1998---Crop production and soil water storage in long-term
稻盛和夫干法英文版
稻盛和夫干法英文版Kaoru Inamori and the Practice of Dry Field AgricultureDry Field Agriculture, also known as dryland farming, is a farming method that relies solely on rainfall and does not involve supplementary irrigation. This practice requires a deep understanding of the climate, soil, and crops cultivated, as well as careful resource management. One individual who has revolutionized the techniques and philosophy behind dry field farming is Kaoru Inamori. This article will explore Inamori's contributions to dryland farming and his principles for sustainable agriculture.Kaoru Inamori, a Japanese entrepreneur and philanthropist, is widely credited for his innovations in dry field agriculture. In the 1950s, Inamori took over a struggling ceramic company and transformed it into Kyocera Corporation. His experiences as a businessman led him to view agriculture not only as a means of producing food but also as a fundamental component of sustainable development.Inamori's approach to dry field agriculture is founded on several key principles. Firstly, he emphasizes the importance of understanding the local climate and adapting farming practices accordingly. He advocates for selecting crops that are well-suited to the region's natural conditions and can thrive with minimal water requirements. This ensures that the farming methods align with the available resources, reducing the overall environmental impact.Secondly, Inamori promotes soil conservation and improvement. He recognizes that healthy soil is essential for long-term sustainability. Inamori encourages practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, and minimal tillage to preserve soil fertility and prevent erosion. By maintaining a balance between the use of natural fertilizers and chemical inputs, he aims to create a sustainable and resilient soil ecosystem.Inamori also emphasizes the importance of water management in dry field agriculture. He emphasizes the significance of water conservation and efficient utilization. Inamori has implemented techniques such as using mulches to retain soil moisture, capturing rainwater for later use, and employing precision irrigation methods to minimize water wastage. These practices not only ensure the longevity of water resources but also contribute to the financial viability of dryland farming.Furthermore, Inamori stresses the role of research and innovation in agricultural development. He advocates for continuous learning and improvement, fostering a culture of experimentation and adaptation. Inamori believes that through scientific advancements, such as developing drought-resistant crop varieties and utilizing precision farming technologies, the resilience and productivity of dry field agriculture can be further enhanced.Inamori's philosophy extends beyond the technical aspects of dry field agriculture. He promotes the concept of holistic agriculture, understanding the interconnectedness between farming practices and broader societal and environmental contexts. Inamori believes that agriculture should contribute to the well-being of not onlyindividuals but also the entire community and the planet. He encourages farmers to prioritize sustainable practices that protect biodiversity, preserve natural resources, and promote the health and vitality of the ecosystem.In conclusion, Kaoru Inamori's contributions to dry field agriculture are significant. His emphasis on adapting farming practices to local conditions, preserving soil health, efficient water management, and fostering innovation has revolutionized the field. Through his principles of sustainable agriculture, Inamori advocates for a holistic approach that considers the broader environmental and societal impacts of farming. His philosophy provides valuable lessons for farmers and policymakers seeking to address the challenges of food security and sustainability in a changing climate.。
化学农业与有机农业英语作文
化学农业与有机农业英语作文In the realm of modern agriculture, two distinct approaches stand out: chemical agriculture and organic agriculture. Each method offers its own set of advantages and disadvantages, with varying impacts on the environment, soil health, crop yield, and consumer health.Chemical agriculture, as the term suggests, relies heavily on the use of synthetic chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. This approach aims to maximize crop yield by ensuring abundant nutrient supply and eradicating weeds and pests. However, the extensive use of these chemicals can have significant negative impacts on soil health, water quality, and ecological diversity. Long-term exposure to these chemicals can also pose health risks to farmers and consumers.On the other hand, organic agriculture focuses on sustainable practices that promote ecological balance and protect soil and water quality. Organic farmers utilize natural methods such as crop rotation, composting, and biological pest control to maintain soil fertility and eradicate pests. While organic farming may yield lower cropquantities compared to chemical agriculture, it ensures the production of high-quality, nutritious, and chemical-free food.From an environmental perspective, organic agriculture is clearly the more sustainable option. It reduces soil erosion, enhances soil fertility, and conserves water resources. Organic farming also preserves biodiversity by providing habitats for wildlife and promoting the growth of beneficial microorganisms.In terms of consumer health, organic produce is generally perceived to be safer and more nutritious than conventionally grown food. While there is limitedscientific evidence to support this claim, the absence of harmful chemicals in organic food certainly makes it a healthier option.However, the debate between chemical and organic agriculture is not black and white. Chemical agriculture, despite its environmental drawbacks, has been crucial in feeding the growing global population. It has also been instrumental in developing new crop varieties and improving crop resistance to diseases and pests.Organic agriculture, on the other hand, while environmentally friendly, faces challenges such as lower yields, higher production costs, and limited market access. Additionally, organic farming methods may not be suitable for all regions and crop types, making it difficult to implement on a large scale.In conclusion, both chemical and organic agriculture have their respective merits and demerits. The choice between the two depends on various factors such as soil type, climate conditions, crop type, market demand, and farmer preferences. What is important is to strike a balance between sustainable practices and crop productivity to ensure a healthy and sustainable food supply for future generations.**化学农业与有机农业：比较分析**在现代农业领域，两种截然不同的方法脱颖而出：化学农业和有机农业。
墨西哥
For This Reason Many Institutions Working Towards the Development of Efficient, Productive and Sustainable Cropping System Based Production Technologies Now Use Conservation Agriculture to Define their Efforts and not Conservation Tillage
Farmer/Service Provider Training in the Operation of CA-based Seeders
Using the Comparisons of Farmer Practices and the Best Bet CA-based Technologies for Farmer Training in Machinery Use
墨西哥享有“玉米故乡”之誉，但目前玉米产量却不能 满足国内需求。同时，美国转基因玉米产量高、生产成本低， 强烈冲击着墨传统农业。墨西哥大米、蔗糖和咖啡等主要出 口产品的生产也不景气。
Conservation Tillage: Defined as a reduced till seeding system that leaves at least 30% of the soil surface covered by crop residues regardless of the amount of tillage used
It is still a widely used terminology but it does not clearly characterize a suitable, integrated cropping system approach to crop production sustainability issues
Integratednutrie...
