What is Descriptive linguistics
语言学复习资料
Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性） Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
外国语言学及应用语言学 考点总结
ngue and ParoleLangue is the system of a language, the language as a system of forms,whereas parole is actual speech, the speech acts that are made possible by the system of the language. That`s is to say,langue is the social product whose existence permits the individual to exercise his linguistic faculty; parole, on the other hand, is the “executive side of language”.parative LinguisticsA branch of linguistics which studies two or more languages in order tocompare their structures and to show whether they are similar or different.Comparative linguistics is used in the study of languages types and in comparative historical linguistics. It is also used by some applied linguists for establishing differences between the learner’s native language and the target language in the areas of syntax, vocabulary, and sound systems.3.Empiricism（经验主义）An approach to psychology which states that the development of theory must be related to observable facts and experiments, or which states that all human knowledge comes from experience.4.Rationalism （理性主义）It is an approach to philosophy proposed by Chomsky in the 1960s, which states that the knowledge is based on reasoning rather than on experience of senses. In this sense, it is opposed to empiricism.5.Behaviorism （行为主义）A theory of psychology which states that human and animal behavior can be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind. It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behavior of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement.6.Positivism (实证主义)a philosophical movement that began in the early 19th century, characterized by an emphasis on the scientific method as the only source of knowledge and a desire to rebuild society on the basis of “positive” knowledge..7Mentalism（心智主义）It is the theory that a human being possesses a mind which has consciousness, ideas, etc., and that the mind can influence the behavior of the body.8.Morpheme (语素)It refers to the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.9.Deduction and induction (演绎和归纳)Reasoning by deduction proceeds from a generalization to particular facts which support it, whereas reasoning by induction involves moving from particular facts to generalizations about them.10.Linguistic relativity （语言相对论）Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativity.11.Linguistic determinism（语言决定论）A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view the world is determined by the structure of their native language.12.Discourse analysis (话语分析)The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc.13.Semiology/Semiotics （符号学）1) the theory of signs. 2) the analysis of systems using signs or signals for the purpose of communication. The most important semiotic system is human language, but there are other systems, e.g. sign language, traffic signals.14.Descriptive linguistics （描写语言学）Descriptive linguistics describes how a language is actually spoken and/or written, and does not state or prescribe how it ought to be spoken or written.15.Synchronic and diachronic linguistics （共时和历史方法）Diachronic linguistics is an approach to linguistics which studies how a language changes over a period of time, for example the change in the sound system of English from Early English to Modern English.Diachronic linguistics has been contrasted with synchronic linguistics which is the study of a language system at one particular point in time, for example the sound system of Modern British English.16. Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsDiachronic linguistics is an approach to linguistics which studies how a language changes over a period of time, for exmple the change in the sound system of English from Early English to Modern English.Diachronic linguistics has been contrasted with synchronic linguistics which is the study of a language system at one particular point in time, for example the sound system of Modern British English.The need for diachronic and synchronic descriptions to be kept apart was emphasized by the swiss linguist Saussure.17. Speech actAn utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning:1)propositional meaning (also known as locutionary meaning). This is the basicliteral meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.2)Illocutionary meaning (also known as illocutionary force). This is the effectthe utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. For example, in “I am thirsty” the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as a request for something to drink.A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaningand illocutionary force..There are many different kinds of speech acts, such as requests, orders, commands, complaints, promises.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as anindirect speech act, such as the speech act of requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.18.Positivisma philosophical movement that began in the early 19th century, characterized by an emphasis on the scientific method as the only source of knowledge and a desire to rebuild so ciety on the basis of “positive” knowledge. As a variation of empiricism, among the basic ideas of positivism are the idea that the world is orderly, that all natural phenomena have natural causes, and that nothing is self-evident, but the laws of nature can be discovered through experimentation. Although few people nowadays subscribe to all of these beliefs, some degree of positivism characterizes most “scientific” approaches to understanding all phenomena, including language learning. Logical positivism is a specific type of positivism that rejects as meaningless all statements that cannot be empirically verified.19.Tagmemics(tagmemics) the basic unit of grammatical analysis. A tagmeme is a unit in which there is a relationship between the grammatical function, for instance the function of Subject, Object or Predicate, and a class of fillers.For example, in the sentence: The baby bit Anthea.The subject tagmeme is filled by the Noun Phrase (the baby), the predicate tagmeme is filled by the Transitive Verb (bit) in its past tense form, and the object tagmeme is filled by the proper noun (Anthea).20.Phoneticsthe study of speech sounds. There are three main areas of phonetics:1) Articulatory phonetics deals with the way in which speech sounds areproduced. Sounds are usually classified according to the position of the lips and the tongue, how far open the mouth is, whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, etc.2) Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through theair. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound wave). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.3)Auditory phonetics deals with how speech sounds are perceived by thelisteners.21.Phonology1) another term for phonemics.2) (for some linguists) a cover term for both phonetics and phonemics.3) The establishment and description of the distinctive sound units of a language(phonemes) by means of distinctive featuresEach phoneme is considered as consisting of a group of these features and differing in at least one feature from the other phonemes.22.BehaviorismA theory of psychology which states that human and animal behavior can andshould be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind.It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behavior of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement. Behaviorism was used by psychologists like Skinner, Osgood, and Staats to explain first language learning, but these explanations were rejected by adherents of generative grammar and many others.23.Universal GrammarA theory which claims to account for the gramatical competence of everyadult no matter what language he or she speaks.It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.The theory was proposed by Chomsky and has been stated more specifically in his model of Government and Binding Theory.According to UG theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, e.g. English, French or German, and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter. For example, one of the principles of UG is structure dependency. It means that a knowledge of language relies on knowing structural relationships in a sentence rather than looking at it asa sequence of words.1. Structuralism/Structural(ist) linguisticsAn approach to linguistics which stresses the importance of language as a system and which investigates the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, sentences have within this system.Structural linguists, for example, studied the distribution of sounds within the words of a language; that is, whether certain sounds appear only at the beginning of words or also in the middle or at the end. They defined some sounds in a language as distinctive and used in the identification of words (see phoneme), and some as variants (see allophone). Similar studies of distribution and classification were carried out in morphology and syntax.In its widest sense, the term has been used for various groups of linguists, including those of the Prague School, but most often it is used to refer to a group of American linguists such as Bloomfield and Fries, who published mainly in the 1930s to 1950s. The work of these linguists was based on the theory of behavirism and had a considerable influence on some language teaching methods (see Audiolingual method).2.Innateness hypothesis (天赋假说)The theory states that human knowledge develops from structures, processes, and “ideas”which are in the mind at birth (i.e. are innate), rather than from the environment, and that there are responsible for the basic structure of language andhow it is learned. This hypothesis has been used to explain how children are able to learn language. The innateness hypothesis contrasts with the belief that all human knowledge comes from experience.3.American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics, and the pioneer scholars who took an interest in linguistics in America were anthropologists. It developed in a very different style from that of Europe under the leadership of the anthropologist Franz Boas. Descriptive in language theories is characteristic of America. And another feature of American linguistics is its insistence on being scientific. Firstly, structural grammar describes everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, its aim is confined to the description of languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does. Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. However, it has produced almost no complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammars. Thirdly, structural grammar examines all languages, recognizing and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning. Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use.The development of American Structuralism can be roughly classified into 3 stagesBoas and Sapir period (1911-1932)Bloomfieldian period (1933-1950)Post-Bloomfieldian period (1952-1956)Boas’s view on language: Boas held that there is no ideal type or form of language. He was strongly opposed to the view that language is the soul of a race, and he proved that the structure and form of a language has noting to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture. There are only differences inlanguage structure, while there is no difference between languages in terms of being more or less reasonable or advanced. Boas expounded that what would sound “primitive”of a language is in fact never primitive at all.Boas’s methodology: Boas noticed that every language has its own system of sounds and he also found that every language has its own grammatical system. Boas said that the important task for linguists is to discover, for each language under study, its own particular grammatical structure & to develop descriptive categories appropriate to it.Boas’contribution: Starting from an anthropological view in studying linguistics, Boas regarded linguistics as part of anthropology and failed to establish linguistics as an independent branch of science. But his basic theory, his observation, and his descriptive methods paved the way for American descriptive linguistics and influenced generations of scholars. Although he did not establish a set of descriptive methods, his view on describing alien languages played a very important part in the formation of American descriptive linguistics.Sapir: (1) He started from an anthropological viewpoint to describe the nature of language, with his main focus on typology. He defines language as “a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.”(2) In discussing between speech and meaning, Sapir holds that the association of speech and meaning is a relation that may be, but need not be, present. (3) In discussing the relation between language and thought, Sapir holds that they are not to be considered the same. Language is the means, and thought is the end product. Without language, thought is impossible. (4) He also noticed the universal feature of language, he says that all human races and tribes, no matter how barbaric or underdeveloped, have their own languages.Bloomfield: He was the principle representative of American descriptive linguistics. His main contribution to linguistics is his philosophically sophisticated emphasis on making it a science. Bloomfield developed Boas’s theory under the influence of Neogrammarians and Saussure. The only difference is thatBloomfield tried to account for the production and interpretation of speech with the “stimulus-response”theory under the influence of the prevailing behaviorist psychology of the time. Bloomfield’s Language has been acclaimed as a classic in modern linguistics and was once held to be the model of scientific methodology and the greatest work in linguistics on both sides of Atlantic in the 20th century.Bloomfield is such a landmark figure in the history of American linguistics that the period between 1933 and 1950 is known as the Bloomfieldian age, in which American descriptive linguistics formally came into being and reached its prime development.parison between TG grammar and the Structural GrammarTG differs from the structure grammar in a number of ways: rationalism, innateness, deductive methodology, emphasis on interpretation, formalization, emphasis on linguistic competence, strong generative powers& emphasis on linguistic universals.1.Bloomfield defined language as a set of utterances and a set of “lexical and grammatical habits” while Chomsky defined as a set of rules or principles.2.Two have different aims in linguistics: for structuralism, it is to describe one or a set of languages; for Chomsky, it is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language.3.Different types of data in analysisThe structuralisms make use of the naturally occurring utterances, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge.4.Different methodsBloomfield--inductiveChomsky---(hypothesis-deductive)5.Different in viewing language learningBloomfield--empiricism in philosophy and behaviorism in psychologyChomsky----rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology5、Stimulus—Response theoryAlso S—R theoryA learning theory associated particularly with the American psychologist B. F.Skinner (1904-1990), which describes learning as the formation of associations between responses. A stimulus is that which produces a change or reaction in an individual or organism. A response is the behavior which is produced as a reaction to a stimulus. Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows the occurrence of a response and affects the probability of that response occurring or not occurring again. Reinforcement which increases the likelihood of a response is known as positive reinforcement. Reinforcement which decreases the likelihood of a response is known as negative reinforcement. If no reinforcement is associated with a response the response may eventually disappear. This is known as extinction. If a response is produced to similar stimuli with which it was not originally associated this is known as “stimulus generalization”. Learning to distinguish different kinds of stimulus is known as discrimination.There are several S—R theories which contain these general principles or variations of them, and they have been used in studies of verbal learning and language learning.6.Empiricisman approach to psychology which states that the development of theory must be related to observable facts and expeiments (see Behaviorism), or which states that all human knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism contrasts with the view that many forms of human knowledge are in-born or innate (see Innatist hypothesis).7. Transformational-generative GrammarAlso transformational grammar, TG grammar, generative-transformational grammar, generative transformational theoryA theory of grammar which was proposed by the American linguist Chomsky in1957. It has since been developed by him and many other linguists. Chomsky attempted to provide a model for the description of all languages. A transformational generative grammar tries to show, with a system of rules, theknowledge which a native speaker of a language uses in forming grammatical sentences.Chomsky has changed his theory over the years. The most well-known version was published in his book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965. It is often referred to as the Aspects Model or Standard Theory. This model consists of four main parts:1)the base component, which produces or generates basic syntactic structurescalled deep structures; 2) the transformational component, which changes or transforms these basic structures into sentences called surface structures; 3) the phonological component, which gives sentences a phonetic representation so that they can be pronounced; 4) the semantic component, which deals with the meaning of sentences.8.Saussure’s Views of Language and his ContributionsSaussure’s view of of languange as a system of arbitrary signsSaussure occupies such an important place in the history of linguistics that he he is often described as “father of modern linguistics”.The significance of the rich legacy Saussure left us is probably beyond what we may realize at present. Saussure’s chief contributions are as follows:1)He helped to set the study of human behavior on a new footing (basis).Saussure saw that the study of human behavior misses its best opportunities if it tries to trace the historical causes of individual events. Instead, it must focus primarily on the functions which events have within a general social framework, and it must treat social facts as part of a system of conventions (规约系统) and values.2) He helped to promote semiology (符号学).By his methodological example and by various prophetic suggestions, Saussure helped to promote semiology, the generals cience of signs and system of signs, and structuralism, which has been an important trend in contemporary anthropology and literary criticism as well as in linguistics.3) He clarrified the formal strategies of Modernist thought.In his methodological remarks and general approach to language, Saussure gave a clear expression of what we might call the formal strategies of Modenist thought: the ways in which scientists, philosophers, artists, and writers working in the early part of the 20th century tried to know about a complex and chaotic universe.4) He attached importance to the study of the intimate relation between languageand human mind (心智).Saussure’s treatment of language focuses on problems which are central to new ways of thinking about man and especially about the intimate relation between language and the human mind.In a word. Saussure’s contr ibutions are actually in many fields: linguistics, general social sciences, semiotics and structuralism, modernist thought and our conception of man. All these make him a seminal figure in modern intellectual history.9. Bloomfield’s Views of Language and ContributionsBloomfield’s language (1933) has been acclaimed as a classic in modern linguistics and was once held to be the model of scientific methodology and the greatest work in linguistics on both sides of the Atlantic in the 20th century. The main points in his work are (1)behaviorist view of language; (2) the problem of speech community; (3) phonological features and typology; (4) grammatical units.He is