解释当代语言理论关于语言习得和语言能力的某些假设。
两大派：联想派：婴儿的大脑是一张白纸，语言是通过许多刺激-反应-强化过程学会的。
内容派：婴儿的大脑由于遗传的原因，生来具有学习语言的机智，一旦接触语言的原始材料，很快就掌握母语。
第四章索绪尔现代语言学的开端（20 世纪初）一、索绪尔是这个世纪最伟大的语言学家，是结构主义的创始人。
（20 世纪5、60 年代）二、背景法国社会学家迪尔凯母，奥地利心理学家弗洛伊德，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在不同领域分别提出，反对把看不见、摸不着、非物质的社会、心理、语言等虚无化，而是把他们看成实实在在存在着的东西，而且往往是起决定性作用的东西。
迪尔凯母：给“社会事实”下定义。
自觉或不自觉要遵守的规范使我们的行为成为社会事实，这种规范就是外部制约。
所谓社会事实就是集体心智collective mind 中的思想。
语言是一种社会事实，一种行为，语言行为有外部制约，就是一种抽象的语言系统弗洛伊德：社会中的规范和心理情结，集体心理collective psyche，这叫“潜意识”心理。
人们对这种心理系统并没有意识，但是时时受他的支配的控制。
潜意识是人类一切行为的内驱力，它包括人的原始冲动和各种本能以及通本能有关的各种欲望。
一个人并无法言明他的语言知识，但他说话、听懂别人、识别语言错误时，无不受到语言规则的限制。
社会科学所研究的不是社会事实本身，而是社会事实与其社会意义的结合。
高思畅西方语言学流派笔记（刘润清）三、语言的特征；语言学的任务(一) 区分语言langue 和言语parole语言：是言语能力的社会产物，又是必要的惯例convention 总汇。
这种惯例为社会群体所接受，使每个人能进行言语活动。
言语：是个人运用自己的机能时的行为，他运用的手段是通过社会惯例，即语言◎语言是一种语法系统，潜伏在人的大脑之中，言语是语言的运用，是语言的具体表现。
◎语言存在与人的大脑中不完整，只有在一个社会群体才是完整的，言语必须是一个人一个人的运用。
◎语言是总体，言语从属于语言。
语言的存在不取决于具体言语，但是言语不能脱离语言。
◎语言既是言语的工具，也是言语的产物。
◎语言是长久的，言语是短暂的。
(二) 区分语言的外在因素和内在因素语言的外在因素：语言与人种学的关系、语言与文化的关系。
语言与政治但是对语言只进行内部研究，不进行外部研究也是完全可能的。
把语言比作下棋，象棋是哪里介绍到欧洲，棋子是用什么材料，都属于外部因素，棋法则是内在因素。
相当于象棋的“语法”(三) 对语言符号性的论述语言出现之前不存在思想。
一个语言符号是把概念和形象结合起来，不是把物和名结合起来，二者缺一不可，两个成分都是心理的。
单独看概念是做心理研究，单独看声音形象，就是在做生理研究；只有把两者作为不可分开的整体来研究才是语言学研究。
声音形象是“符号能指”，概念称为“符号所指”。
符号的三个特性1.语言任意性的论述符号所指和符号能指之间没有内在的必要的联系，而是任意的联系。
象声词也有任意成分，象声词并不象声，只是大致模仿。
如何解释最早的象形文字？索绪尔讲的是口语，是语音与概念结合成的语言符号，没有讲文字，普通语言学研究对象是口语，文字是二性的，是口语的记录。
汉语文字是象形文字，每个字都是副画，它们当然有理可据。
2.符号施指的线性关系连锁关系和选择关系（组合关系和聚合关系？）3.符号的不变性(四) 语言学的任务：1. 对一切能够接触到的语言作出描写并整理出其历史，也就是整理出各语系的历史并尽可能重建各种语系的母语。
2. 找出在一切语言里永恒的、普遍地在起作用的力量，分析出普遍性的规律，即能够概括一切具体历史现象的规律；3. 确定语言学的界线和定义。
是“描写”还是“规定”语言，正是传统语法与现代语言学的分水岭。
高思畅西方语言学流派笔记（刘润清）四、共时语言学VS 历时语言学共时语言学：研究一种语言或多种语言在其历史发展中的某一阶段的情况，即语言状态，而不考虑这种状态究竟如何演化而来，又称静态语言学历时语言学：集中研究语言在较长历史时期所经历的变化，又称演化语言学。
“了解一盘棋的历史的人，未必比刚到场的人更有发言权。
”发言多少取决于对棋局分析的深浅。
“ 二者关系1. 任何时期的语言使用者只要了解当时的语言状态就够了，演化过程不能说明一个语言符号的现在价值。
一个历时语言现象是个孤立的事实，它所引起的共时语言现象与它毫无关系。
2. 历史语言现象并不企图改变语言系统3. 任何语言状态的形成都是偶然的4. 共时语言现象之间的关系不同于历时语言现象之间的关系。
5. 共时语言学比历时语言学更为重要6. 共时语言学并不是研究同时存在的一切语言现象，而是研究一种语言中的全部共存现象。
历时语言学所研究的对象不一定仅仅属于一种语言，可以同时属于几种语言。
