外文翻译

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毕设外文翻译是什么意思(两篇)

引言概述：在现代高等教育中，毕业设计（或称为毕业论文、学士论文等）是学生完成学业的重要环节。

而对于一些特定的专业，例如翻译专业，有时候还需要完成外文翻译这一项任务。

本文将探讨毕设外文翻译的意义和目的，以及为什么对翻译专业的学生而言这一任务极其重要。

正文内容：1.提高翻译能力和技巧外文翻译是一项对翻译专业学生而言十分重要的任务，通过进行外文翻译，学生们可以通过实践提高自己的翻译能力和技巧。

在这个过程中，他们可以学习如何处理不同类型的外文文本，熟悉不同领域的专业术语，并掌握一些常用的翻译技巧和策略。

2.扩展语言和文化知识毕设外文翻译要求学生们对翻译语言的相关知识和背景有一定的了解。

在进行翻译时，学生们需要遵循目标语言的语法规则，并确保所翻译的内容准确、清晰地传达源语言的意义。

通过这一过程，学生们可以进一步扩展自己的语言和文化知识，提高自己的跨文化沟通能力。

3.提供实践机会毕设外文翻译为学生们提供了一个实践的机会，让他们能够将在课堂上所学到的理论知识应用于实际操作中。

通过实践，学生们可以对所学知识的理解更加深入，同时也可以发现并解决实际翻译过程中的问题和挑战。

这对于学生们将来从事翻译工作时具备更好的实践能力和经验具有重要意义。

4.培养翻译专业素养毕设外文翻译要求学生们具备良好的翻译专业素养。

在进行翻译过程中，学生们需要保持专业的态度和责任心，严谨地对待每一个翻译任务。

他们需要学会如何进行翻译质量的评估和控制，以确保最终翻译稿的准确性和流畅性。

这一系列的要求和实践，可以帮助学生们培养出色的翻译专业素养。

5.提升自我学习和研究能力毕设外文翻译要求学生们进行广泛的文献阅读和研究，以便更好地理解所翻译的内容，并找到适当的翻译方法和策略。

在这个过程中，学生们需要培养自己的自主学习和研究能力，提高对学术和专业领域的敏感性，并能够独立思考和解决问题。

这将对学生们未来的学术研究和进一步的职业发展产生积极的影响。

总结：引言概述:毕业设计外文翻译（Thesis Translation）是指在毕业设计过程中，对相关外文文献进行翻译，并将其应用于研究中，以提供理论支持和参考。

外文文献及翻译

外文文献原稿和译文原稿DATABASEA database may be defined as a collection interrelated data store together with as little redundancy as possible to serve one or more applications in an optimal fashion .the data are stored so that they are independent of programs which use the data .A common and controlled approach is used in adding new data and in modifying and retrieving existing data within the data base .One system is said to contain a collection of database if they are entirely separate in structure .A database may be designed for batch processing , real-time processing ,or in-line processing .A data base system involves application program, DBMS, and database.THE INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSThe term database is often to describe a collection of related files that is organized into an integrated structure that provides different people varied access to the same data. In many cases this resource is located in different files in different departments throughout the organization, often known only to the individuals who work with their specific portion of the total information. In these cases, the potential value of the information goes unrealized because a person in other departments who may need it does not know it or it cannot be accessed efficiently. In an attempt to organize their information resources and provide for timely and efficient access, many companies have implemented databases.A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example, the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of all the people you know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette using a personalcomputer and software such as DBASE Ⅲor Lotus 1-2-3. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a database.The above definition of database is quite general. For example, we may consider the collection of words that made up this page of text to be usually more restricted. A database has the following implicit properties:● A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment of data cannot be referred to as a database.● A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose. It has an intended group of user and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested.● A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the miniworld. Changes to the miniworld are reflected in the database.In other words, a database has some source from which data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in the real world, and an audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database.A database management system (DBMS) is composed of three major parts: (1) a storage subsystem that stores and retrieves data in files; (2)a modeling and manipulation subsystem that provides the means with which to organize the data and to add, delete, maintain, and update the data; and (3) an interface between the DBMS and its users. Several major trends are emerging that enhance the value and usefulness of database management systems.●Managers who require more up-to-date information to make effective decisions.●Customers who demand increasingly sophisticated information services and more current information about the status of their orders, invoices, and accounts.●Users who find that they can develop custom applications with database systems in a fraction of the time it takes to use traditional programming languages.●Organizations that discover information has a strategic value; they utilize their database systems to gain an edge over their competitors.A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search, probe, and query database contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that aren’t available in regular reports. These questions might initially be vague and/or p oorly defined, but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “mange” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who aren’t programmers. In a file-oriented system, user needing special information may communicate their needs to a programmer, who, when time permits, will write one or more programs to extract the data and prepare the information. The availability of a DBMS, however, offers users a much faster alternative communications path.DATABASE QUERYIf the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database ,as well as interrogate it ,this capability allows for managing personal database. However, it does not automatically leave an audit trail of actions and does not provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization .There controls are only available when a set of application programs is customized for each data entry and updating function.Software for personal computers that perform some of the DBMS functions has been very popular .Individuals for personal information storage and processing intended personal computers for us .Small enterprises, professionals like doctors, architects, engineers, lawyers and so on have also used these machines extensively. By the nature of intended usage ,database system on there machines are except from several of the requirements of full-fledged database systems. Since data sharing is not intended, concurrent operations even less so ,the software can be less complex .Security and integrity maintenance are de-emphasized or absent .as data volumes will be small, performance efficiency is also less important .In fact, the only aspect of a database system that is important is data independence. Data independence ,as stated earlier ,means that application programs and user queries need not recognize physical organization of data on secondary storage. The importance of this aspect , particularly for the personal computer user ,is that this greatly simplifies database usage . The user can store ,access and manipulate data at ahigh level (close to the application)and be totally shielded from the low level (close to the machine )details of