新版简明英语语言学Chapter6pragmatics语用学
新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1-u6期末笔记整理
●语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole）2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力（competence）和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度（sociological view）他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴（social conventions）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Psychological view），认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征（property of mind of each individual）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（descriptive），传统语法是规定性的（prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phonetics(语音学) Phonology（音位学）●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础）●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久）(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrowtranscription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a：} ）和圆唇的（rounded）后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l}分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体●音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in me aning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the pre sident or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (B ritish G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
语言学第六章chapter6课件
Five types of deixis
1. Person deixis: me, you, him, them. 2. Time deixis: now, then, tonight, last week. 3. Space/spatial/place deixis: here, there, and
6.2.2 Deixis
Deixis (指示), which means “pointing” via language, the interpretation of many words and expressions by reference to the situational context of tc form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, or indexical.
语言学第六章chapter6
(3) A: Can I borrow your dictionary? B: Yeah, it’s on the table.
antecedent, anaphor or anaphoric expression.
indirect anaphor or bridging reference : (4) I walked into the room. The windows
语言学第六章chapter6
A melamed [小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
chapter 6 Pragmatics
Chapter 6 Pragmatics6.1 Some basic notions6.1.1 Definition●—the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.●—the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication.Introduction●“Y ou are a fool.”●“What do you mean?”●Here are three aspects of the meaning of the sentences:SPEAKER’S MEANING,UTTERANCE MEANING,CONTEXTUAL MEANING●Depends more on the context●Pragmatics: The study of language in use●Pragmatics is usually concerned with the meanings that sentences have in particularcontexts in which they are used. E.g. There is a car coming is seen as, out of context, a statement that a car is coming. But in a particular context it might be a warning to a pedestrian not to step onto a road, an expression of hope that people invited to a dinner are at last arriving, and so on.语用学的开端语用学这个术语，是美国哲学家查尔斯·莫里斯首先使用的。
戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第6章课件_pragmatics
I promise to finish it in time. I apologize. I declare the meeting open. I warn you that the bull will charge.
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Features of performatives 行为(xíngwéi)句的特 征
Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to
comply with the request.
18
精品PPT
John Searle (1932- ) American philosopher, linguist约翰·罗杰 斯·塞尔
Speech Act --- a term derived from the work of Austin and now
used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in interpersonal communication.
background, situation(time, place,
manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….
6
精品PPT
6.1.4 Sentence Meaning vs. Utterance Meaning句子意义 (yìyì)和言语意义(yìyì)
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精品PPT
The illocutionary act 言外行为(xíngwéi)--- an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).
语言学Pragmatics语用学
Terms
a. Linguistic context(co-text)(语言语境\上下文语境): It refers to that which occurs before and \or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. It often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. b. Physical context(客观环境语境): Our understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the physical context, particularly the time and place, in which we encounter linguistic expressions. c. Deixis(指示语): It comes from the Greek word deixis which means “pointing” via language. d. Reference(指称): It is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to. e. Inference(推理): It refers to any additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant.
新编简明英语语言学教程
新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
新编语言学教程chapter6pragmatics课堂共49页
26、机遇对于有准备的头脑有特别的 亲和力 。 27、自信是人格的核心。
28、目标的坚定是性格中最必要的力 量泉源 之一， 也是成 功的利 器之一 。没有 它，天 才也会 在矛盾 无定的 迷径中 ，徒劳 无功。- -查士 德斐尔 爵士。 29、困难就是机遇。--温斯顿．丘吉 尔。 30、我奋斗，所以我快乐。--格林斯 潘。
ENDΒιβλιοθήκη 16、业余生活要有意义，不要越轨。——华盛顿 17、一个人即使已登上顶峰，也仍要自强不息。——罗素·贝克 18、最大的挑战和突破在于用人，而用人最大的突破在于信任人。——马云 19、自己活着，就是为了使别人过得更美好。——雷锋 20、要掌握书，莫被书掌握；要为生而读，莫为读而生。——布尔沃
[英语学习]06Chapter 6_pragmatics
Speaker’s meaning (A father is trying to get his 3-year-old daughter to stop lifting up her dress to display her new underwear to the assemble.)
e.g. (Students to teacher) Shall we go now?
(Student A to student B) Shall we go now?
(Different grammatical and pragmatic explanations)
This exclusive and inclusive use of we is also true with the use of us. Let us may be inclusive or exclusive, while let’s is inclusive.
system. Utterance: units of language in use.