Integrated nutrient management for sustainable agriculture in ChinaFan Ming-sheng, Zhang Fu-suo *, Jiang Reng-fengDepartment of Plant Nutrition, China Agricultural University; Key Laboratory of Plant-Soil Interactions, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100094.************************************.cnAbstract:China’s economy has made great strides since 1949, and especially since China initiated economic reforms and the open-door policy in the 1980’s. The growth in agricultural production has been one of the main national accomplishments. By 1999 China was feeding 22 % of the global human population with only 9 % of the world’s arable land and per capita food availability reached the levels of developed countries. The use of fertilizers has played a crucial role, accounting for about 50 % of the yield increase. However, rapid economic growth has led to unprecedented resource exhaustion and environmental degradation. China’s ‘grain security’ will face multiple pressures stemming from resource limitation, environmental pollution and population growth. The Chinese government regards agriculture as the primary field of development of the national economy in the 21st century. The optimal agricultural developmental path for China is to improve the ratio of resource utilization and protect the environment while guaranteeing the grain supply. The Chinese government is committing major resources to national research and extension programs, including a soil test and fertilizer recommendation project, a best nutrient management practices project and an integrated crop and soil management for high yield and high resource efficiency in major cropping systems.This paper summarizes the trends in crop production and crop yields, fertilizer use and soil quality in China, and presents the approach of integrated nutrient management (INM) for improving crop productivity with efficient resource utilization and environmental protection. In INM approach, strategy is to emphasize the integrated use of nutrients from fertilizers, wastes and soil and environmental sources; managing nutrient according to different nutrients’ specific characteristic; nutrient management should also be integrated with sound soil management practices and other farming techniques.Key wordsHigher yield, efficient resource utilization, integrated nutrient management, crop systems1 Accomplishments and challenges in Crop productionSince 1949, especially when China initiated economic reforms and the open-door policy in the 1980’s, China’s economy has made great strides. The growth of agricultural production has been one of the main accomplishments of the country. Cereal yield increased steadily from 2041 kg/ha in 1961 to 6432 kg/ha in 2007 for rice, from 557 kg/ha in 1961 to 4607 kg/ha in 2007 for wheat, and from 1139 kg/ha in 1961 to 5166 kg/ha in 2007 for maize, respectively (Fig. 1). The net increase was 349.1 Mt with an annual growth rate of 3.6 % which is higherthan the world mean growth rate of 2 %. China accounts for about 29 % of global rice production, 15 % of maize and 24 % of wheat production (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2007; FAO, 2006).Annual growth rates of cereal yields are gradually declining. Over the last 10 years rice yields have shown declining or stagnant trends in most rice production provinces and the average annual growth rate was -0.3 % from 1998 to 2006. Maize yields have been stagnant with a growth rate of only 0.3 %. Due to stagnant or decreasing yield trends as described above and decreasing cultivated area, a stagnant trend in cereal production can be clearly observed, especially over the last 8 years. For example, cereal production decreased from 198.7 Mt in 1998 to 182.6 Mt in 2006.However, the grain yield potential of the current cereal varieties is far from actual yields obtained in China. For example, the average maize yields in farmers’ fields are 5295 kg/ha in northeast China, 5055 kg/ha on the North China Plain, and 3990 kg/ha in hill areas in the south of China (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2002-2006). While maize yields in regional new variety test experiments in the regions above are 8460, 7305, and 6690 kg/ha, increases of 60, 45, and 68 % over the average farm field yields in those regions. A similar situation can be found for wheat and rice. This also implies that there is great potential to increase cereal grain yields above current farmers’ yields.Fig 1. Changes in cereal production in China from 1949 to 2007. Total cereal harvest area and grain yields of rice, maize and wheat. Source: China Agriculture Yearbook 1961-2006.To meet the demand for grain and to feed a growing population on the remaining arable land by 2030, crop production must reach 5.8 Mt and yield has to increase by 2 % annually in China. This is a great challenge to China for the decades to come.2 Fertilizer utilization and efficiency in major cereal crop systems100020003000400050006000700019491952195519581961196419671970197319761979198219851988199119941997200020032006C e r e a l y i e l d (k g /h a )102030405060708090100C e r e a l c u l t i v a t i o n a r e a (M h a )On the nutrient utilization side, China has a long tradition over thousands of years of recycling organic materials to maintain relatively high yield levels and prevent soil fertility from declining. Mineral fertilizers were introduced in the 1950s and their use has increased rapidly. The inputs of fertilizer N, P and K increased almost linearly from 8.9, 2.7 and 0.4 Mt in 1980 to 35.4, 11.5 and 7.5 Mt in 2007. The total consumption of chemical fertilizers in China exceeded 54.4 Mt in 2007, nearly 3 5% of the total global consumption (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 1949-2007). Concomitantly, the contribution to total nutrient supply from organic manures decreased from almost 100 % in 1949 to only 35 % in 2001. For example, applied organic manures accounted for 18 % of N, 28 % of P and 75 % of K overall in 2000.Nutrient (NPK) efficiency is quite low in China. For example, the partial factor productivity of applied N is 54.2 kg/kg for rice, 43.0 kg/kg for wheat and 51.6 kg/kg for maize, respectively. Recovery efficiency of N (% fertilizer N recovered in aboveground crop biomass, REN) for cereal crops was 35 % on average in the 1990’s. However, this value has gradually reduced since then and the current REN is 28.3 % for rice, 28.2 % for wheat and 26.1 % for maize (Table 1), all of which are lower than the world values (40-60 %).Tab. 1 Fertilizer N application rates, grain yields and various nutrient use efficiencies for rice, wheat and maize (Zhang et al, 2008)Crop SamplesFertilizer rate(kg/ha) Yield (kg/ha)PFP(kg/kg)RE (%)Rice 179 150 6835 54.2 28.3 Wheat 273 169 5721 43.0 28.2 Maize 215 1627045 51.6 26.1Note: PFP : partial factor productivity of applied nutrient (kg grain per kg nutrient applied); RE: recovery efficiency of nutrient (% fertilizer nutrient recovered in aboveground crop biomass)The low nutrient use efficiency may be attributed to fertilizer overuse and high nutrient loss resulting form inappropriate timing and methods of fertilizer application, especially in high yielding fields. As shown in Table 4, the average fertilizer N application rate for rice of 150 kg/ha is higher than in most countries and as much as 67 % above the global average, but rates of 150–250 kg N/ha are common. Fertilizer application is often not based on real-time nutrient requirements of the crop and/or site-specific knowledge of soil nutrient status. For example, in rice production systems most farmers apply N in two split dressings (basal and top-dressings) within the first 10 days of the rice growing season (Fan et al., 2007). This large amount of fertilizer-N is prone to loss over an extended period because the rice plants require time to develop their root systems and a significant demand for N. In addition, nutrients derived from the environment and the soil are not taken into account when farmers determine fertilizer applied rates. This will also contribute to low nutrient utilization efficiency.Irrational fertilizer utilization has led to environmental pollution. Losses of N and P through1200002000400060008000100000200040006000800010001200A c h i e v e d y i e l d (k g h a )A c h i e v e d y i e l d (k g /h a )020004000600080001000002000400060008000100004000100002000020006000800012000040006000800010001200Control yield (kg/ha)A c h i e v e d y i e l d (k g /h a )leaching