data organization.DBMS STRUCTURING TECHNIQUESSpatial data management has been an active area of research in the database field for two decades ,with much of the research being focused on developing data structures for storing and indexing spatial data .however, no commercial database system provides facilities for directly de fining and storing spatial data ,and formulating queries based on research conditions on spatial data.There are two components to data management: history data management and version management .Both have been the subjects of research for over a decade. The troublesome aspect of temporal data management is that the boundary between applications and database systems has not been clearly drawn. Specifically, it is not clear how much of the typical semantics and facilities of temporal data management can and should be directly incorporated in a database system, and how much should be left to applications and users. In this section, we will provide a list of short-term research issues that should be examined to shed light on this fundamental question.The focus of research into history data management has been on defining the semantics of time and time interval, and issues related to understanding the semantics of queries and updates against history data stored in an attribute of a record. Typically, in the context of relational databases ,a temporal attribute is defined to hold a sequence of history data for the attribute. A history data consists of a data item and a time interval for which the data item is valid. A query may then be issued to retrieve history data for a specified time interval for the temporal attribute. The mechanism for supporting temporal attributes is to that for supporting set-valued attributes in a database system, such as UniSQL.In the absence of a support for temporal attributes, application developers who need to model and history data have simply simulated temporal attributes by creating attribute for the time interval ,along with the “temporal” attribute. This of course may result in duplication of records in a table, and more complicated search predicates in queries. The one necessary topic of research in history data management is to quantitatively establish the performance (and even productivity) differences betweenusing a database system that directly supports attributes and using a conventional database system that does not support either the set-valued attributes or temporal attributes.Data security, integrity, and independenceData security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database of the database, called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.Data integrity refers to the accuracy, correctness, or validity of the data in the database. In a database system, data integrity means safeguarding the data against invalid alteration or destruction. In large on-line database system, data integrity becomes a more severe problem and two additional complications arise. The first has to do with many users accessing the database concurrently. For example, if thousands of travel agents book the same seat on the same flight, the first agent’s booking will be lost. In such cases the technique of locking the record or field provides the means for preventing one user from accessing a record while another user is updating the same record.The second complication relates to hardware, software or human error during the course of processing and involves database transaction which is a group of database modifications treated as a single unit. For example, an agent booking an airline reservation involves several database updates (i.e., adding the passenger’s name and address and updating the seats-available field), which comprise a single transaction. The database transaction is not considered to be completed until all updates have been completed; otherwise, none of the updates will be allowed to take place.An important point about database systems is that the database should exist independently of any of the specific applications. Traditional data processing applications are data dependent.When a DMBS is used, the detailed knowledge of the physical organization of the data does not have to be built into every application program. The application program asks the DBMS for data by field name, for example, a coded representationof “give me customer name and balance due” would be sent to the DBMS. Without a DBMS the programmer must reserve space for the full structure of the record in the program. Any change in data structure requires changes in all the applications programs.Data Base Management System (DBMS)The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with creating ,accessing and maintaining data base records is called a data base management system (DBMS). A DBMS will usually be handing multiple data calls concurrently.It must organize its system buffers so that different data operations can be in process together .It provides a data definition language to specify the conceptual schema and most likely ,some of the details regarding the implementation of the conceptual schema by the physical schema.The data definition language is a high-level language, enabling one to describe the conceptual schema in terms of a “data model “.At the present time ,there are four underling structures for database management systems. They are :List structures.Relational structures.Hierarchical (tree) structures.Network structures.Management Information System(MIS)An MIS can be defined as a network of computer-based data processing procedures developed in an organization and integrated as necessary with manual and other procedures for the purpose of providing timely and effective information to support decision making and other necessary management functions.One of the most difficult tasks of the MIS designer is to develop the information flow needed to support decision making .Generally speaking ,much of the information needed by managers who occupy different levels and who have different levels and have different responsibilities is obtained from a collection of exiting information system (or subsystems)Structure Query Language (SQL)SQL is a data base processing language endorsed by the American NationalStandards Institute. It is rapidly becoming the standard query language for accessing data on relational databases .With its simple ,powerful syntax ,SQL represents a great progress in database access for all levels of management and computing professionals.SQL falls into two forms : interactive SQL and embedded SQL. Embedded SQL usage is near to traditional programming in third generation languages .It is the interactive use of SQL that makes it most applicable for the rapid answering of ad hoc queries .With an interactive SQL query you just type in a few lines of SQL and you get the database response immediately on the screen.译文数据库数据库可以被定义为一个相互联系的数据库存储的集合。