the principal representative of American descriptive linguistics and is read by many more linguists today. Bloomfield is such a landmark figure (标志性人物) in the history of American linguistics that the period between 1933 and 1950 is known as the Bloomfieldian Age, in which American descriptive linguistics formally came into being and reached its prime development.Bloomfield’s main contribution to linguistics is his philosophically sophisticated emphasis on making it a science. He was one of the chief founders of the Linguistics Society of America in 1924. He is also the founder of structuralist linguistics and trained a generation of linguists.The only difference is that Bloomfield tried to account for the production and interpretation of speech with the “stimulus-response”theory under the influence of the prevailing behaviorist psychology of the time.10. Halliday`s metafunctions( 3 aspects):Since the adult’s language is more complex and has to serve many functions, the original functional range of the child’s language is gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions.The ideational function is to convey new information to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. It mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”.For example, John built a new house can be analysed as a configuration of the functions （功能配置）:Actor: John Process: Material: creation: built Goal: affected: a new houseHere the “Actor”, “Process”, “Goal”, and their subcategories reflect our understanding of phenomena that come within our experienceThe interpersonal function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. And it is realized by Mood and Modality.The textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. Although two sentences may have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they may be different in terms of textual coherence.The textual function can also highlight certain parts of the text. For example, in Authority I respect, but authoritarianism I deplore, both authority and authoritarianism are highlighted.Halliday and Systemic-Functional GrammarHalliday took up the Prague School’s functionalist theory, especially the theory of Communicative Dynamism, the Copenhagen School’s glossematics, and the traditions of the London School in developing his theories of Systemic-Functional Grammar. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century, exerting a strong impact on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics. SF grammar actually has two components: SystemicGrammar and Functional Grammar. They are two inseparable parts for an integral framework in Halliday’s linguistic inquiry. Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. Functional grammar includes 3 components: the ideational function, the interpersonal function and the textual function. And the functional grammar aims to reveal that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the uses or functions which they serve. SF grammar is based on two facts:(1) language users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction and (2) language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky’s TG grammar which takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic competence as the object of study.Halliday also believes that the situation consists of three parts: “field”“tenor” and “mode”. The field of discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place. The tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part in, to the nature of participants, their status and roles. The mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants expect the language to do for them in the situation.。
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案Chapter One Introduction4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。
除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?Speech is prior to writing;The writing system is invented when needed;Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written;Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication; Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing; Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.9.what are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.The descriptive function.It is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied,and in some cases even verified,e.g.”The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.”The expressive function,supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences,prejudices.and values,e.g.”I will never go camping with the Simpsons again.”The social function,serves to establish and maintain socialrelations between people,e.g.”How can I help you, sir?Chapter Two Phonology1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writing are two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards speech as the primary one for some reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system is to record speech. Even today, there are some tribes without writing system. From the view of children’s development, children acquire his mother tongue before they learn to write.5.what criteria are used to classify the English vowels?The criteria used to classify English vowels are:The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, and lowThe position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, and back The degree of lip rounding: rounded, un-rounded The degree of tenseness/the length of sound: tense (long) or lax (short) The change of sound quality: pure(monophthong), gliding(diphthong)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? . Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech soundswe hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.。
英语语言学概论（自考）
1. What are the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics and what sis the relationship between them? (P.1)A: Differences between general and descriptive linguistics:(1) They have different goals:General linguistics deals with language; descriptive linguistics study one particular language;(2) They have different aims:General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general;Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of this particular language.Relationships between general and descriptive linguistics:General and descriptive linguistics depend on each other:(1) General linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described; (2) The resulting descriptions of particular languages supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the models put forward by general linguists.2. What is the nature of language? (P7)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.3. What is the difference between langue and parole? (P2/P24)a. Langue is the system of language. Parole is the speakers’ speech.b. Langue refers to the abstract system of a language, while parole refers to the concrete act of speaking in a definite time, place and situation.c. Langue underlies parole and parole, in turn, is a manifestation of langue.4. What is the difference between competence and performance? (P2)a. Competence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language.b. Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations.c. Competence is abstract, while performance is concrete.5. Why do linguists maintain that language is primarily speech? (P4) Linguists maintain that language is primarily speech, and not the written form. This view may be justified by the following reasons.a. Biologically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write.b. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life.c. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.The emphasis on the spoken form indicates that linguistic study is primarily based on the data collected from living speech.6. What does it mean by saying that language is arbitrary, creative and double-structured? (P4-5)A. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.B. Language is creative.a. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.b. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.c. The rules with recursive properly can account for the creative aspect of language.C. Language is double-structured. There are two levels: grammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless.7. What features of language can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems? (P7)Human language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable. Those unique features like creativity, duality of structure and changeability can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems and enable human languages to be the most efficient, flexible and versatile means of communication in the world.8. How many stages does the scientific method have? What are they? (P9) There are four stages of scientific method:a. collecting data,b. forming a hypothesisc. testing the hypothesisd. drawing conclusions9. What are the three linguistic biases? (P9-10, P7)a. One common linguistic bias is that some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.b. Another deep-rooted bias is that only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.c. Change is not natural for all living languages and such a language is a sign of corruption and decay.10. How is a rule constructed? (P15)a. To construct a rule, the linguist starts with collecting data.b. Based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.c. Then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.d. He keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.11. Give examples to illustrate the two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness and generativeness. (P15-16/P6)a. By saying a linguistic model is explicit, we mean that the rules the model contains are clearly and precisely defined. Even a computer can produce all and only the grammatical sentences if the rules are fed to the machine.b. By saying the model is generative, we mean that the model contains only a small set of rules which, however, can generate an indefinitely large number ofc. For example, “so…that” is explicit, but they can generate infinite sentences. eg. He is so fat that he could not ran fast.He was so lazy that he never washed his clothes.