and run-off have led to drinking water pollution which affects 30 % of the population and results in eutrophication of 61 % of lakes in the country. Agricultural production also produces considerable emissions of nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere.Optimization of nutrient application and achieving greater nutrient use efficiency at national and provincial levels are urgently required in China.Fig 2. Relationship between achieved yields of rice, wheat and maize using best management practices and control yields with no fertilizer application. (Fan et al., 2009).3. The statues of soil fertility in crop production systemsCrop productivity is strongly dependent on soil quality. The soils with high inherent soil fertility consistently achieved significantly higher wheat, maize and rice yields than those with low inherent soil fertility (Fig 2). However, most arable land in China has low soil indigenous fertility so that it is difficult to achieve higher crop yields. Chinese scientists have classified the arable land based on grain yields into high, medium and low productivity land. Yields in higher productivity lands are usually 1-4 times and 2-6 times higher thanthose in medium and low productivity areas, respectively. Research is therefore required for a thorough understanding of the rates and causes of differences in soil indigenous fertility and subsequent effects on yields and input requirements to sustain yield increases in Chinese cropping systems.The enhancement and maintenance of SOM are fundamental to soil quality improvement and ensuring global food security (Lal, 2004). However, SOC in Chinese cropping systems is low compared with Europe. For example, the average content of SOM in cropland is 10 g/kg in China compared with 25-40 g/kg in European countries and the United States. In spite the increasing SOC in most cropland in China, which was attributed to amendment with crop residues and organic manures together with synthetic fertilizer applications and the optimal combinations of nutrients and the development of no-tillage and reduced-tillage practices, especially in east, north, northwest, south and central China. However, soil degradation is a very serious problem in China. Soil degradation in China comprises 145 Mha or 7.4% of the world total. The loss of the SOC pool has been widely reported in Chinese croplands. Huang and Sun (2006) estimated that SOC in 31.4 % of monitoring sites in China suffered some loss due to water loss and soil erosion together with low inputs.Because subtle changes in soil properties may lead to some reduction in the resource buffer provided by good soil quality, especially in high-yielding systems, it is very important to build up the SOC pool in Chinese croplands by appropriate management strategies such as returning large quantities of biomass to the soil and/or decreasing losses of SOC through erosion, mineralization, and leaching to give sustainability and high yields through improvement of soil quality.4 Integrated nutrient management in crop production systems for reducing environmental risk while increasing crop productivityChina’s ‘grain security’ will face multiple pressures stemming from resource limitation, environmental pollution and population growth. Given the low nutrient utilization efficiency and soil productivity, China must undertake a new step toward integrated nutrient management. Such an approach will focus on increasing crop productivity while optimizing nutrient use efficiency and soil quality.The key points of this strategy include (a) integrated use of nutrients from fertilizers, wastes (from both agriculture and industry), and soil and environmental sources such as atmospheric deposition and irrigation water, (b) synchronization of nutrient supply and crop nutrient demand and application of different management technologies based on the characteristics of different nutrient resources, and (c) integration of nutrient management with sound soil management practices and other farming techniques such as use of high yielding cultivation systems, water-saving techniques, conservation tillage, and cover crops (Fan et al., 2008).These new nutrient management systems can, on average, reduce N fertilizer inputs by 26%, save P fertilizer inputs by 20%, raise grain yields by 8%, and reduce N loss by 47 % compared to conventional agricultural practice as shown across 1517 experiments covering 12 cropping systems at 123 sites. Due to augmented plant productivity and increased return of crop residues, soil C sequestration will also increase and soil quality will be enhanced in the long term(Ju et al., 2009).The main channels that have been used for communicating INM technologies with farmers and growers are the official extension service systems operated by central and localgovernments and effective cooperation with the fertilizer industry. For instance, a Sinochem and China Agricultural University Research and Development Center established in 2003 focuses on new types of fertilizer exploitation, fertilizer market investigation, on-farm surveys of fertilizer applications, and training for staff in both the fertilizer industry and the official extension service. These arrangements have greatly facilitated the adoption of INM technology by farmers.AcknowledgementsWe thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 40701089) and the Major State Basic Research Development Programme of the People’s Republic of China (Grant No. 2009CB118600) for generous financial support.ReferencesFan MS, Cui ZL, Chen XP, Jiang RF, Zhang FS. 2008. Integrated nutrient management for improving crop yields and nutrient utilization efficiencies in China. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 63 (4): 126A-128A JUL-AUGFan MS, Lu SH, Jiang RF, Liu XJ, Zeng XZ, Goulding KWT, Zhang FS. 2007. Nitrogen input, 15N balance and mineral N dynamics in a rice-wheat rotation in southwest China. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 79: 243-253Fan. M.S. Zhang W. Christie P., Zhang F.S. 2009. Crop production, fertilizer use and soil quality in China. In: Ratten Lal Eds, Advanced in Soil Science. (In press).FAO. 2006. FAOSTAT Database - Agricultural Production. . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, RomeHuang Y, Sun WJ. 2006. Changes in topsoil organic carbon of croplands in mainland China over the last two decades. Chinese Science Bulletin 51: 1785-1803Ju X.T., Xing G. X., Chen X.P., Zhang S. L., Zhang L.J., Liu X.J., Cui Z. L., Yin B., P. Christie, Zhu Z. L., and Zhang F.S. 2009. Reducing environmental risk by improving N management in intensive Chinese agricultural systems. PNAS, 106(9)3041–3046Lal R. 2004. Soil Carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security.Science 304: 1623-1627National Bureau of Statistics of China. 1949-2007. China Agriculture Yearbook. Beijing: China Agriculture PressZhang FS, Wang JQ, Zhang WF, Cui ZL, Ma WQ, Chen XP, Jiang RF. 2008. Situation and Countermeasures of Nutrient Utilization Efficiency for Major Cereal Crops in China. Acta Pedologica Sinica. 45(5):915-924.。
农业装备方面的英语
农业装备方面的英语Agricultural Equipment: A Comprehensive Overview.Agriculture forms the backbone of global food production, providing sustenance for billions across the globe. To meet the ever-increasing demands of a growing population, farmers rely on a vast array of agricultural equipment to enhance efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. From humble hand tools to sophisticated machinery, agricultural equipment encompasses a wide spectrum of technologies designed to assist farmers in various aspects of their operations.Soil Management Equipment.Soil serves as the foundation for agricultural productivity, and effective soil management practices are essential for optimal crop growth. Soil management equipment aids in preparing the soil, controlling weeds, and optimizing soil conditions for maximum yield potential.Tractors: These versatile machines provide the power to pull a variety of soil management implements, including plows, harrows, and cultivators.Plows: Plows break up the soil, improving aeration and drainage, and incorporate crop residues into the soil.Harrows: Harrows further refine the soil, breaking up clods and leveling the surface for planting.Cultivators: Cultivators are used to control weeds and aerate the soil, promoting root growth and nutrient uptake.Disc Harrow: A disc harrow uses sharp discs to cut through soil and residue, preparing the seedbed