7. 共时语言学事实，不论哪种事实，只能表明一种规律性，但绝不是强制性。
相反，历时语言学事实，强加在语言身上，但绝不带普遍性。
8. 共时语言学和历时语言学不是指两大类成分，而是两种研究语言的方法。
五、符号学semiology 索绪尔是符号学的创始人语言是一种表达思想的符号系统。
社会上使用的一切表达方式，原则上都以群体规范为基础，换句话说，都以惯例为基础。
规范和规则使人们采取一定的表达方法，而不是由于方式本身的内在价值。
自然科学研究的现象具有内在的联系和价值，不存在语言与言语之类的区别，不存在制度、惯例之类的东西。
社会科学研究人对客观事物的利用；必须区分客观事物本身和赋予它们社会意义的区分性系统，即为什么对同一物体的不同使用具有不同的社会价值。
衣着、举止、行为、态度都是符号，都不具有自然特征，而具有任意的社会价值，这种价值存在于社会成员头脑之中，是一种潜意识的底层结构。
六、索绪尔的影响把注意力引到语言与言语上去。
索绪尔：在组合关系中，语言事实和言语事实之间没有严格的界线，前者表明群体的用法，后者是说话人自由的选择。
Chomsky 批评索绪尔：Chomsky 用语言能力代表索绪尔的语言，用语言行为代表言语，Chomsky”索绪尔把语言看做具有语法特点的符号仓库，就是说这个仓库里有类似词汇的成分，固定词组，也许还有类似词组的东西，这样他无法解释组成句子是的循环过程。
索绪尔的体系没有提到日常运用语言时所涉及的‘受规则限制的创造性’“七、关于任意性和象似性之争（2013 年新增的章节）任意性：语言符号的声音形象和概念像铜板的两面，不可分开，但是他们之间没有自然的、内在的和逻辑上的高思畅西方语言学流派笔记（刘润清）联系。
语言符号的能指和所指之间的联系是任意的，没有理据可言。
语言不仅在词汇层面上是任意的，在句法层面，即单个语言符号通过排列组合而构成的语言结构与意义之间的关系也是任意的。
象似性：任意性象似性语义与语音层面（索绪尔）尽管在基本范畴上存在任意性，但是在上位范畴或者下属范畴，尤其是更大的语言单位（句法层面）表现出明显的规律性。
形式层与意义层词法：合成词和派生词句法：1.小句内部语义结构的象似性2. 小句与小句之间语义结构的象似性。
认知语言学：象似性低，语言形式与意义的联系模糊相似，之间的关系是任意性程度高，理据性弱。
象似性高，语言形式与意义的联系明显相似，之间的关系是任意性程度弱，即理据性强。
认知语言学把象似性看做语言的根本属性，索绪尔把任意性看做语言的根本属性。
皮尔士的符号学理论：象似符：复制性质，照片、脚印。
标志符：可以作为客体标记的符号。
例如水印代表温度象征符：能以直管的方式表示比较抽象的内容的符号，如图腾象征氏族，天平象征公平。
海曼的符号学理论：成分象似:形式与意义相对应关系象似：语言结构内部不同成分之间的关系与人类经验结构成分之间的关系相对应。
例如距离象似、数量象似、顺序相似、标记象似、话题象似、句式象似。
“人类的语言具有一定程度的非任意性，即象似性。
”句法层面上的原则：1.线性顺序语义原则；2.线性顺序语用原则-----比较重要的信息和不容易获得或不容易预测的信息往往在线性序列中首先出现。
韩礼德：系统功能语言学：语言是有一个由语义、词汇语法和音系三个层次构成的符号系统，语义和词汇语法即意义与形式之间的关系是非任意的，而词汇语法与音系之间的关系则是任意的。
第五章布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派（20 世纪二三十年代）一、索绪尔之后出现了三派结构主义语言学：布拉格学派：突出贡献创建了音位学：观点是结构主义和功能主义的结合，称为结构-功能语言观哥本哈根学派美国结构主义二、布拉格学派的主要观点：(一) 重视共时语言学研究的地位(二) 语言是一个价值系统，不是千千万万个毫不相干的孤立现象的汇合。
(三) 研究分析实现各种功能的语体，分析口语和书面语之间的关系。
(四) 从语言功能入手研究语言形式高思畅西方语言学流派笔记（刘润清）(五) 从一开始就注重语义的研究三、突出贡献：区分了语音学和音位学(一) 音位的特点：1. 具有区分意义的功能2. 不能再分成具有区分功能的更小语音段3. 只能用区别性特征来确定。
（区别不同音位变体的特征，如一个高些，一个低些，一个长些，一个短些，叫非区别性特征。
非区别性特征是由语音环境造成的。
把a 与o，u，p 等区别开来的特征是区别性特征。
）◎语境变体contextual variant：非区别性特征造成，eg，bad 和bat 中的 a 在语音上是不相同的，但都属于同一个音位ǣ(二) 区别音位对立的三条标准：1. 它们与整个对立系统的关系2. 对立成员之间的关系3. 区别力量的大小四、句子功能展示成分：用信息论的原理来分析话语或文句，测量一句话的各个部分对全句意义的贡献。