…12. What are the four types of linguistic knowledge? (P18-19)The four types of linguistic knowledge are phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic.a. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.b. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how a word is formed.c. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.c. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the meaning of language.13. Why is Saussre regarded as the former of modern linguistics? (P21-22)a. The obvious reason is that the book under his name “A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory.b. In this book, quite a few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguistic study and exerted great influence on the later development linguistics.c. Chief among them are the distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, langue and parole.14. Give examples to illustrate the difference between synchronic and diachronic. (P22)a. If we study the changes in the Chinese language that took place between the 1940’s and the 1960’s, it would be a diachronic study.b. But if we study the Chinese language in the 1940’s, then it would be a synchronic study.concerned with the historical development of a language and the latter is concerned with the “state” of a language at a particular point of time.15. Give examples to illustrate the difference between syntagmatic and paradigmatic. (P116-118/P22-23)a. A syntagmatic relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.b. A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in an utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance.c. We can go tomorrow syntagmatic relationShe may come soonI will ask nextY ou could sleep now………paradigmatic relation16. What is a consonant and what is a vowel? (P30)a. A consonant is a speech sound where the airstream from the longs is either completely blocked, partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.b. A vowel is a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibrations of the vocal cords.17. Is the spelling of words a reliable means of describing English sounds? Why or Why not? (P30-31)No, it isn’t.a. Sometimes a single letter may represent different sounds.b. Sometimes, different letters or combinations of letters may r4epresent a single sound.c. The advantage of this system is that within the system, one symbol represents one sound and every symbol has a consistent value.18. What is the difference between plosives and affricates? (P37)b. Affricates are brought together to form a complete closure but not followed by a sudden release, rather by a low release with audile friction.19. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology? (P20, P53)a. English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how those sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, and how they re described and classified.b. Different from English phonetics, English phonology does not deal with the actual production of English sounds, but with the abstract aspects: the function of sounds and their patterns of combination.20. What are the three conditions of a minimal pair? (P54)a. They are different in meaningb. They differ only in one sound segment.c. The different sounds occur in the same position in strings.21. Give examples to illustrate the differences between phonemes, phones and allophones. (P90)a. Phonemes are said to be minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.b. Phones are the realizations of phonemes.c. Allophones are the realizations of a particular phoneme.d. For example,22. Give examples to illustrate the differences between contrastive distribution, complementary distribution and free variation. (P59-60)a. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change in meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.b. If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment, they are said toc. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change in meaning, they are said to be in free variation.d. The sounds either in contrastive distribution or in free variation can occur in the same environment. The difference between them lies in the fact that in the former case, the substitution of one sound for another results in a change in meaning, but this does not happen in the latter case. Complementary distribution is clearly different from the previous two types of distribution. The sounds in complementary distribution never occur in the same environment.23 What are the 3 principles of identifying phonemes? (P61)a. The sounds that are in contrastive distribution are different phonemesb. The sounds that are always in free variation are allophones of the same phoneme.c. The sounds that are in complementary distribution and also phonetically similar are allophones of the same phoneme.24. What is the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features? (P69)a. The distinctive features, which can only have an effect on one sound segment, are called segmental features.b. The distinctive features, which can affect more than one sound segment and can also contrast meaning, are called suprasegmental features.25. What’s the difference between phonemes and morphemes? (P54, P83)a. Phoneme is defined as a minimal distinctive unit in the sound system of a language.b. A morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.26. What are interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes? (P84, P86)a. Semantically, morphemes are grouped into general categories: root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes).b. Structurally, they fall into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.c. All free morphemes are roots, but not all roots are free morphemes. All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes..27. Please explain the difference between inflectional and derivational28. How do we judge whether two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are one morph or different morphs? (P92-93)a. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are identical in both form and meaning, then they are regarded as one morph.b. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in form but different in meaning, then there are as many morphs as there are meanings.c. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in meaning but different in form, then there are as many morphs as there are forms.d. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are different both in form and meaning, there are as many morphs as there different forms and meanings.If two or more morphs are semantically identical and also in complementary distributing, they are then said to allomorphs of the same morpheme; otherwise, they belong to different morphemes.30. What is IC analysis? (P99/P126)a. IC analysis simply means that we divide the morphemes of a word into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes.b. Labeled IC simply means that we divide the morphemes of a word or the words of a sentence into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes of a word on a signal word of a sentence..31. What is the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? (P97-98)a. Empty morph is defined as a morph that has form but no meaning.b. Zero morph is defined as a morph that has no form but has meaning.32. What are two ways of studying sentences? Explain them. (P116)a. We make structural descriptions of sentences to illustrate the parts of a sentence and the relationships among them, this is called static study.b. We examine the process by which sentences are generated by syntactic rules this is called dynamic study.33. What are the three syntactic relations? (P116-118)a. Sequential or syntagmatic relations are refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.b. Substitutional (paradigmatic) relation is a kind of relation between linguistic forms in a sentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence.c. Hierarchical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.34. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?a. A surface structure corresponds to the linear arrangement of words; a deep structure corresponds to the meaningful grouping of words.b. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and a deep structure is abstract.c. A surfaces structure gives the form of a sentence; while the deep structure gives the meaning of a sentence.d. A surface structure is pronounceable, but a deep structure is not pronounceable.35. What are the three kinds of operations performed by T-rules? (P180)a. rearranging the sentence elements;b. adding a new element to the phrase marker;c. deleting an element from the phrase marker.36. What are the differences between PS rules and T-rules? (P139)a. TG grammar has assumed that to generate sentences, we start with deep structures and then transform them into surface structures.b. Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules), and surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).英语语言学概论11Phonetics has three sub-branches:(1) articulatory phonetics that is concerned with how a sound is produced by the vocal organs;(2) acoustic phonetics that deals with how a sound is transmitted from the speaker ’s mouth to the listener ’s ears;(3) auditory phonetics that investigates how a sound is perceived by the listener.2. Speech organs1-nasal cavity; 2-lips; 3-teeth; 4-aveolar ridge; 5-hard palate 6-velum (soft palate); 7-uvula; 8-apex (tip) of tongue; 9-blade (front) of tongue;10-dorsum (back) of tongue; 11-oral cavity;12-pharynx; 13-epiglottis;14-larynx; 15-vocal cords; 16-trachea; 17-esophagus;。
语言学笔记