for planting.Planting and Seeding Equipment.Planting and seeding equipment play a crucial role in establishing a successful crop stand. These machines ensureaccurate placement of seeds or seedlings, optimizing germination and emergence rates.Seed Drills: Seed drills sow seeds at precise depths and spacings, ensuring uniform emergence and maximizing yields.Transplanters: Transplanters are used to transplant seedlings from nurseries to the field, reducing labor costs and improving plant establishment.Broadcast Spreaders: Broadcast spreaders evenly distribute seeds or fertilizers over a wide area, facilitating efficient application.Crop Protection Equipment.Crop protection measures safeguard crops from pests, diseases, and adverse weather conditions. Agricultural equipment employed for crop protection includes sprayers, dusters, and nutrient applicators.Sprayers: Sprayers apply liquid pesticides, herbicides, or fungicides to crops, targeting specific pests or diseases.Dusters: Dusters distribute dry pesticides or fungicides, providing protection against insects and fungal infections.Nutrient Applicators: Nutrient applicators are used to distribute fertilizers, providing essential nutrients to crops and enhancing their growth.Harvesting and Processing Equipment.Harvesting and processing equipment assist inefficiently gathering and preparing crops for market or storage. These machines range from combines and balers to grain cleaners and dryers.Combines: Combines harvest and thresh grains, separating the grain from the straw and chaff.Balers: Balers compress hay or straw into bales, facilitating storage and transportation.Grain Cleaners: Grain cleaners remove impurities from harvested grain, ensuring quality and reducing storage losses.Grain Dryers: Grain dryers reduce moisture content in harvested grain, preventing spoilage and preserving its quality.Livestock Equipment.In addition to crop production, agriculture also involves livestock management. Livestock equipment assists in feeding, housing, and caring for animals, promoting their health and productivity.Feeders: Feeders provide animals with access to feed, ensuring proper nutrition and weight gain.Waterers: Waterers provide a clean and consistentwater supply, essential for animal health and performance.Housing: Livestock housing structures protect animals from the elements and provide a controlled environment for optimal growth.Precision Agriculture Equipment.Technological advancements have brought forth precision agriculture equipment, which utilizes data and technology to enhance decision-making and optimize crop management practices.GPS Systems: GPS systems provide accurate field mapping and guidance, enabling precise application of inputs and efficient utilization of resources.Variable Rate Applicators: Variable rate applicators adjust the application rate of inputs based on soil or crop conditions, optimizing nutrient use and minimizing environmental impact.Yield Monitors: Yield monitors collect real-time yield data during harvesting, providing insights into crop performance and informing future management decisions.Sustainable Agricultural Equipment.Sustainable agriculture practices aim to minimize environmental impact and promote long-term productivity. Agricultural equipment has evolved to support these objectives.Reduced Tillage Equipment: Reduced tillage equipment minimizes soil disturbance, preserving soil structure, reducing erosion, and enhancing water retention.Cover Crop Planters: Cover crop planters establish cover crops, which provide multiple benefits, includingsoil erosion control, nutrient cycling, and weed suppression.Biodegradable Mulches: Biodegradable mulches cover soil, suppressing weeds, conserving moisture, and enrichingthe soil with organic matter.The continuous development of agricultural equipment plays a vital role in feeding the growing global population while safeguarding the environment. By embracing innovative technologies and adopting sustainable practices, farmers can enhance their productivity, minimize their environmental footprint, and ensure the future of agriculture.。
中国农业科学英文板
IntroductionChina, with its vast agricultural landscape and rich cultural heritage in farming, has long been at the forefront of agricultural innovation and development. In recent years, the country has made remarkable strides in transforming its agricultural sector towards high-quality and high-standard practices. This comprehensive analysis delves into the various dimensions that underpin this transformation, examining the technological advancements, policy initiatives, ecological sustainability, market integration, and human resource development that collectively contribute to China's pursuit of excellence in agricultural science.I. Technological Advancements: Revolutionizing Farming PracticesA key driver of China's agricultural modernization is the rapid adoption and advancement of agricultural technologies. Precision agriculture, for instance, harnesses satellite imagery, drones, sensors, and big data analytics to optimize crop yields, reduce waste, and enhance resource efficiency. These technologies enable farmers to make informed decisions on planting, irrigation, fertilization, and pest management, thereby ensuring higher quality produce while minimizing environmental impacts. Moreover, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms in farming systems allows for real-time monitoring, predictive analysis, and autonomous operations, further enhancing the precision and efficiency of agricultural processes.In addition, biotechnology plays a pivotal role in China's quest for high-quality agricultural outputs. Genetic engineering, marker-assisted breeding, and gene editing techniques have accelerated the development of crop varieties with improved resistance to diseases, pests, and environmental stresses, as well as enhanced nutritional content and yield potential. The application of these advanced breeding methods ensures not only increased productivity but also contributes to food safety and security by reducing the reliance on chemical inputs.II. Policy Initiatives: Fostering an Enabling EnvironmentThe Chinese government has implemented a series of strategic policies and initiatives to create a conducive environment for the development of high-quality and high-standard agriculture. The "No. 1 Central Document," released annually since 2004, consistently prioritizes agricultural development and rural revitalization, reflecting the government's unwavering commitment to this sector. Key policy measures include:1. **Investment in R&D:** Substantial funding is allocated to agricultural research and development, fostering innovation in areas such as agri-tech, biotechnology, and sustainable farming practices.2. **Infrastructure development:** The upgrading of rural infrastructure, including irrigation systems, storage facilities, and transportation networks, ensures efficient production, processing, and distribution of high-quality agricultural products.3. **Incentive mechanisms:** Financial subsidies, tax exemptions, andinsurance schemes are provided to encourage farmers to adopt advanced technologies, improve product quality, and engage in environmentally friendly practices.4. **Quality control and certification systems:** Stringent regulations and standards, along with robust inspection and certification mechanisms, have been established to ensure the safety, quality, and traceability of agricultural products, enhancing consumer trust and facilitating access to domestic and international markets.III. Ecological Sustainability: Balancing Productivity and Environmental ProtectionChina's agricultural transformation is grounded in the principle of ecological sustainability. The country has actively promoted the concept of "Green Agriculture," emphasizing the harmonious coexistence of agricultural production, environmental protection, and rural development. Key initiatives in this regard include:1. **Conservation agriculture:** The adoption of conservation tillage, crop rotation, and intercropping systems reduces soil erosion, enhances soil fertility, and preserves biodiversity, ultimately contributing to the long-term sustainability and quality of agricultural production.2. **Efficient water management:** The implementation of precision irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and water-saving technologies minimizes water consumption and prevents groundwater depletion, ensuring the sustainable use of this precious resource.3. **Integrated pest management (IPM):** The promotion of IPM strategies, which combine biological controls, habitat manipulation, and targeted pesticide applications, reduces the reliance on chemical pesticides and mitigates their environmental impacts.4. **Circular agriculture:** Emphasis on the recycling of agricultural waste and the development of bioenergy and organic fertilizer industries transforms waste into valuable resources, closing the loop in agricultural production and promoting environmental sustainability.IV. Market Integration and Value Chain OptimizationChina has actively pursued market-oriented reforms and value chain optimization to enhance the competitiveness and quality of its agricultural products. Key aspects include:1. **Modern marketing channels:** The development of e-commerce platforms, direct farm-to-consumer sales, and specialized agricultural product markets has facilitated the efficient distribution of high-quality agricultural products,缩短了供应链，降低了损耗，提高了农民收入。