外文翻译

Transformative green marketing:Impediments and opportunitiesMichael Jay Polonsky ⁎School of Management and Marketing,Deakin University,70Elgar Road,Burwood VIC 3125,Australiaa b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Accepted 22January 2011Available online 18February 2011Keywords:Green marketingMarketing and society Sustainability Systems thinkingTransformative marketingGreen marketing is not achieving its potential for improving the quality of life of consumers,while improving the natural ecosystem.The failure is the result of the inability of consumers,ﬁrms and governments to adopt systems thinking,in which macro-marketing perspectives are integrated into their respective micro-decisions,that is,the anthropocentric view of the natural world is disregarded.The paper discusses why the three groups above have had dif ﬁculties in embracing environmental issues,thus impeding real transformative green marketing from occurring.To address the dif ﬁculties three proposed actions need to be undertaken:(1)Marketers need to look for new ways of calculating and communicating value that integrates environmental value,thereby moving away from ﬁnancial measures which have no real environmental meaning.(2)Change the discourse regarding the environment,highlighting the importance of action and inaction,which needs to be based on increased education about the human –environment interface.(3)Marketing needs to refocus its emphasis on want satisfaction,shifting away from the acquisition of goods,thereby enhancing how marketers create value.Making these changes will allow marketers to operationalize transformative green marketing so the human condition and the natural system that humans operate within are both improved and bring about transformative green marketing.©2011Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionMarketing academics'and practitioners'interest in how environmental issues impact marketing activities continue to grow (Chamorro et al.,2009),but is certainly not new (Fisk,1974;Henion and Kinnear,1976).A range of marketing contexts examines the interface between the natural environment and;consumer behavior (i.e.,Diamantopoulos et al.,2003),marketing strategy (i.e.,Menon and Menon,1997),public policy initiatives (i.e.,Press and Arnould,2009)and macromarketing (i.e.,Kilbourne and Carlson,2008).Fisk (1974)suggests marketing is at least partly to blame for most of the world's environmental ills that often arise from consumption and over-consumption.Other authors suggest that marketing can assist in addressing environmental and other social problems (Sheth and Sisodia,2006).Unfortunately,much of the existing research fails to embed environmental issues as a core tenet of marketing thinking.Thus,marketing strategists often incorporate environmental considerations as an extra feature to be leveraged for competitive advantage (Ginsberg and Bloom,2004),rather than using the environment to shape strategy-improving market conditions and social welfare.Scholars de ﬁne green marketing using a range of terms (e.g.,green marketing,ecological marketing,environmental marketing,and even responsible marketing).These de ﬁnitions have a common focus on theexchange process (i.e.,choices and decisions),with a proviso that exchange considers and minimizes environmental harm (where all parities are assumed to be aware of all potential environmental harm).Whether or not these de ﬁnitions (and associated practices)seek to improve the quality of life of the world's citizens,or improve the natural environment,remains unclear.An effective de ﬁnition of green marketing,therefore,must integrate transformative change that creates value for individuals and society,as well as for the natural environment (i.e.,environmental restoration and improvement).Thus,transforma-tive green marketing is very different from a marketing perspective that focuses on not producing societal harm,as,at present,most marketers focus on meeting human needs rather than enhancing mankind's quality of life and improving the natural environment.Marketers and society rely on nature and natural resources;nature does not rely on humanity,even though society can negatively impact on it.Therefore,mankind (and,thus,marketing)and the natural environment are interdependent.While some might debate the extent of mankind's contribution to environmental problems,if the doomsayers are correct,failure to act in the medium term will result in the inability of the ecosystem to support present day consumption,potentially eliminating marketing as presently practiced (and possibly mankind).Therefore,it is surprising that the practice of marketing (and business strategy more generally)does not explicitly integrate and address environmental issues and how they impact society (Smart,2010).In the not-so-distant past,businesses were quick to respond to less signi ﬁcant marketing-related problems.For example,ﬁrms,consumers and governments reportedly spent hundreds of billions,if not trillions,of dollars dealing with theJournal of Business Research 64(2011)1311–1319⁎Tel.:+61392446968,+61392517083(International).E-mail address:Michael.Polonsky@.au.0148-2963/$–see front matter ©2011Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.01.016Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of Business Researchmillennium bug,or Y2K problem,as programmers feared that at 12.01AM on January12000,computers would incorrectly believe the year was1900which would cause systems to crash.The process of greening marketing seems to be viewed with signiﬁcantly less urgency on the part of most consumers,organizations and governments,even though the potential costs of inaction are much more serious and pervasive(Smart,2010;Varey,2010).Whether or not the marketing discipline(both academics and practitioners)truly understands and embraces the profound signiﬁcance of environmental issues remains unclear.A number of marketing academics call for a change in thinking about marketing,in which transformative green marketing would be included. For example,early in the discipline's history Kotler and Levy(1969) suggested that there needs to be a broadening of the marketing concept. More recently,others are questioning whether marketing needs to be reformed(Sheth and Sisodia,2006).In the consumer behaviorﬁeld, there is growing chorus of transformative consumer researchers(TCR) calling for marketing to make a positive social impact(Mick et al., forthcoming).The integration of environmental issues into marketing would extend the TCR view.For example,the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing has a forthcoming special issue focusing on TCR,and the Journal of Macromarketing recently published a special issue on sustainability,examining how marketing can assist in addressing the environmental ills faced today(Kilbourne,2010).Transformative green marketing extends this perspective incorporating environmental issues into core marketing activity,in the same way mankind is part of the natural system and not separated from the natural environment(Fisk, 1974;Smart,2010).2.The core problem:micronization of environmental issuesThe natural environment is a complex,all-encompassing system that integrates the atmosphere(air),geosphere(land),hydrosphere(water) and biosphere(all living species)(Neace,1995).Marketers understand the importance of business systems and use systems and network thinking extensively to address exchange issues,particularly in the business-to-business context(e.g.,Håkansson