《简明英语语言学》笔记Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?●Definition: the scientific study of language.● A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation;that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.●The scope of linguistics:✧General linguistics: study language as a whole✧Specific aspects:1)Phonetics: the study of sounds2)Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3)Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4)Syntax: study the rules of how to form grammatically correct sentence5)Semantics: the study of meaning6)Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language use✧Interdisciplinary branches:1)Sociolinguistics2)Psycholinguistics3)Applied linguistics●Important distinctions✧Prescriptive and descriptive:1)Descriptive: Describe and analyze the language that people actuallyuse2)Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior inusing language3)Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which isscientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be itcorrect or not.✧Synchronic and diachronic1)Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, al-ways in its current existence.2)Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; itstudies the historical development of language over a period of time.3)In modern linguistics, synchronic approach enjoys priority.✧Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and revealsmore true feature of language.✧Langue and parole1)Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language com-munity; it is the set of conventions and rules that language users haveabide by2)Parole: Concrete use of language.3)Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2)linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regu-larities governing the actual use of language✧Competence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1)Competence: knowledge of rules of language2)Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic commu-nication3)The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychologicalfactors.✧Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1)Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2)Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3)Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-basedframework.What is language?●Definition of language✧Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.1)Language is a system, which means elements of language are com-bined according to rules.2)Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3)Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language issound.4)Language is human-specific.●Design feature1)Arbitrariness: logical connection between meaning and sounds.While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words,such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g.photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage ofvocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistica-tion of language and make it possible for language to have an unlim-ited source of expressions.2)Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makespossible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its us-ers.3)Duality: basic level: a structure of soundsHigher level: sounds of language can be rearranged intomorphemes and words4)Displacement: 不受时空限制的5)Cultural transmission: human have to be learned and taught beacquire language.●Functions of language✧Descriptive function: convey factual informationExpressive function: supplies informationSocial function: maintain social relations between people✧Structural linguist Roman JakobsonAddresser---emotive: addresser express his attitude towards thetopic or situationAddressee---conative: the addresser aims to influence addressee’sactionContext---referential: addresser conveys a message or informationMessage---poetic: use language to display the beauty of languageContact---phatic communication: it tries to establish or maintain in-terpersonal relationsCode---metalinguistic: make clear the meaning of language itself✧In early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday7 function in children.3 in adults:Ideational function: organize one’s experience, attitude, evaluation,feeling, and emotionsInterpersonal function: establish and maintain interpersonal rela-tionsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particularsituation in which they are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of language✧Limited range of sounds constitute the phonic medium of language.✧The individual sounds within the range are the speech sounds.Phonetics●What is phonetics?✧Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s languages.✧Articu latory phonetics: studies the sounds form speaker’s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate thesoundsAuditory phonetics: studies from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. howthe sounds are perceived by the hearerAcoustic phonetics: the way sounds travel by looking at the soundswaves.Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is it?●Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sen-tences.Words categories●In traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditionalcategories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).●Two division✧Major lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, ad-jective, preposition.✧Minor lexical categories: determiner限定词, degree words, qualifier限定语, aux-iliary, conjunction.●Criteria：✧Meaning: 1) nouns often designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation,and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives,those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies: 1) some words do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) words with same or similar meaning belongs to different catego-ries, e.g. be aware of a nd know✧Inflection: 1) noun → -s or –es indicating plural2)adjectives→-er or –est indicating comparative degree and superla-tive degree3)verb→-ing and –ed indicating progressive and past tenseDeficiency: some words do not take inflections✧Distribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur withcertain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structure●XP ruleXP→Specifier ——head—— complementNP→(Det) N (PP) …VP→(Qual) V (NP) …AP→(Deg) A (PP) …PP→(Deg) P (NP) …●Coordination rule✧No limit on the number of coordinated categories prior to the conjunction.✧ A category at any level (head or XP) can be coordinated.✧Coordinated categories must be of the same type.✧The category type of coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of elementsbeing conjoined.✧Structure: X→X, X, X…Con XPhrase elements:●Specifiers✧Role：1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically,mark the phrase boundary.●✧Provide information and location, attached to right of the head✧Monotransitive: open the doorDitransitive: send me the mailComlex transitive verbs: put it on the wall✧Complement clauseMiss Herbert believes that she will win.Matrix clause complementizer complement clause✧CP complement●Modifiers✧To modifier nouns →adj. phrases✧To modifier verbs →adv. Phrases and prepositional phrasesPosition of modifiersModifiers Positions ExamplesAP PP AdvP Precedes the headFollow the headPrecedes or followA very careful girlOpen with careRead carefully; carefully readSentences (the S rule)Inflp= (s)NP Inlf VP。
语言学教程前三章练习题及答案
UNIT11.Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics?A.PsycholinguisticB.SociolinguisticsC.Macrolinguistics正确答案C，得2分2.(单选题，2 分)()refers to the system of a language, i. e. the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of.municative competenceB.Linguistic potentialnguepetence正确答案C3.(单选题，2 分)The function of the sentence "Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is ().A.interrogativeB.performativeC.directivermative正确答案D，得2分4.(单选题，2 分)By()we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.A.displacementB.dualityC.arbitrarinessD.creativity正确答案D，得2分5.(单选题，2 分)When language is used to get information from others. it serves an()function.A.interrogativeB.expressiveC.evocativermative正确答案D6.(单选题，2 分)The functions of language do NOT include ().A.metacognitive functionrmative functionC.phatic functionD.interpersonal function正确答案A，得2分7.(单选题，2 分)Saussure took a(n) ()view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ()point of view.A.semantic. linguisticB.psychological. sociologicalC.sociological.. psychologicalD.applied. pragmatic正确答案C，得2分8.(单选题，2 分)The actual production and comprehension of the speech by speakers of a language is called().A.performancenguage devicepetenceD.grammar rules正确答案A，9.(单选题，2 分)Saussure is closely connected with().nguepetenceC.paroleD.performance正确答案C，得2分10.(单选题，2 分)"A refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2, 000 years ago. " This shows that language has the design feature of().A.creativityB.arbitrarinessC.displacementD.duality正确答案C，得2分11.(单选题，2 分)According to F. de Saussure()refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.nguageB.performancengueD.parole正确答案C，得2分12.(单选题，2 分)The study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech is closely connected with().A.auditory phoneticsB.articulatory phoneticsC.acoustic phonetics教师批阅正确答案C，得2分13.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature?A.ArbitrarinessB.ConventionC.DualityD.Culture transmission正确答案B，我的答案：D得0分14.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A.bangB.crashC.treeD.typewriter正确答案C，我的答案：A得0分15.(单选题，2 分)The study of language at one point in time is a()study.A.descriptiveB.diachronicC.synchronicD.historical正确答案C，得2分16.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson 's framework of language functions?A.The emotive function is to convey message and information.B.The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meaning.C.The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.D.The phatic function is to establish communion with others.正确答案D，我的答案：C得0分17.(填空题，2 分)____grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while____grammars tell people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.正确答案：(1) Descriptive(2) prescriptive18.(填空题，2 分)The features that define our human languages can be called____features.正确答案：(1) design19.(填空题，2 分)The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of____ ____relation.正确答案：(1) convention20.(填空题，2 分)____ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.正确答案：(1) Pragmatics21.(填空题，2 分)Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as____ and.The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.正确答案：(1) langue, parole22.(填空题，2 分)Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and ____ of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more with noticing than its arbitrariness.正确答案：(1) conventionality23.(填空题，2 分)Chomsky initiated the distinction between ____and performance.正确答案：(1) competence24.(填空题，2 分)Syntagmatic relation in fact is a____ relation.正确答案：(1) positional25.(填空题，2 分)Linguistics is usually defined as the____ study of language.