解决食物短缺问题英语作文
解决食物短缺问题英语作文Title: Addressing Food Shortages: A Multifaceted Approach.Food scarcity, a pressing issue of our time, poses significant challenges to global stability and human welfare. As the demand for food continues to rise, the need for innovative and sustainable solutions becomes increasingly urgent. This paper aims to explore various strategies that can be employed to address food shortages effectively.Improving agricultural productivity is crucial in addressing food scarcity. Technologies such as precision farming, which involves the use of sensors and satellites to monitor crop health and manage resources efficiently, can significantly enhance yields. Additionally, investing in research and development to create crop varieties that are resistant to climate change and diseases can ensure sustainable food production.Promoting sustainable agricultural practices is also essential. This includes the adoption of regenerative agriculture techniques, such as crop rotation and soil conservation methods, which can help maintain soil health and fertility. Furthermore, supporting smallholder farmers, who account for a significant portion of global food production, with access to resources, training, and markets can enhance their productivity and livelihoods.Another key aspect of addressing food scarcity is reducing food waste. Significant amounts of food are lost or discarded at various stages of the supply chain, from production to consumption. Implementing effective waste management strategies, such as improving storage facilities and enhancing supply chain efficiency, can help minimize these losses. Additionally, consumer education on proper food storage and cooking techniques can contribute to reducing household food waste.Enhancing access to nutritious food for vulnerable populations is also crucial. Programs such as schoolfeeding, which provide children with meals at school, can ensure that they receive adequate nutrition for proper growth and development. Similarly, targeted subsidies and social protection measures can help low-income families access affordable and nutritious food.Moreover, promoting dietary diversity can help mitigate the impact of food shortages. Encouraging consumers to include a variety of foods in their diets, including fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains, can ensure a more balanced intake of nutrients. This approach can help reduce the dependence on specific food items that may be in short supply.In addition, international cooperation and trade play a vital role in addressing food scarcity. By sharing resources, knowledge, and technologies, countries can enhance their agricultural production and food security. Furthermore, opening up markets for food exports can help alleviate food shortages in some regions by increasing the supply of food.Lastly, investing in long-term solutions such as sustainable land use planning, water management, and climate change adaptation is crucial. These measures can help mitigate the impact of natural disasters and climate change, which often exacerbate food scarcity issues.In conclusion, addressing food shortages requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses improvedagricultural productivity, sustainable agricultural practices, reduced food waste, enhanced access tonutritious food, dietary diversity, international cooperation, and long-term solutions. By implementing these strategies, we can ensure sustainable and equitable food security for all.。
英语作文有机农业的优点
英语作文有机农业的优点Organic agriculture, also known as organic farming, has gained significant attention and popularity in recent years due to its numerous advantages. Here, we delve into the merits of organic agriculture:1. Environmental Sustainability: One of the foremost advantages of organic agriculture is its commitment to environmental sustainability. Organic farming practices promote biodiversity, conserve water, and reduce pollution. By avoiding synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, organic farmers minimize harm to ecosystems, protect soil health, and support long-term ecological balance.2. Health Benefits: Organic produce is free from synthetic chemicals and genetically modified organisms (GMOs), making it a healthier choice for consumers. Studies suggest that organic foods may contain higher levels of essential nutrients and antioxidants compared to conventionally grown counterparts. Additionally, theabsence of pesticide residues in organic food reduces the risk of pesticide-related health issues.3. Supports Animal Welfare: Organic livestock farming adheres to strict animal welfare standards. Animals raised organically are provided with access to outdoor areas, allowed to engage in natural behaviors, and are fed organic feed free from synthetic additives and antibiotics. By prioritizing animal welfare, organic agriculture promotes ethical treatment of animals.4. Soil Conservation: Organic farming techniques focus on building and maintaining soil fertility throughpractices such as crop rotation, composting, and green manure. These methods enhance soil structure, increasewater retention, and promote microbial activity. Bynurturing soil health, organic agriculture ensures the sustainability of agricultural land for future generations.5. Reduces Water Pollution: Organic farming practices minimize water pollution by avoiding the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides that can leach into water bodies.By promoting natural methods of pest and weed control, organic agriculture helps safeguard water quality and aquatic ecosystems.6. Supports Rural Communities: Organic agricultureoften involves smaller-scale, family-owned farms, which contribute to the economic vitality of rural communities.By fostering local food systems and direct farmer-consumer relationships, organic farming helps sustain rural livelihoods and promotes community resilience.7. Climate Change Mitigation: Organic farming practices, such as agroforestry and carbon sequestration in soils, can play a role in mitigating climate change. By promoting carbon sequestration and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, organic agriculture contributes to climate resilience and adaptation efforts.8. Consumer Demand and Market Growth: The growing consumer demand for organic products has led to significant market growth in the organic agriculture sector. As consumers become more health-conscious and environmentallyaware, the demand for organic food continues to rise, providing economic opportunities for organic farmers and food producers.In conclusion, organic agriculture offers a multitude of benefits, ranging from environmental sustainability and health advantages to support for rural communities and climate change mitigation. By embracing organic farming practices, we can promote a more sustainable and resilient food system for present and future generations.。
英语种植大蒜全步骤作文