et al.,2009).Marketers, however,frequently ignore such broader system approaches to understand or integrate the natural environment into strategy formulation.The consideration of marketing's impact on the natural environment is often classiﬁed as macro-marketing,that is,how micro-marketing impacts society,society's inﬂuence on the broader macro-system and how systems interact(Fisk,1982).Unfortunately,academics and practitioners sometimes perceive a disconnection exists between macro-marketing and micro-marketing,which lies at the core of green marketing's inability to become transformational.The traditional micro-formation of marketing(Sheth et al.,1988)cannot easily capture environmental issues because classical micro-economics suggests that consumers(or individuals more generally)seek to maximize their own welfare(Russell and Russell,2010).Potentially,the welfare of society and the natural world is excluded unless they are embedded in individuals'values,that is,people integrate environmental issues in their decision-making because the environment is important to them. As will be described below,this perspective assumes that mankind controls their environment,which is clearly not the case.The fact that sustainability and environmental issues are generally macro-focused is at the core of the dilemma that transformational green marketing faces(van Dam and Apeldoorn,1996).How do marketers and society encourage micro-focused individuals and organizations to integrate broader macro issues and systems into their individual thinking?One might argue that this disconnection is one of the reasons why governments are forced to regulate activities to prevent distortions in the market from being exploited(Harris and Carman,1984).The lack of a macro-focus may also be why social marketers need to encourage consumers to change their behavior to create fewer negative personal impacts(Rothschild,1999),as short-term self-interest appears to outweigh the longer term beneﬁts.For example,the classic tragedy of the commons suggests that because no-one owns the shared communal space(i.e.,the commons)no individual has an incentive to protect the shared space.Thus,the aggregation of self-interested,individualist behavior destroys the value(i.e.,the shared space)for all(Libecap,2009).As a result,some regulation of individual behavior is needed so that the commons are available in perpetuity for all users.When considering environmental issues,the tragedy of the commons is a metaphor that can be translated to consumer behavior in markets,ﬁrms within countries,or even countries within regions, as in each case,the broader ecosystem is used by all but truly controlled by none.Are humans like the elephants in Africa?When unfettered by mankind,the elephants roamed the African plains with nature keeping their numbers in check.However,when they are artiﬁcially constrained on game reserves,culling is needed to ensure they do not eat themselves into starvation(van Aarde and Jackson, 2007).The barriers relating to transformational green marketing arise from this fundamental conﬂict between beneﬁts for the individual(person,ﬁrm,or nation)and beneﬁts for society,more broadly deﬁned as including the natural environment.The next section discusses how these economic actors'(i.e.,consumers,ﬁrms and governments)lack of a macro-focus lies at the heart of the green marketing dilemma.Then the article offers suggestions as to how marketers can possibly assist in using transformational green marketing to address the issue,and ends with some concluding remarks.3.Barriers associating with consumers,ﬁrms and governments3.1.Adopting transformative green marketingA network or stakeholder approach argues that within green marketing all economic actors are interconnected(Polonsky,1995), and the actors have the ability to facilitate or impede green marketing from becoming transformational.Marketers usually discuss the role of three main stakeholders–consumers,ﬁrms and governments–in enabling or regulating exchange processes(Fry and Polonsky,2004). The following three sub-sections seek to explain how existing(i.e., traditional)marketing perspectives inhibit the effective integration of the natural environment into marketing theory and processes,as well as identifying issues that need to be addressed for transformative green marketing to occur.3.2.ConsumersThe early green marketing research sought to better understand how to motivate consumers to behave in more responsible ways.Early authors initially placed an emphasis on motivating consumers to integrate environmental issues into their decision-making,for example, motivating people to recycle(Henion and Kinnear,1976).While macro-marketers suggested such changes in consumer orﬁrm behavior would lead to wider beneﬁts to society,micro-marketers focused on whether such environmental values could be leveraged to better target new segments of consumers(Ginsberg and Bloom,2004),thereby increasing loyalty(Shrum et al.,1995),reducing price sensitivity(D'Souza et al., 2007),or improving communication(Polonsky et al.,1997).Classical economic and consumer behavior theory suggests individuals make consumption decisions that maximize their own welfare.This,however,is done within a framework in which consumers usually think of themselves as the central actor in the exchange system. In such a view,the natural environment is a resource to facilitate this satisfaction(Varey,2010)rather than a stakeholder to whom consumers are responsible(Starik,1995).Such a human-centered1312M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319perspective(i.e.,anthropocentric)possibly arises from the religious foundations of Western society:…Be fruitful,and multiply,and replenish the earth,and subdue it: and have dominion over theﬁsh of the sea,and over the fowl of the air,and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.(Genesis1:28,italics added)Seeing nature as subservient to human needs inhibits consumers from taking a systems view,as man(and woman)is only one part of the natural system and,clearly,not the focal actor.As a result,leading authors such as Kilbourne and his numerous co-authors(e.g.,Kilbourne et al.,2002;Kilbourne and Carlson,2008)highlight that the core problem with consumption is the anthropocentric value system underlying the Western dominant social paradigm(DSP).This view suggests that micro-changes to consumption will be doomed to fail(or at least have a signiﬁcant uphill battle)if the anthropocentric view within the DSP is not changed(Kilbourne and Polonsky,2005).Even if environmental concern could be integrated as a cornerstone of the consumer psyche,the problem may still not be solved.Consumers will act in an environmentally-responsible fashion only if they believe such actions are in their best interest.Of course,some consumer segments do already seek to act in a way that considers their impact on the natural environment.For example,increasing numbers of consumers exist who“have freely chosen a frugal,anti-consumer life-style that features low resource use and environmental impact,i.e.,they are voluntary simpliﬁers”(McDonald et al.,2006,p.515).Such consumers believe that value accrues to them from behaving responsibly.However,why this realization has arisen in some consumers and not others is unclear.The degree to which consumers believe environmental issues are or will become problematic,is possibly related to the disagreement regarding the causes,responses and timeframes in which remedial action must be