正确答案：(1) scientific26.(填空题，2 分)Our language can be used to talk about itself. This is the____ function of language.正确答案：(1) metalingual27.(填空题，2 分)By____ is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.正确答案：(1) duality28.(填空题，2 分)Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ____ theory.正确答案：(1) yo-he-ho29.(填空题，2 分)Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the ____ it is associated with.正确答案：(1) meaning30.(填空题，2 分)Semantics and ____ investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning.正确答案：(1) pragmatics31.(填空题，2 分)The relation between them is____.正确答案：(1) arbitrary32.(填空题，2 分)By____, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.正确答案：(1) creativity33.(填空题，2 分)In linguistics, ____ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence.正确答案：(1) syntax34.(填空题，2 分)Modern linguistic is ____ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.正确答案：(1) descriptive35.(填空题，2 分)____ mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.正确答案：(1) phonetics36.(填空题，2 分)One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ____ and performance.正确答案：(1) competence37.(填空题，2 分)The most important function of language is ____function.正确答案：(1) informative38.(填空题，2 分)____ refers to the role language plays in communication(e. g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations(e. g. Religious, legal).正确答案：(1) Function39.(填空题，2 分)When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather thanexchanging information or ideas, its function is ____function.正确答案：(1) phatic40.(填空题，2 分)The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community is____.正确答案：(1) langue41.(判断题，2 分)It is conclusive that Chinese is regarded as the primeval language.正确答案错，得2分42.(判断题，2 分)Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study正确答案错，得2分43.(判断题，2 分)Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language.正确答案错，得2分44.(判断题，2 分)Wherever humans exist,language exists.正确答案错，得2分45.(判断题，2 分)The bow- wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.正确答案对，得2分46.(判断题，2 分)According to Saussure, the relation between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary.正确答案对，得2分47.(判断题，2 分)When language is used to get information from other,it serves an informative function.正确答案错，得2分48.(判断题，2 分)Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.正确答案错，得2分49.(判断题，2 分)The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES.正确答案对，得2分50.(判断题，2 分)Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meaning.对UNIT21.(单选题，1 分)The vowel()is a low back vowel.A./i:/B./e/C./u/D./a:/教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分2.(单选题，1 分)Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation?A.[w]B.[f]C.[z]D.[v]教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分3.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is true of an allophone?A.An allophone changes the meaning of the word.B.There is no possibility of an allophone becoming a phoneme.C.A phone can be the allophone of all English vowel phonemes.D.There are no restrictions on the distribution of an allophone.教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分4.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following CANNOT be considered as minimal par?A./s / /T/B./ai/ /Oi/C./s/ /z/D./p/ /b/教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：C 得0 分5.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A.voiced labiodental fricativeB.voiced labiodental stopC.voiceless labiodental fricativeD.voiceless labiodental stop教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分6.(单选题，1 分)The consonant /s / in the word “smile” can be described as:().A.Voiceless oral alveolar fricativeB.voiced oral bilabial fricativeC.voiceless nasal bilabial liquidD.voiced oral alveolar plosive教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分7.(单选题，1 分)Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in ONE sentence.A.residentB.restartC.resolutionD.resignation教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分8.(单选题，1 分)()is the smallest meaningful unit of language.A.PhoneB.PhonemeC.MorphemeD.Syllable教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分9.(单选题，1 分)An aspirated P and an unaspirated p are()of the p phoneme.A.analoguesB.allophonesC.tagmemesD.morphemes教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分10.(单选题，1 分)()refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.A.RhymeB.StressC.ToneD.Coda教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分11.(单选题，1 分)Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A.Acoustic phoneticsB.articulatory phoneticsC.None of themD.auditory phonetics教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分12.(单选题，1 分)A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a givenlanguage is a().A.phonemeB.allophoneC.phoneD.word教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分13.(单选题，1 分)()is one of the suprasegmental features.A.stopB.toneC.voicingD.deletion教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分14.(单选题，1 分)Which one is different from others according to places of articulatory?A.[p]B.[m]C.[b]D.[n]教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分15.(单选题，1 分)Classification of English speech sounds in terms of manner of articulation involves the following EXCEPT(). DA.affricatesB.bilabialC. lateralD.fricative教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分16.(单选题，1 分)Of the consonants/p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /m/ /z/and /g/, which has the features of voiceless and velar?A./p/B./t/C./g/D./k/教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分17.(单选题，1 分)Of the three cavities, ()is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying speech sounds.A.none of themB.oral cavityC. pharynx cavityD.nasal cavity教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分18.(单选题，1 分)What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A.Glottal stopB.VoicedC.ConsonantD.Voiceless教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分19.(单选题，1 分)The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in()and vocabulary.A.grammarB.structureC.pronunciationage教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分20.(单选题，1 分)Which of the allowing is not a minimal pair?A./keit/ /feit/B./sai / sei/C./li:f/ /fi:l/D./sip/ /zip/教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分21.(填空题，2.5 分)Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of____and manner of articulation.正确答案：(1) place22.(填空题，2.5 分)The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are ____allophones教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) allophones23.(填空题，2.5 分)____are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.正确答案：(1) Consonants24.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /k/ can be described with "voiceless,____,stop”.教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) velar25.(填空题，2.5 分)According to ____, when there is choice as to where to place consonant put into the onset rather than the coda.(1) the Maximal Onset Principle26.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /b/can be described with" ____, bilabial,stop”.正确答案：(1) voiced27.(填空题，2.5 分)____transcription should transcribe all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades. Narrow28.(填空题，2.5 分)Most speech sounds are made by movements of the tongue and the lips, and these movements are called ____, as compared to those made by hands. These movements of the tongue and lips are made____ _so that they can be heard and recognized.正确答案：(1) gestures(2) audibles29.(填空题，2.5 分)Stress refers to the degree of ____used in producing syllable.force教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) force30.(填空题，2.5 分)In phonological analysis the words fail -veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes/f/-/v/. This is an example for illustrating____minimal pairs教师批阅得0 分正确答案：(1) minimal pair31.(填空题，2.5 分)The syllable structure in Chinese is ____or____or ____正确答案：(1) CVC(2) CV(3) V32.(填空题，2.5 分)Voicing refers to the ____of the vocal folds.(1) vibration33.(填空题，2.5 分)____refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.正确答案：(1) Assimilation34.(填空题，2.5 分)In English, the two words cut and gut differ only in their initial sounds and the two sounds are two different ____and the two words are a____pair.正确答案：(1) phonemes(2) minimal35.(填空题，2.5 分)In ____assimilation, a following sound is influencing a preceding sound.正确答案：(1) regressive36.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /p/can be described with____, bilabial,stop”.正确答案：(1) voiceless37.(填空题，2.5 分)In English, consonant clusters in onset and coda positions disallow many consonant combinations, which is explained by the work of____.正确答案：(1) sonority scale38.(填空题，2.5 分)Phonetic similarity means that the____of phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.正确答案：(1) allophones39.(填空题，2.5 分)In English there are a number of ____which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.正确答案：(1) diphthongs40.(填空题，2.5 分)The present system of the____derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967) and his colleagues at University of London.正确答案：(1) cardinal vowels41.(判断题，1 分)There are two nasal consonants in English.正确答案错，得1 分42.(判断题，1 分)In English, we can have the syllable structure of CCCVCCCC.正确答案对，得1 分43.(判断题，1 分)In the sound writing system, the reference of the grapheme is the phoneme.正确答案对，得0 分44.(判断题，1 分)Phonology studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received.正确答案错，得1 分45.(判断题，1 分)The “Minimal Pair” test that can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences in meaning do not work well for all languages.正确答案对，得1 分46.(判断题，1 分)The airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modifications to acquire the quality of a speech sound.正确答案对，得1 分47.(判断题，1 分)Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.正确答案对，得0 分48.(判断题，1 分)Sound [p] in the word"spit "is an unaspirated stop.正确答案对，得1 分49.(判断题，1 分)Speech sounds are those sounds made by human beings that have become units in the language system. We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives.正确答案对，得1 分50.(判断题，1 分)Tones in tone language are not always fixed. For example, tones in Chinese never change.正确答案错，得1 分51.(判断题，1 分)The International Phonetic Alphabet uses narrow transcription.正确答案对，得0 分52.