英语种植大蒜全步骤作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1How to Plant Garlic - A Step-by-Step GuideAs a student interested in gardening, I've learned that growing your own food can be an incredibly rewarding experience. One crop that I've found particularly easy and satisfying to cultivate is garlic. Not only is it a versatile ingredient used in countless dishes, but the process of planting and harvesting garlic is relatively straightforward. In this essay, I'll walk you through the complete steps for planting garlic, from selecting the right bulbs to harvesting and curing your fragrant bounty.Step 1: Choose Your Garlic VarietyThe first step in planting garlic is to select the variety you want to grow. There are two main types: softneck and hardneck. Softneck garlic, such as artichoke and silverskin, is well-suited for braiding and has a longer shelf life. Hardneck varieties like rocambole and porcelain produce a hardy flower stalk called ascape and typically have more robust flavors. Consider your climate, as some varieties thrive better in certain regions.Step 2: Prepare the SoilGarlic grows best in well-drained, nutrient-rich soil with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. Before planting, it's essential to prepare the soil by removing any weeds and working in compost orwell-rotted manure. This will provide the necessary nutrients for your garlic to thrive. If your soil is particularly heavy or clay-like, consider adding sand or perlite to improve drainage.Step 3: Break Apart the BulbsAbout a week before planting, separate the garlic bulbs into individual cloves, being careful not to remove the papery skins. Discard any cloves that appear damaged or moldy. This process, called "cracking," encourages the formation of new roots and shoots.Step 4: Plant the ClovesThe optimal time for planting garlic varies depending on your location, but generally, you'll want to plant in the fall before the ground freezes. In most regions, mid-October tomid-November is ideal. Plant the individual cloves with the pointed end facing up, about 2 inches deep and 6 inches apart,in rows spaced 12 inches apart. If you're planting hardneck garlic, increase the spacing to 8-10 inches between cloves to accommodate the larger bulbs.Step 5: Mulch and WaterAfter planting, water the area thoroughly to settle the soil around the cloves. Then, apply a 4-6 inch layer of mulch, such as straw, leaves, or bark chips. Mulching helps retain moisture, suppress weeds, and insulate the soil during winter.Step 6: Monitor Growth and CareThroughout the growing season, keep an eye on your garlic and water whenever the top inch of soil becomes dry. Hardneck varieties will send up a flower stalk called a scape in late spring or early summer. Remove these scapes to redirect the plant's energy into bulb growth. Softneck varieties do not typically produce scapes.Step 7: Harvest and CureAs summer approaches, the garlic leaves will begin to yellow and fall over, signaling that the bulbs are ready for harvest. Carefully dig around each plant with a garden fork, being careful not to damage the bulbs. Brush off any excess soil and allow thegarlic to cure in a warm, dry, well-ventilated area for 2-4 weeks. This curing process helps increase shelf life and improves flavor.Step 8: Storage and EnjoymentOnce the garlic has cured, you can trim the roots and stalks, leaving about an inch attached to the bulb. Store the cured garlic in a cool, dry place with plenty of air circulation, such as a mesh bag or open container. With proper care, your homegrown garlic can last for several months, adding flavor and aroma to countless dishes.Planting and harvesting garlic is a rewarding process that not only provides you with a fresh, flavorful crop but also teaches valuable lessons about patience, perseverance, and the joys of growing your own food. As a student, I've found that tending to a garlic patch is a therapeutic break from studies, reminding me of the simple pleasures in life. So why not give it a try? With a little effort and these step-by-step instructions, you too can experience the satisfaction of harvesting your very own garlic bulbs.篇2Growing Garlic: A Step-by-Step GuideAs a student, I've always been fascinated by the process of growing my own food. There's something incredibly satisfying about nurturing a tiny seed or clove into a bountiful harvest. This year, I decided to try my hand at growing garlic, a culinary staple that adds flavor and aroma to countless dishes. Little did I know that cultivating this humble allium would turn into such an enriching learning experience.Introduction to GarlicBefore we dive into the nitty-gritty of garlic planting, let's take a moment to appreciate this incredible plant. Garlic (Allium sativum) is a member of the Amaryllidaceae family, closely related to onions, leeks, and chives. It's believed to have originated in Central Asia and has been cultivated for thousands of years, prized for its pungent flavor and purported medicinal properties.There are two main types of garlic: hardneck and softneck. Hardneck varieties produce a rigid central stem and fewer, but larger, cloves. Softneck garlic, on the other hand, doesn't form a central stem and yields smaller, more numerous cloves that store better. For my first garlic-growing adventure, I opted for a hardneck variety called 'Music,' known for its rich flavor and easy-to-peel cloves.Step 1: Choosing and Preparing the SiteGarlic thrives in well-drained, nutrient-rich soil with a pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.0. I chose a sunny spot in my backyard that received at least six hours of direct sunlight per day. Before planting, I removed any weeds and worked the soil to a depth of about eight inches, incorporating compost or well-rotted manure to improve its fertility and drainage.Step 2: Selecting and Separating the ClovesGarlic is typically planted in the fall, around six to eight weeks before the ground freezes. I purchased a pound of 'Music' garlic bulbs from a local nursery, ensuring that they were certified disease-free and intended for planting (not grocery store garlic, which may have been treated to prevent sprouting).With great care, I separated the bulbs into individual cloves, being cautious not to remove the protective papery skins. I selected the largest, healthiest cloves for planting, setting aside any damaged or small ones for culinary use.Step 3: Planting the ClovesArmed with a trowel and a measuring tape, I embarked on the planting process. Garlic cloves should be planted pointy-end up, about two inches deep and six inches apart, with rows spaced12 to 18 inches apart. I dug a shallow trench, placed the cloves at the appropriate intervals, and covered them with soil, gently tamping it down.To my surprise, planting an entire pound of garlic took quite some time and effort. But as I worked, I couldn't help but marvel at the simplicity and beauty of the process – taking a humble clove and giving it the chance to flourish into a magnificent bulb.Step 4: Mulching and WateringAfter planting, I applied a two-to-three-inch layer of mulch around the garlic bed. Mulching helps retain soil moisture, suppress weeds, and insulate the cloves during the winter months. I used a mixture of shredded leaves and straw, being careful not to bury the planting site too deeply.Proper watering is crucial during the early stages of garlic growth. I made sure to keep the soil consistently moist but not waterlogged, providing about an inch of water per week if there was no significant rainfall. As the winter set in, I cut back on watering, allowing the garlic to go dormant and conserve its energy for the spring.Step 5: Monitoring and MaintenanceThroughout the winter, I kept a watchful eye on my garlic bed. As the first green shoots emerged, I carefully removed any mulch covering them, allowing them to bask in the sun. I also took care to weed the area regularly, ensuring that my precious garlic plants didn't have to compete for nutrients and water.As spring arrived, the garlic plants grew rapidly, sending up sturdy stems and developing their distinctive flat, strap-like leaves. I continued to water them regularly, adjusting the amount based on rainfall and soil moisture levels.Step 6: Scaping and HarvestingOne of the most exciting moments in the garlic-growing journey is the appearance of the scape – a long, curled stem that emerges from the center of the plant. These scapes, if left unchecked, can divert the plant's energy away from bulb development. So, as instructed, I carefully snipped them off, leaving about an inch protruding from the stem.Little did I know that these scapes would become a culinary treasure in their own right! I sautéed them with a bit of olive oil and salt, reveling in their mild garlic flavor and crunchy texture.As the summer solstice approached, the leaves of my garlic plants began to yellow and die back – a sign that the bulbs werenearing maturity. I carefully dug up a few test bulbs, checking for the desired tight