taken.In the case of the Y2K bug,a clear deadline for the potential disaster existed–12:01AM on1January2000,and the potential disaster was prominently discussed in the business and popular media(Tewksbury et al.,2004).For environmental issues,no ﬁxed deadlines exist and there is no media promotion(or even discussion)of the impending environmental Armageddon.In most cases,consumers believe environmental problems are somewhere in the future and,thus,are not something to worry about today.Even when consumers agree that environmental problems exist,there is no guarantee appropriate responses will occur.For example,the scientiﬁc community generally agrees that society will run out of key natural resources in the foreseeable future,such as oil.This concept has been referred to as Peak Oil and will occur when world resources of oil decline below the level needed to meet world demand(Gardi,2009).However, this has not resulted in wholesale changes in today's consumer behavior, and,in fact,dwindling oil reserves are not an issue that receives wide publicity in the press or policy debates.Consumers generally have difﬁculty with integrating future outcomes and consequences in their decision-making.For example, the fact that millions of people continue to take up smoking is surprising given the unequivocal evidence that smoking is bad for one's health,but consumers simply discount the future health consequences(Rindﬂeisch and Crockett,1999).Unfortunately for environmental marketing, researchers have found that consumers discount future environmental problems more so than other types of risk(Hendrickx and Nicolaij, 2004).Can marketers assist in making environmental problems more current and urgent in consumers'minds,thus stimulating action and providing real transformative solutions?The tragedy of the commons where all members of a community are interconnected is another issue impacting individual behavior,as consumers frequently see systems thinking(i.e.,connections amongst activities)as a barrier to behavior–How does my individual behavior impact on the wider natural system which is all encompassing?On the ﬂip-side,a problem occurs when individuals ask–How can my individual behavior make a difference?The perceived inability to make a difference in terms of environmental problems was an early impediment to a range of environmental behaviors,including increasing recycling behavior(Scholder-Ellen et al.,1991).While attempts can be made to change the way people think about environmental issues or to enable less environmentally-harmful behavior to occur,more success might be achieved using market mechanisms that increase the pressure for individual action(i.e.,change).For example,Linderhof et al.(2001)ﬁnd that when the cost of home-based waste removal is calculated on volume or weight,people reduce their waste and increase their recycling behavior.Thus,forcing increases in prices through regulation might bring about desired outcomes better than getting consumers to identify that waste is an environmental problem.While this may or may not result in an increase in underlying environmental awareness and concern,raising consumer costs may bring about the same environmental beneﬁt(i.e.,reduced waste).Finally,one of the core tenets of consumer marketing is that marketers frequently promote ownership as a way to achieve satisfaction,but increased consumption often results in environmental problems.The perceived need to consume is further exacerbated in some sectors where technological advances mean products are considered obsolete in18months or less(e.g.,in the computer and mobile phone sectors).Marketing assumes that value is created in buyer–seller exchanges,but wanting satisfaction and the ownership of goods are not necessarily the same.Consumers can meet their needs in a variety of ways(i.e.,alternatives exist)or even modify the wants that they have,for instance by practicing voluntary simplicity(Craig-Lees and Hill,2002). Therefore,consumers do not necessarily have to own the want-satisfying goods to extract want-satisfying value.Research even suggests that one's quality of life(as measured by happiness)and increased consumption can impede sustainable development(Zidansek,2007).The increased economic importance given to the service sector is an example of how wants can be met without ownership.Opportunities exist to expand this sector beyond renting homes,furniture or appliances,to renting all types of value creation.The potential hindrance is that,in some cases,goods have an inherent value that can appreciate over time in addition to satisfying wants(i.e.,some items may become ‘rare’and collectable,and thus have value outside want satisfaction). Other goods may continue to have,primarily,a functional value(e.g.,the newest plasma television)which is not necessarily maintained through ownership of the good.Consumers'preoccupation with goods rather than the underlying want-satisfaction means increased production is required to address consumers'desire to have ready access to want-satisfying goods that they may use infrequently(i.e.,a handyman might want to own all the tools he might ever need,rather than renting or collectively sharing those used infrequently).3.3.FirmsAt the most basic level,ﬁrms are collectives of individuals that,in many ways,suffer from the aggregation of individual problems at the corporate level.Taking a neoclassical economic perspective meansﬁrms have a responsibility to create value for the shareholders,although many argue that broader types of performance are also important(Hillman and Keim,2001).The core issue revolves around deﬁning the value of what is created.Marketing and management theorists propose that multi-dimensional measures of value can be developed,and this would include things such as the triple bottom line(TBL)that includes social and environmental value,in addition toﬁnancial value(Robins,2006).Unfortunately,aﬁrm'sﬁnancial performance is still the main focus. For example,research comparing the performance of traditional and responsibleﬁrms still uses traditionalﬁnancial measures,not multi-dimensional TBL-type measures(Johnson,2003).The focus,therefore,is on how to increase theﬁnancial bottom line,which explains why researchers are more interested in targeting green consumers and1313M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319extracting more value from them,than focusing solely on the societal impact of marketing.In the alternative view,green marketing becomes transformational and contributes to consumers,society and the environment.Unfortunately,proﬁt,sales and otherﬁnancial/marketing measures have no relevance to the environment.Mother Nature does not have a checkbook,ﬁnancial balance sheet or a demand for traditional goods and,thus,unfortunately is not represented on corporate management boards nor is nature considered in most corporate decisions.The question of how to deﬁne corporate value in a meaningful way that integratesﬁrms'environmental impact is less frequently discussed in research.However,some academic areas such as social accounting seek to quantify the social value ofﬁrms(Knirsch and Székely,2005). But,again,these alternatives often revert to dollar assessments that may not capture the importance of environmental issues.Other areas,such as research into stakeholder theory,have partly begun to address these multi-faceted measures as well(Hillman and Keim,2001),but they too often fall back ontoﬁnancial measures of performance(Berman et al., 1999).Greening can