(判断题，1 分)All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.正确答案对，得1 分The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communications are all phonemes.正确答案错，得1 分54.(判断题，1 分)Broad Transcription is intended to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades.正确答案错，得1 分55.(判断题，1 分)It is sounds by which we make communicative meaning.正确答案错，得0 分56.(判断题，1 分)All the suffixes may change the position of the stress.正确答案错，得1 分57.(判断题，1 分)The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.正确答案错，得0 分58.(判断题，1 分)The speech sounds which are in complementary distribution are definitely allophones of the same phoneme.正确答案错，得1 分59.(判断题，1 分)Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some morphological resemblance.正确答案错，得1 分60.(判断题，1 分)A syllable can be divided into two parts, the NUCLEUS and the CODA.正确答案错，得1 分61.(判断题，1 分)The last sound of "top can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are not in complementary distribution.正确答案对，得1 分62.(判断题，1 分)All syllables contain three parts: onset, nucleus and coda.正确答案错，得1 分63.(判断题，1 分)Larynx is what we sometimes call “Adam’s apple”.正确答案错，得1 分64.(判断题，1 分)Chinese is a tone language.正确答案对，得1 分65.(判断题，1 分)A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.正确答案对，得1 分When preceding /p/, the negative prefix “in-” always changes to “im-” .正确答案对，得1 分67.(判断题，1 分)The last sound of "sit"can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are not in complementary distribution.正确答案对，得0 分68.(判断题，1 分)The initial sound of"peak "is aspirated while the second sound of"speak"is unaspirated. They are in free variation.正确答案错，得1 分69.(判断题，1 分)[p] is voiced bilabial stop.正确答案错，得1 分70.(判断题，1 分)Pure vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.正确答案错，得0 分UNIT31.(单选题，1 分)“-s” in the word “books” is ().A.a stemB.an inflectional affixC.a derivational affixD.a root教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分2.(单选题，1 分)other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.A.Poly-morphemic wordsB.Free morphemesC.Bound morphemes教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分3.(单选题，1 分)Of the following sound combinations, only() is permissible according to the sequential rules in English.A.ilmbB.miblC.ilbmD.bmil教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：C 得0 分4.(单选题，1 分)Which two terms can best describe the following pairs of words: table-- tables, day+ break-- daybreak?A.inflection and derivationpound and derivationC.derivation and inflectionD.inflection and compound教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分5.(单选题，1 分)()is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A.morphologyB.morphemeC.grammarD.syntax教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分6.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following words are formed by blending?A.televisionB.bunchC.girlfriendD.smog教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分7.(单选题，1 分)The word UN is formed in the way of().A.acronymB.clippingC.InitialismD.blending教师批阅正确答案C，我的答案：A 得0 分8.(单选题，1 分)Language has been changing, but such changes are not so obvious at all linguistic aspects except that of().A.phonologyB.lexiconC.semanticsD.syntax教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分9.(单选题，1 分)There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned” is knownas a(n) ().A.derivational affixesB.free formC.free morphemeD.inflectional affixes教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分10.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is not a boundary to morpheme? ()A.-putB.-mitC.-tainD.-ceive教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分11.(单选题，1 分)()modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A.AffixesB.PrefixesC.SuffixesD.Roots教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分12.(单选题，1 分)The words that contain only one morpheme are called().A.free morphemeB.affixesC.bound momsD.roots教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：D 得0 分13.(单选题，1 分)Wife", which used to refer to any woman, stands for a married woman" in modem English. This phenomenon is known as().A.semantic narrowingB.semantic broadeningC.semantic shiftD.semantic elevation教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分14.(单选题，1 分)() are added to an existing form to create a word, which is a very common way in English.A.derivational affixesB.inflectional affixesC.stemsD.free morpheme教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分15.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is under the category of “open class”? ()A.ConjunctionsB.NounsC.PreparationD.determinants教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分16.(单选题，1 分)Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as().A.lexical wordsB.invariable wordsC.grammatical wordsD.function words教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：C 得0 分17.(单选题，1 分)The word “selfish” contains two().A.morphsB.phonemesC.allomorphsD.morphemes教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分18.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following ways of word-formation does not change the grammatical class of the stems?()A.coinageB.inflectionpoundD.derivation教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分19.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is an inflectional suffix?()A.-aryB.-ifyC.-istD.-ing正确答案D，得1 分20.(单选题，1 分)() is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A.MorphemeB.SyntaxC.MorphologyD.Grammar教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分21.(单选题，1 分)()is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.A.MorphemeB.RootC.WordD.Allomorph教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分22.(单选题，1 分)The number of morphemes in the word “girls” is().A.fourB.twoC.oneD.three教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分23.(单选题，1 分)() at the end of stems can modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.free morphemesD.roots教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分24.(单选题，1 分)Compound words consist of()morphemes.A.freeB.either bound or freeC.boundD.both bound and free正确答案A，得1 分25.(单选题，1 分)Derivational morpheme contrasts sharply with inflectional morpheme in that the former changes the() while the latter does not.A.speech soundB.formC.MeaningD.word class教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分26.(单选题，1 分)A prefix is an affix which appears().A.in the middle of the stemB.below the stemC.before the stemD.after the stem教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分27.(单选题，1 分)() is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.A.AffixB.SuffixC.StemD.Prefix教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分28.(单选题，1 分)The words that contain only one morpheme are called().A.bound morphemeB.free morphemeC.rootsD.Affixes教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：C 得0 分29.(单选题，1 分)The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is().A.morphemicB.prefixesC.semanticD.grammatical教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分30.(单选题，1 分)()refers to the way in which a particular verb changes for tense, person, or number.A.DerivationB.InflectionC.affixationD.Conjunction教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分31.(单选题，1 分)Those that affect the syntactic category and the meaning of the root as well are ().A.prefixesB.suffixesC.stemsD.affixes教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：D 得0 分32.(单选题，1 分)() is the smallest meaningful unit of language.A.PhonemeB.WordC.AllomorphD.Morpheme教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分33.(单选题，1 分)The number of the closed-class words is() and no new members are regularly added.A.fixedrgeC.smallD.limitless教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分34.(单选题，1 分)Words like pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles are()items.A.open-classB.variable wordsC.closed-classD.lexical words教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分35.(单选题，1 分)Bound morphemes do not include().A.wordsB.rootsD.suffixes教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分36.(单选题，1 分)Inflectional morphemes manifest the following meaning EXCEPT().A.caseB.numberC.toneD.tense教师批阅正确答案C，我的答案：D 得0 分37.(单选题，1 分)It is true that words may shift in meaning, i.e. semantic change. The semantic change of the word tail belongs to().A.widening of meaningB.meaning shiftC.narrowing of meaningD.loss of meaning教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分38.(单选题，1 分)The word “hospitalize” is an example of() in terms of word formation.poundB.inflectionC.clippingD.derivation教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分39.(单选题，1 分)The morpheme “vision” in the word “television” is a /an().A.inflectional morphemeB.bound formC.free morphemeD.bound morphine教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分40.(单选题，1 分)The compound word "bookstore"is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound().A.is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC.is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD.None of the above正确答案D，得1 分41.(单选题，1 分)The morpheme “ vision” in the common word “television” is a(n)().A.bound formB.bound morphemeC.free morphemeD.inflectional morpheme教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分42.(填空题，1 分)____is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. It is the minimum free form.正确答案：(1) Word43.(填空题，1 分)Words can be classified into variable words and invariable words. As for variable words, they may have ____changes. That is, the same word my have different grammatical forms but part of the word remainsrelatively constant.inflective教师批阅得1 分正确答案：(1) inflective44.(填空题，1 分)Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ____and ____ root.正确答案：(1) affix(2) bound45.(填空题，1 分)A word formed by derivation is called a____and a word formed by compounding is called a____.正确答案：(1) derivative(2) compound46.(填空题，1 分)According to Leonard Bloomfield, word should be treated as the minimum ____.morpheme教师批阅得0 分正确答案：(1) conjunction47.(填空题，1 分)Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by。
LINGUISTICS 语言学概况
arbitrariness任意性: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for [A rose by any other name would smell as sweet] displacement:传递性 can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future [no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.]