Sentence meaning: What does X mean? Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?
Ex. 1. Dog! 2. My bag is heavy.
Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning
Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context
最新新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
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实用标准文案 精彩文档 Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学 知识点： 1. *Definition: pragmatics; context 2. *sentence meaning vs utterance meaning 3. *Austin’s model of speech act theory 4. Searle’s classification of speech acts 5. *Grice’s Cooperative Principle 考核目标： 识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context 领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts 综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle
一、定义
1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a
language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. 语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。)
2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic
study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。
二、知识点
6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学 二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。
语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。两者都是对意义的研究。传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。 语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。 Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning 实用标准文案 精彩文档 in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
6.1.3 context
Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study
of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。 （语境是交际双方共有的知识，它包括双方具有的语言知识以及有关客观世界的知识，而客观世界的知识又包括有关世界的常识性知识以及交际发生的实际情景知识。）(参考p79英p235-236中 例子)
6.1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义与话语意义
1）Sentence meaning句子意义---abstract抽象的, decontextualized脱离语境的
2）Utterance meaning话语意义---concrete具体的, contextualized依赖语境的， it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 话语的意义是基于句子意义之上的；它是一个句子的抽象意义在一个真实的交际场合，或仅在一个语境中的体现。 区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
句子是语法单位。当把句子用在实际交际中时，句子便成了话语。句子意义是抽象的，是句子的语义内容，它孤立于语境之外； 话语意义是具体的，它基于句子意义与语境的结合，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，体现了说话人的意图和目的。由于话语语义是句子意义与语境结合的结果，话语语义要比句子的语义丰富得多。如：”You are a machine.”句子的意思是“你是机器。”，但是一旦与具体的语境相结合，就会产生不同的话语语义，如说话人可能是说听话人没有情感，或说听话人不知疲倦地工作，或者说听话人做事比较机械等。 要如何理解它要视它所发生的语境和言者说这话的目的而定。
大部分话语在语法形式上与句子相吻合，但是也有一些话语在语法上是不完整的，有些甚至不能还原为完整的句子。如，语言使用者在特定的语境中可以使用话语” The door, 实用标准文案 精彩文档 please!”去行使关门的请求。像“Hi!” 和“Ouch!”这样的话语很难还原成语法完整的句子。
❀区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。 While most utterances take the form of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences. In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can’t even be restored to complete sentences
6.2 speech act theory言语行为理论 6.2.Austin’s model speech act 奥斯汀的言语行为模式 1.英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出了speech act theory言语行为理论。在他的言语行为理论中，奥斯汀区分了叙事话语(constative)和行事话语(performative)。P238中 e.g.
1）叙事话语是陈述之言，用于陈述或描述，其真值是可以检验的。 2）行事话语的话语不是以陈述或描述事实为目的的，是没有真值的。奥斯汀认为语言使用者在使用句子时并不总是为了去陈述或描述，而是为了实施一个言语行为。
2. 他又设立了另一个新模式，定义了言内行为locutionary act、言外行为illocutionary act,和perlocutionary act言后行为
奥斯汀认为人在说话时很可能同时实施三种言语行为， 即言内行为（locutionary act） 、言外行为(illocutionary act)和言后行为(perlocutionary act)。
1）言内行为指的是“说话”这一行为本身，如说出单词、短语和句子等。言内行为通过句法、词汇和语音传递一个字面语义。
2）言外行为是通过说话这一动作实施一种行为，体现了说话人的说话意图。人们通过说话可以达到各种目的，如传递信息，发出命令、作出承诺、提出建议等。
3）言后行为是指说话带来的后果，例如通过说话听话人受到了警告等。 e.g. You have left the door wide open. 1）Locutionary act: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. 表达了每个词的字面意义。 实用标准文案 精彩文档 2）Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. 表达了他说话的意图（即请某人把门关上，或者抱怨，视语境而定。） 3）Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed. 指话语的效果（即听者听到言者信息，明白并言者要他关门，并把门关上，这样就成功地实施了。）
※ 在这三种行为中，语言学家对illocutionary act言外行为最感兴趣 this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer. 因为这种语言行为与言者的意图一致，而且在他们对语言交际的研究中，语言学家门最感兴趣的是言者是如何表达其意图，以及他的意图是如何为听者所识别。（它与说话人的真实意图相吻合。）
6.2.2 Searle’s classification of speech acts（Searle对语言行为的分类）