be seen to createﬁnancial value in a number of ways,and extensive research examines how reducing harm can cut costs,reduce risk and,thus,increase the bottom line(Porter and Reinhardt,2007).Such approaches still use human-focused metrics to try and assign value to the environment(or,in reality,the costs of not looking after the environment).Marketing,as a change agent in the wider economic system,is not usually the focus of corporate or consumer activities.However, marketing innovations are bringing about signiﬁcant cultural changes (good and bad).For example,birth control advances change the dynamic between males and females in society,and the Internet is changing how information is created and communicated.Thus, embracing transformative environmental marketing can serve as an organizational stimulus for innovation,thereby improving value more widely,including citizens'quality of life.Although some of the problems identiﬁed earlier,such as a lack of perceived urgency,or the fact that not all environmental costs are assigned to producers,mean corporations are not pressured to address their negative environmental impacts.Shocks to the economic system can clearly have an impact on businesses.Take,for example,the rapid innovations to increase the fuel efﬁciency of automobiles.The innovations have resulted in lighter automobiles;more efﬁcient engines,alternative types of engines and fuels,systems to capture the pollution created,and even the development of alternative modes of transportation.Thus,someﬁrms within the transportation sector have been quick to exploit aspects of the environmental debate,although changing corporate direction needs to be a long-term strategy(Menon and Menon,1997).Unfortunately, the most recent turmoil in the US car market suggests that USﬁrms failed to embrace the impending environmental changes.Even when manufacturers have acted,they have not sought to redeﬁne personal travel and the need to travel,but rather they still focus on the individual automobile to address travel options(Kadirov and Varey,2010).Of course,some would argue thatﬁrms are making incremental attempts to redeﬁne the need for cars through video conferencing that allows people to meet without travel,and purchasing goods and services on the Internet,requiring fewer shopping trips.Increased public transportation alternatives also mean fewer cars are needed.Corporate and industry innovations can be more proactive and bring about environmental improvements.For example,the US-based Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design referred to as LEED building certiﬁcation(US Green Building Council,2010)is designed to produce buildings that have smaller environmental footprints and lower operating costs(Muse and Plaut,2008).While still more expensive to build,as its adoption increases,economies of scale will mean that costs will drop,further increasing the beneﬁts.All these actions are positive steps,ﬁrms still appear to be more focused on innovation and change that reduce costs,while complying with regulation or creating market value.Firms tend to be less focused on the environmental issues because of an underlying lack of value placed on responsible behavior,although examples exist of where these values are espoused(Hillman and Keim,2001).Given that businesses want to stay in business,they are more driven by economic forces than are their consumers.Unfortunately,without well-deﬁned performance measures that incorporate non-ﬁnancial beneﬁts to the environment, businesses will be unlikely to redeﬁne their activities,as such action would not create measurable value(even using theﬂawedﬁnancial measures available).In aﬁrm's quest for proﬁts,a potential problem can arise regarding the extent to which new products deliver substantive additional value to consumers,after taking into consideration the environmental impact associated with production,use and consumption.Marketers have long been criticized for producing goods that have built-in obsolescence (Guiltinan,2009)or trivial differentiation.This problem has been exacerbated by the decline in innovation cycles and rapid advancements in technology(Guiltinan,2009).For example,Moore's law suggests that computer capacity doubles every18months(Schaller,1997).While continuous product change can deliver incremental value to consumers,the question is at what environmental cost?Areﬁrms seeking to generate value through churn(i.e.,new purchases)or adding signiﬁcant consumer value?If the latter,ﬁrms might look at how products can be designed so they can be upgraded rather than replaced.Upgradable products would,in fact,deliver additional consumer value,as consumers would be able to extract additional value from existing investments rather than purchasing extra value by buying new products.Of course, consumers would need to value upgradability rather than owning the newest product.Marketers also tend not to think about the environmental costs of replacing goods.For example,why don't all retailers of mobile phones or computers automatically incorporate trade-ins through which they can then facilitate recycling or,at the very least,provide a reverse logistics system where extraction of the value from waste products can more easily occur?Someﬁrms seeking to recycle components of their products have found them to be a highly valuable income stream that also reduces the environmental costs associated with producing remanufac-tured components(McConocha and Speh,1993).In some countries, governments have imposed requirements onﬁrms to take back unused goods or packaging from the consumers(Livingstone and Sparks,1994). However,ﬁrms seem not to have knowledge about the full life-cycle environmental impacts of their actions.In some instances(i.e.,reverse logistics)managing the life-cycle could generate income streams and,in this area,the lack of corporate systems thinking about value and environmental impacts is highlighted(i.e.,failing to recognize the interdependence of mankind,production,consumption,and the environ-mental system).Theﬁnal corporate issue revolves around the question of growth. Businesses want to expand their markets and proﬁtability,but can growth occur in an environmentally sustainable fashion(van Marrewijk,2003)? This comes back to the very nature of the Western economic system. Investors want a reasonable return on their investments and,because of the competition amongstﬁrms for assets,those that increase their return attract more resources,and expectations for further growth are increased. Unfortunately,a value concept that is based onﬁnancial returns and discounts the natural environment will see the environment as a resource to exploit rather than a partner in existence.Just as service-dominant logic has emerged as a new perspective(Vargo and Lusch,2004),a need exists for an environmental dominant logic in which corporate and environmental values are intertwined.Unless the environment is given value,either as a resource or a cost to be minimized,the environment will continue to be under-considered in corporate decision-making.The impending introduction of regulated carbon abetment schemes will see this potential loophole partlyﬁlled because the environment(or rather pollution of the environment)will have a cost that must be addressed byﬁrms.However,such costs will not necessarily reﬂect the true value of the environment.Carbon pricing will stimulate innovation to reduce this cost,although,if carbon is1314M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319。