h]
Chapter3 PHONOLOGphonology音位学? The study of sound systems and patterns. focuses on three fundamental questions: What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language? 2. Phonology vs. phonetics: concerned with the same aspect of language--the speech sounds, but differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature . It is interested in all the speech sounds in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. The conclusion we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion. 3. Phone音素, phoneme音位, and allophone音位变体: 3.1 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
英语语言学
英语语言学一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics 心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language.Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studythe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyin modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.What is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as s weet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hackett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: Speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
Linguistics an introduction ppt
1.1 What is linguistics? The scientific study of language. ⒈ linguistics as a science — A scientific approach to the study of language involves a critical and inquiring attitude to the study of language. It is empirically grounded, it is based on actual language data, observations of language use by speakers.
⑤―Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.‖ Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)
⑥It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. -- Hu zhuanglin(2006)
④A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.‖ -- George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)
语言学第一单元总结
1：Definitions of Language:Language is a means of verbal communication.It is instrumental; it is social and conventional.(P3)Generally Accepted DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Why a system?Language is a system--rule-governed, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly, they can not be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned.2）arbitrary?Whyno intrinsic (logic) connection between the word and the thing it denotes.e.g. "pen" by any other name is the thing we use to write with3）Why vocal?Language is primary vocal--the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form4) Why symbols?Words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.5)Why human?Language is human-specific.Human being have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.6)Why communication?In this process information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener.)2. Design Features of LanguageDesign features (本质特征) refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2.1 Arbitrariness(任意性)It means there is no logical connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.Onomatopoeia (拟声词) refers to a word that sounds like what it represents.Can onomatopoeia change the arbitrary nature of language?Why not?Every language has only a small amount of onomatopoeic words.Different languages use different words to describe the same soundDucks “嘎嘎”in Chinese, “quack [kwæk]”in English, “gack”in German.Arbitrariness and conventionHuman language is arbitrary and conventional.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.2.2 Duality (双重性)Duality means that language has two levels of structure, the primary level and the secondary level.At secondary level are elements which have no meaning but which combine to form units at primary level which do have meaning.Secondary level is made up of meaningless sounds, and primary level of meaningful words.2.3 Creativity（创造性）By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness （递归性）means that one sentence can expand into endless possible sentences in a way of recurring. e.g. He came into a room that had a big shelf which was full of books which were covered by magazine which were put there by the lady who used to …e.g. The man in a coat on a bus with his wife…2.4 Displacement （移位性）It means that we can communicate things, concepts which are not present at the right time or place of communicationwe can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2500 years and the second is situated far away from us .Displacement enables us to talk about a wide range of things.3. The origin of languageThe creation theorythe divine origin theoryThe invention theorythe “bow-wow”theorythe “yo-he-ho”theorythe “pooh-pooh”theoryThe evolution theory4.Functions of languageFunctions of language（4.1 Informative 4.2 Interpersonal function 4.3 Performative 4.4Emotive function 4.5. Phatic communion 4.6 Recreational function 4.7 Metalingual function）4.1 Informative (信息功能)It is to offer information about facts and to tell what the speaker believes.e.g. “Tomorrow is Tuesday.”“Linguistics is a scientific study of language.”4.2 Interpersonal function(人际功能)It embodies the use of language to express, establish and maintain social relations.Give me that teapot. leaderCould you please give me that teapot? Equal4.3 Performative(施为功能)It means that language is also used to “do things”, to perform actions.It is primarily to change the social status of a person, or the state of a thing.“I declare the meeting open”“I sentence you to the ten years of hard labor”“I now pronounce you husband and wife”4.4 Emotive function(感情功能)It is the use of language to reveal some feelings and attitudes of the speaker.1.“Good heavens!”“My God”, or “Ouch”2.“Friday afternoons are dreary”3.“I’m extremely sorry about…”“We’re most grateful for this”It is raining. Informative It’s bloody pissing down again. emotive4.5 Phatic communion(寒暄功能)It refers to language used for maintaining social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas.e.g. I would ask you “how are you today?”I am not really interested in your health, but expressing good will.e.g. “A nice day, isn’t it?”4.6 Recreational function(娱乐功能)It refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.e.g. In the verbal dueling(对歌), people just take delight in playing on language.e.g. Some people write poems just in order to enjoy the beauty of language.4.7 Metalingual function(元语言功能)The metalingual function is used to clarify meanings or what the other person has said.Every kind of dictionaries serves this function, for words or phrases are defined and interpreted in the dictionaries.----- “The Sophomore was plucked.”----- “What does sophomore mean?”----- “A sophomore means a second-year student.”5.What is linguistics?What is Linguistics? Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language. 6.Important Distinctions6.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 6.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic6.3 Langue vs. Parole 6.4 Competence vs. performance6.1 Descriptive vs. Prescriptive (描写式和规定式)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct behavior.“What is in language?”“What people actually say?”Descriptive“What is in language?”“What people actually say?”PrescriptiveYou should never use a double negative. You should not split the infinitive. PrescriptiveDescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which are just described.6.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic（共时和历时)The description of a language at any one time is a synchronic study; the description ofa language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.If the linguist studies: modern English of the present day Shakespeare’s English ;Chinese from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing dynasty6.3 Langue vs. parole （语言与言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.N Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.langue: abstract parole: specificlangue: stable and systematicparole: subject to personal and situational constraintsAs a social product, langue is a set of conventions that members of a speech community seem to abide by. Parole, on the other hand, is the concrete use of the conventions.6.4 Competence vs. performance(语言能力和语言运用)Competence is the language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.Performance is the actual realization of language in concrete situation.Does our performance math our competence?A speaker’s competence is s__table___, but his performance is often influenced by p____sychological_______ factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed compentence.Where does the knowledge of language come from?Chomsky’s solution is to invoke the innate properties of the mind.What is the Similarity between these two pairs of distinction?Similarity: langue and competence both refer to the abstract knowledge, parole and performance both refer to the actual use knowledge.What is the difference between these two pairs of distinction?Difference: Langue: a social productCompetence: a property of the mind of each individualSaussure looks at language from a __sociological_________ point of view;Chomsky looks at it more from a ____psychological_________ point of view.。