wrapping of the outer skins and awell-developed clove structure.Finally, the day of the main harvest arrived! With great excitement, I loosened the soil around each plant and gently lifted the bulbs, brushing off any excess dirt. The sight of those plump, aromatic garlic heads was a true reward for my months of patient tending.Step 7: Curing and StorageAfter the harvest, the garlic bulbs needed to be cured – a process that dries and toughens the outer skins, ensuring better storage life. I carefully tied the plants together in small bundles and hung them in a well-ventilated, shaded area for two to three weeks.Once the tops had turned brown and papery, I trimmed the roots and cut the stems, leaving about an inch attached to the bulb. These beautifully cured garlic heads were then stored in a cool, dry place with good air circulation, ready to flavor my culinary creations throughout the year.ConclusionAs I reflect on my garlic-growing journey, I can't help but feel a sense of pride and accomplishment. What started as a curious experiment turned into a profound lesson in patience, perseverance, and the wonders of nature's cycles.Cultivating garlic taught me the importance of attention to detail, from carefully selecting and planting the cloves to monitoring and maintaining the plants throughout their growth. It also instilled in me a deep appreciation for the hard work and dedication of farmers and gardeners who put food on our tables.But beyond the practical lessons, growing garlic was a reminder of the simple joys in life – the satisfaction of nurturing a living thing, the excitement of witnessing its growth and transformation, and the gratification of enjoying the fruits (or, in this case, bulbs) of one's labor.As I savor the rich, pungent flavor of my homegrown garlic, I can't wait to embark on my next gardening adventure, eager to continue learning and exploring the wonders of the natural world, one seed (or clove) at a time.篇3How to Grow Garlic from Start to FinishHey there! Today I'm going to take you through the entire process of growing garlic from start to finish. Garlic is one of the most rewarding crops you can grow at home. Not only is it super low maintenance, but you get to enjoy that amazing garlicky flavor all year round freshly picked from your own garden. Preparing dishes with garlic you've grown yourself is just so satisfying.I got into growing garlic a couple of years ago when my grandpa showed me how to do it. He's been cultivating his own garlic for decades and makes the most delicious garlicky everything - garlicky mashed potatoes, garlicky pasta, you name it. When I tasted his homegrown garlic for the first time, I was blown away by how much more flavorful and robust it was compared to the stuff you get at the grocery store. That's when I decided I needed to learn his ways and start my own garlic patch.Getting StartedThe first step is to get your hands on some good quality garlic bulbs for planting. Don't just use the garlic from the supermarket as those are often treated to last longer on the shelves. Instead, buy certified disease-free garlic bulbs from a nursery or garden supplier. You'll want to plant the largest cloves from each bulb for the best results.Next, you'll need to prepare your planting bed. Garlic needs lots of nutrient-rich, well-draining soil to really thrive. My grandpa always says "If you want fat bulbs, start with fat soil!" So work in plenty of compost, manure or other organic matter into your planting area a few weeks before you plan to put the cloves in the ground. This gives everything time to break down nicely.When and How to PlantThe ideal planting time for garlic is in the fall, around late September to early November in most climates. You want to get those cloves in the ground about 6 weeks before the really cold winter temperatures hit. This allows the roots to establish themselves while the soil is still workable.To plant, just take each individual clove and push it vertically into the soil with the pointed end facing upwards. Space them about 6 inches apart in rows spaced a foot apart. The cloves should be buried with the tip just below the surface. I like to add a mulch of straw or leaves over the bed after planting to help retain moisture and protect the young sprouts from frost heave.Caring for Your GarlicOne of the best parts about growing garlic is how little maintenance it requires. The plants are extremely hardy and canshrug off cold temperatures, pests and disease way better than most crops. Still, there are a few things you can do to help them along:Weed regularly. Garlic doesn't like competition from other plants stealing its nutrients and moisture, especially when the bulbs start forming.Stop watering completely about 2 weeks before you plan to harvest to help cure and dry the bulbs.Add a layer of mulch each fall and spring to retain moisture and keep weeds down.Use an organic nitrogen fertilizer in early spring when the leaves start growing rapidly.Harvesting TimeMost garlic varieties take around 8-9 months from planting time until they're ready for harvesting. You'll know it's harvest season when about 60% of the plant's leaves have turned brown and dried up, usually sometime in late June or July.To harvest, gently loosen the soil with a garden fork and pull the entire plant up by the leaves, taking care to leave the stem attached to the bulb. Brush off any excess dirt clinging to thebulbs, but be careful not to knock off that outer papery covering as this helps protect the garlic.The Curing ProcessFreshly harvested garlic still needs to go through a curing process before you can store it long-term. This drying period helps lock in flavor and allows the wrappers to fully dry out so the garlic keeps longer. It's an essential step.To cure garlic, you'll need a warm, dry, well-ventilated spot out of direct sunlight. I like to tie the plants together in loose bundles and hang them from rafters in our shed. Let the bundles cure for 3-4 weeks until the wrappers are completely dry and papery.After curing, you can give the bulbs a gentle cleaning by removing any excess stems and roots and brushing off any remaining soil if needed. The garlic is now ready for long-term storage! I usually braid the stems together and hang the braids in our pantry. Properly cured garlic can keep for up to 8 months this way.So there you have it - the full rundown on growing garlic from planting to harvesting to curing for storage. It's such a satisfying process watching those tiny little cloves transform intobeautiful big bulbs bursting with flavor. Not to mention garlic is an insanely useful ingredient to always have on hand in the kitchen! I highly recommend giving it a try if you've never grown it before. Just make sure to save some of those biggest bulbs to replant next fall and keep the cycle going. Trust me, once you taste fresh homegrown garlic, you'll never go back to the stuff from the grocery store!。
食品出口好处坏处英文作文
食品出口好处坏处英文作文Here is an English essay on the pros and cons of food exports, with the content exceeding 1000 words as requested. The title is not included in the word count.The global food trade has been a topic of much debate in recent years, with proponents arguing for its economic benefits and critics highlighting its potential drawbacks. As the world's population continues to grow, the demand for food has also increased, leading many countries to focus on expanding their food export capabilities. However, the impact of food exports extends beyond just the economic realm, affecting social, environmental, and health-related aspects as well. In this essay, we will explore both the advantages and disadvantages of food exports, providing a comprehensive understanding of this complex issue.One of the primary advantages of food exports is the potential for economic growth and development. Countries that are able to successfully export their agricultural products can generate significant revenue, which can be reinvested into the local economy. This can lead to the creation of new jobs, improved infrastructure, and increased investment in research and development, all of whichcan contribute to the overall economic well-being of the exporting nation. Additionally, food exports can help to diversify a country's economic portfolio, reducing its reliance on a single industry or sector.Another benefit of food exports is the opportunity for countries to leverage their comparative advantages in agricultural production. By specializing