【免费下载】外文翻译-中英

外文翻译1.1 Earthquake BackgroundEarthquake is a high risk natural disaster which costs injuries and casualties as well as the damages to the infrastructures. It has an ability to deform the earth surfaces thus causing destructions to buildings on it1.2 Earthquake PhenomenonEarthquake happens when there is an earth crust movement due to folding crust. When the earthquake occurs, the soil and crust move randomly to directions. Earthquake happens actually numerous times in a day but the earthquake that affects the most and has great magnitude is seldom to occur, nevertheless once in several years.According to the tectonic plate theory, the earth surface is divided into several rigid crusts. They move in such ways, colliding or apart from each other. When the crusts collide, one of them will subdue under one another and the sliding crusts will generate energy. This movement will take years and peoples on it will never aware of this activity and it actually takes only several centimeters in a year. Each time the couple crusts move and slip with each other, it increase and accumulate the energy in the substances around it like rocks. Finally the energy itself will exceed the rock strength, thus make the rocks to move or explode. The exploding rocks will later cause the earthquake means once the earthquake occurs, the forces are subsided.The earthquake magnitude is measured in Richter Scale. A great earthquake is categorized as an earthquake with magnitude of 5.0 and above which surely causes damage to structures.The point where the earthquake origins is called focus or hypocenter which determined by seismic assessment. Earthquake starts with a small shaking followed by a sudden increase of shaking intensity. The small shake is called foreshock, while the great shaking is called mainshock and the rest is called aftershock. A great earthquake usually not done with only one shake, the shakings will remain to happen but there will only the magnitude is decreasing. The starting is called mainshock but the rest is called aftershock.1.3 Earthquake WavesThe earthquake is a result of an elastic waves. There are 3 types of earthquake waves. Two of them are moving within the rock, while another one moving through earth surface. The P-wave is the fastest wave among the three. It is corresponded as a motion of push and pull and can travel through solid rock or water of the ocean.The S-wave is slower than the P-wave. It shears the rock sideways to the travel direction. It can not travel through the water ocean. While the third wave is the Surface Wave. Surface wave is divided into two types of minor waves. The first is the Love Wave while the second is Rayleigh Wave. It is similar to the S-wave but with no vertical movement. It moves in horizontal plane with an angle to he travel direction. While the Rayleigh Wave is a wave that travels in both horizontal and vertical direction.1.4 Effects of EarthquakeEarthquake can cause properties damage and casualties as well as earth deformations and damaging structures that get in its way. Earthquakes that occur below sea level and have large vertical displacements can give rise to tsunamis, either as a direct result of the deformation of the sea bed due to the earthquake or as a result of submarine landslides directly or indirectly triggered by the quake (Bolt, 1978).Earthquake force is acting like a pull and push action resulting the building to receive random excitation. The excitation will transfer force from the foundation to the tip of the building. The sway of the building increases as the height increases. The top section of the building will experience the most swinging force rather than the bottom part1.5 Problem StatementIn an earthquake event, the most affected things will be the civil structure and buildings. The lost will cost millions in monies as well as casualties. In Malaysia, there are no such things that had been done to overcome the unexpected disaster. In the current building practice, no earthquake load factor taken into account into the design consideration. Earthquake impact, this study is imperative as a precaution and to prove how important an earthquake design code implemented in Malaysia’s building and civil structure practices.1.6 ObjectivesThe objectives of this study are:1. To study the design capacity of the bridge.2. To determine the bridge responses (deformation, shear and moment) under various intensity of earthquake.3. To identify the Damage Index of the bridge.4. To identify the most critical part of the bridge while transmitting earthquake loading.5. To model the bridge structure as close as possible to its actual state so that its behavior can be studied.6. To identify the safer structural design practice to be implemented in bridge structure, in the future.2.1 AnalysisThe evolution of seismic analyses in earthquake engineering has followed closely the developments in dynamic structural analysis as a whole. Numerous kind of research done by research team, academic institutes and distinguished researchers regarding to the earthquake induced structure. All the studies are concern toward finding the best solution to reduce the impact and damage to the structure.Malaysia is a region which free from the seismic activity and has been regarded as a stable area. But there are numbers of major faults have been recognized in thePeninsular.2.2 Concrete FailureConcrete failure always associated with the air and moisture factor. They can lead the concrete to deteriorate in problems like:i.Cracksii.Spalling and scaling of concrete due to expansion of steel rebar which transmits tension to concrete.iii.Abrasion of the steel rebar caused by concrete inadequacies surrounding the section and exposureto crack attack.iv.Inadequate concrete strength.2.3Natural Disaster ProblemThe unexpected natural disaster can cause the bridge structure to fail and collapse. The disaster can lead to problems like below (Kirillov et al., 1962):i.Settling of the soils surround the structure.ii.Slope failure.teral crack on superstructure’s surface.iv.Cracks of retaining wall and settlement of the support.Numerous actions can be taken to overcome this problem. There are four actions to be considered according to Parry, 1976. Those are:e more and bigger bolts to carry the load.ii.Increase the retaining wall strength.iii.Emplace shear or concrete blocks between the girder sections.iv.Increase concrete strength which located in the end of the bridge span.2.4 Analysis stepsThere are many techniques used in structural dynamic analysis. One of the essential parts to be focused in is the analysis and the design of the structure to withstand the ground acceleration from the earthquake.Non-linear analysis is used in this study. IDARC 2D is chosen as the non-linear dynamic program to be used to analyze dynamic characteristic of the structure when it failed. While the SAP2000 will analyze the bridge by Response Spectrum analysis, comparing its shear and moment under earthquake loading with the actual design capacity.In this study, the inelastic analysis is considering a bridge where an identified box girder bridge will be accounted and analyze with increasing intensity seismic accelerations, to the extent when the bridglastic characteristice shows the ine.2.5 Time History AnalysisThe Time History analysis will be carried out by the IDARC program analysis. Time History is a set of graphical data that shows the intensity of the earthquake and contains the acceleration, g of the earthquake event to the period of the event.2.6 IDARC 2D – A Program for Inelastic Structural Analysis.Developed at the State University of New York at Buffalo, IDARC was first introduced inservice for the traffic until now。