in the cultivation of certain crops or livestock, countries can become more efficient and productive, ultimately increasing their global competitiveness. This can lead to lower prices for consumers in the importing countries, as well as increased profits for the exporting nations.Furthermore, food exports can play a crucial role in addressing global food security concerns. By distributing food to regions where supply is limited or where production is insufficient, food exports can help to alleviate hunger and malnutrition in various parts of the world. This can have a positive impact on the health and well-being of populations in food-deficient areas, contributing to the overall goal of achieving global food security.However, the practice of food exports also comes with a number of potential drawbacks. One of the most significant concerns is the impact on food prices within the exporting country. As more food is diverted towards export markets, the domestic supply can becomeconstrained, leading to higher prices for local consumers. This can have a disproportionate effect on lower-income households, who may struggle to afford basic food staples.Another issue with food exports is the potential for environmental degradation. The intensive agricultural practices required to meet the demands of export markets can lead to soil depletion, water scarcity, and the overuse of pesticides and fertilizers. These environmental consequences can have long-term implications for the sustainability of agricultural production, both in the exporting country and globally.Additionally, the transportation and distribution of food exports can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. The carbon footprint associated with the logistics of food exports, including the use of fossil fuels for transportation and storage, can undermine efforts to address the global climate crisis.Moreover, the focus on food exports can sometimes lead to a shift away from the production of crops and livestock for domestic consumption, potentially creating food insecurity within the exporting country. This can be particularly problematic in developing nations, where a significant portion of the population may rely on local food production for their sustenance.Another concern with food exports is the potential for theexploitation of workers and the violation of labor rights. In some cases, the pressure to meet the demands of export markets can lead to the exploitation of agricultural workers, including the use of child labor, unsafe working conditions, and inadequate wages.Finally, the global food trade can also contribute to the spread of diseases and the introduction of invasive species. The movement of agricultural products across borders can inadvertently facilitate the transmission of plant and animal diseases, as well as the introduction of non-native species that can disrupt local ecosystems.In conclusion, the debate surrounding food exports is a complex and multifaceted issue. While the economic benefits of food exports are clear, the potential social, environmental, and health-related drawbacks cannot be ignored. Policymakers and stakeholders must carefully weigh these considerations and strive to strike a balance that maximizes the positive impacts of food exports while mitigating the negative consequences. This will require a comprehensive and collaborative approach, involving governments, agricultural producers, and international organizations, to ensure that the global food trade benefits both exporting and importing countries, as well as the planet as a whole.。
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Cropproductionandsoilwaterstorageinlong-termwinterwheat±fallowtillageexperiments
DrewJ.Lyona,*,WalterW.Stroupb,RandallE.BrowncaPanhandleResearchandExtensionCenter,4502AvenueI,Scottsbluff,NE69361,USA
bPanhandleResearchandExtensionCenter,103MillerHall,UniversityofNebraska103MillerHall,Lincoln,NE68583-0712,USA
cPanhandleResearchandExtensionCenter,P.O.Box786,ColbyKS67701-0786,USA
Received24September1997;accepted3April1998
AbstractSoilwateristhemajorlimitingfactorindrylandcropproductionintheCentralGreatPlains.No-tillfallowmanagementincreasessoilwaterstorageandreducessoilerosionpotential.Twoexperimentswereinitiatedin1969and1970nearSidney,NEtocompareeffectsofmoldboardplow(Plow),sub-tillage(Sub-till)andno-tillage(No-till)fallowsystemsonwinterwheat(TriticumaestivumL.)grainyield,grainprotein,residueproduction,andsoilwateraccumulationduringfallow.The®rstexperimentwasestablishedin1969onanAlliancesiltloamthathadbeenpreviouslycultivatedpriortostudyinitiation.Thisexperimentcontainedanitrogen(N)fertilizersplitof0and45(kgN)haÀ1withineachtillagetreatment.Thesecond
experimentwasestablishedin1970onaDurocloamthatwasinnativemixedprairiesod.Nofertilizerwasappliedatthissite.Atbothsites,soilwaterstoragewasgreatestwiththeno-tillandleastwiththeplowsystem.Winterwheatgrainyieldsfailedtoconsistentlyrespondtoincreasedsoilwaterstorageintheno-tillsystemduringthe24±26yearsoftheexperiments.Grainyieldswiththeplowsystemwere8%greaterthanwithsub-andno-tillsystemsatthePreviouslyCultivatedsitewhenNwasnotapplied.TheadditionofNatthissiteeliminatedyielddifferencesduetofallowtillagesystems.Grainproteinaveraged13.8,13.3and12.8%forallplow,sub-andno-tilltreatments,respectively.TheadditionofNatthePreviouslyCultivatedsiteincreasedresiduedryweightsbyanaverageof5%inalltillagesystems.NeithergrainproteinnorresiduedryweightswereaffectedbytillagesystemattheNativeSodsite.Winterwheat±fallowisprobablynotasustainableproductionsystemfortheCentralGreatPlains,regardlessofthefallowmanagementsystemused.#1998ElsevierScienceB.V.Allrightsreserved.
Keywords:Triticumaestivum;No-till;Sub-till;Plow;Grainyield;Grainprotein;Soilwater
1.IntroductionWateristhemostlimitingresourcefordrylandcropgrowthinthesemi-aridareasoftheU.S.GreatPlains(Smika,1970).Summerfallow,thepracticeofcon-trollingallplantgrowthduringthenon-cropseason,wasquicklyadoptedtostabilizewinterwheatproduc-tioninthisregion(SnyderandBurr,1909).IntheCentralGreatPlains,the14monthsoffallowbegininJulyafterwheatharvestandcontinueuntilwheatseedinginSeptemberofthefollowingyear.Inaddi-tiontostoringsoilwaterforthesucceedingcrop,fallowalsoenhancesaccumulationofnitratethrough*Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+1308-632-1266;fax:+1308-632-
1365;e-mailaddress:agro139@unlvm.unl.edu
0167-1987/98/$±seefrontmatter#1998ElsevierScienceB.V.Allrightsreserved.PII:S0167-1987(98)00151-2mineralizationoforganicmatter,andcontrolofpro-blemweeds,diseases,andinsects(Smika,1983).Winterwheat±fallowhasbeenthepredominantcroprotationintheU.S.CentralGreatPlainsforthepast75years(HinzeandSmika,1983).DuringtheU.S.DustBowleraofthe1930s,when60±80millionhectaresoflandwerescarredbywinderosionfromTexastotheDakotas(Milleretal.,1985),itbecameevidentthatfarmingpracticeshadtobechangedtoprotectlandfromerosion.PriortotheDustBowl,fallowtillagetypicallyinvolveduseofthemoldboardorone-waydiskplow,whichinvertedthesoilandburiedmostcropresidues(Johnsonetal.,1983).Duringthe1940sand1950s,non-inversionsub-tilltechniquesreplacedinversiontillage(blackfallow)onthemoreerosivesoils(Johnsonetal.,1983).Overthepast30years,herbicideshavereplacedtillageinmanycropproductionpractices(Lyonetal.,1996).Theprimarymethodofreducingwinderosiononagriculturallandsistokeepthesoilprotectedwithsurfaceresidues(FryrearandSkidmore,1985).Inordertoproducesuf®cientcropresidues,soilwatermustbemanagedtosupportamplecropgrowth.Inadditiontoreducingsoilerosion,theamountofpre-cipitationstoredassoilwaterduringthefallowperiodincreasedastheamountofsurfacemulchincreased(Unger,1978).Severalresearchershavereportedincreasedgrainyieldswiththeuseofherbicidestocontrolweedsduringthefallowperiodinthewinterwheat±fallowrotation(FensterandWicks,1982;Petersonetal.,1993).InWyoming,yieldforano-tillwinterwheat±fallowsystemwassimilartoyieldforaconventionalfallowsystem(Kralletal.,1990).In1969and1970,researchwasinitiatedattwositesnearSidney,NE,tocomparetheeffectsofno-till,sub-till,andplowsystemsoffallowonwinterwheatgrainyield,grainprotein,residueretention,soilNO3±N
accumulation,andsoilwateraccumulationsduringfallow(FensterandPeterson,1979).Additionalstu-dieshavealsobeenconductedatthesesitestoinves-tigatethein¯uenceofdifferenttillagepracticesonvariousaspectsofsoilfertility(Lambetal.,1985;Elliott,1986;FollettandPeterson,1988;Tracyetal.,1990;CambardellaandElliott,1992,1994),soilphysics(Mielkeetal.,1984,1986),andsoilmicro-biology(Doran,1980,1987;Broderetal.,1984;LinnandDoran,1984;Lambetal.,1987;Follettand