外文文献怎么翻译

外文文献的翻译方法和技巧在科学研究领域，阅读和理解外文文献是非常重要的，因为这些文献包含了世界各地研究者的最新成果和观点。

然而，由于语言障碍，许多人可能觉得翻译外文文献是一项困难的任务。

本文将介绍一些有效的翻译方法和技巧，帮助读者更好地理解和翻译外文文献。

选择合适的翻译工具在翻译外文文献时，选择合适的工具是非常重要的。

一些常见的翻译工具包括在线翻译网站和翻译App。

这些工具可以帮助读者快速翻译文献，但需要注意的是，这些工具可能存在一定的翻译误差，因此在使用时要注意核对翻译结果。

保持原文的风格和语气在翻译外文文献时，要尽可能保持原文的风格和语气。

这样可以更好地传达原作者的意图和思想。

在翻译过程中，读者可以使用词典等工具帮助理解原文中的专业术语和文化背景，以确保翻译的准确性和通顺性。

注意语法和语法结构另一个翻译外文文献的重要方面是注意语法和语法结构。

外文文献往往使用复杂的句子结构和语法规则，因此在翻译时要保持句子的逻辑和结构。

正确理解原文中的句子结构和语法规则，可以帮助读者更好地翻译文献并消除歧义。

查找背景知识和参考资料翻译外文文献时，有时可能会遇到一些专业术语和概念，读者不熟悉。

在这种情况下，建议读者查找相关背景知识和参考资料，帮助理解原文中的内容。

这样不仅可以提高翻译的准确性，还可以扩展读者的知识面。

结语总的来说，翻译外文文献是一项需要一定技巧和耐心的工作。

通过选择合适的翻译工具、保持原文的风格和语气、注意语法和语法结构、查找背景知识和参考资料，读者可以更好地理解和翻译外文文献。

希望本文介绍的方法和技巧对读者有所帮助。

毕业论文外文翻译要求

毕业论文外文翻译要求
外国文献翻译是撰写毕业论文的重要环节之一，下面是一份要求700字的毕业论文外文翻译要求：
1. 翻译时间: 需在规定时间内完成翻译任务，以确保毕业论文
后续工作的顺利进行。

2. 原文准确性: 翻译必须准确无误，不得对原文进行任何删节、增补或变动。

3. 语言流畅度: 翻译应当具有良好的语言流畅度，不得过于生
硬或呆板。

4. 专业术语准确性: 翻译时要确保专业术语的准确性，避免词
义的混淆。

5. 语法错误及标点符号: 翻译应符合英文的语法规范，避免语
法错误和标点符号的错误使用。

6. 翻译风格: 翻译应当符合学术论文的要求，措辞恰当，语气
客观中立。

7. 格式要求: 翻译部分应与论文正文的格式一致，包括字体、
字号、行间距等。

8. 校对: 完成翻译后，需要进行一次仔细的校对工作，确保翻
译的正确性。

9. 原文附录: 翻译部分要同时附上原文，以便审查人员对翻译的准确性进行核对。

10. 翻译文档: 翻译文档要以电子文档的形式提交，确保方便审查人员查看。

以上要求旨在保证翻译的质量和准确性，对于撰写毕业论文非常重要。

翻译过程中，建议使用专业的翻译工具，如翻译记忆软件、专业词典等，以提高翻译的效率和准确性。

同时，积极与导师和专业领域的人进行交流和讨论，以解决翻译中的问题和困惑。

外文翻译原文

Stability of hybrid system limit cycles: application to the compass gait biped RobotIan A. Hiskens'Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana IL 61801 USAAbstractLimit cycles are common in hybrid systems. However the non-smooth dynamics of such systems makes stability analysis difficult. This paper uses recent extensions of trajectory sensitivity analysis to obtain the characteristic multipliers of non-smooth limit cycles. The stability of a limit cycle is determined by its characteristic multipliers. The concepts are illustrated using a compass gait biped robot example.1 IntroductionHybrid system are characterized by interactions between continuous (smooth) dynamics and discrete events. Such systems are common across a diverse range of application areas. Examples include power systems [l], robotics [2, 3], manufacturing [4] and air-traffic control [5]. In fact, any system where saturation limits are routinely encountered can be thought of as a hybrid system. The limits introduce discrete events which (often) have a significant influence on overall behaviour.Many hybrid systems exhibit periodic behaviour. Discrete events, such as saturation limits, can act to trap the evolving system state within a constrained region of state space. Therefore even when the underlying continuous dynamics are unstable, discrete events may induce a stable limit set. Limit cycles (periodic behaviour) are often created in this way. Other systems, such as robot motion, are naturally periodic.Limit cycles can be stable (attracting), unstable (repelling) or non-stable (saddle). The stability of periodic behaviour is determined by characteristic (or Floquet) multipliers. A periodic solution corresponds to a fixed point of a Poincare map. Stability of the periodic solution is equivalent to stability of the fixed point. The characteristic multipliers are the eigenvalues of the Poincare map linearized about the fixed point. Section 4 reviews the connection between this linearized map and trajectory sensitivities.Poincare maps have been used to analyse the stability of limit cycles in various forms of hybrid systems. However calculation of the underlying trajectory sensitivities has relied upon particular system structures, see for example [7, 8], or numerical differencing, for example [6]. This paper uses a recent generalization of trajectory sensitivity analysis [9] to efficiently detemine the stability of limit cycles in hybrid systems.A hybrid system model is given in Section 2. Section 3 develops the associated variational equations. This is followed in Section 4 by a review of stability analysis of limit cycles. Conclusions and extensions are presented in Section 5.2 ModelDeterministic hybrid systems can be represented by a model that is adapted from a differential-algebraic (DAE) structure. Events are incorporated via impulsive action and switching of algebraic equations, giving the Impulsive Switched (DAIS) modelwheren x R ∈ are dynamic states and my R ∈ are algebraic states;(.)δ is the Dirac delta;(.)u is the unit-step function;,:n mnj f h RR +→；(0)(),:i n mng gR R ±+→; some elements of each(.)gwill usually be identicallyzero, but no elements of the composite g should be identically zero; the()i g± aredefined with the same form as g in (2), resulting in a recursive structure for g;,dey yare selected elements of y that trigger algebraic switching and state reset(impulsive) events respectively;dyandeymay share common elements.The impulse and unit-step terms of the DAIS model can be expressed in alternative forms:Each impulse term of the summation in (1) can be expressed in the state reset formwhere the notation x+denotes the value of x just after the reset event, whilstx-andy-refer to the values of x and y just prior to the event.The contribution of each()i g± in (2) can be expressed aswith (2) becomingThis form is often more intuitive than (2).It can be convenient to establish the partitionswherex -are the continuous dynamic states, for example generator angles, velocities andfluxes;z are discrete dynamic states, such as transformer tap positions and protection relay logic states;λ are parameters such as generator reactances, controller gains and switching times. The partitioning of the differential equations f ensures that away from events,x -evolves according to .(,)x y f x --=, whilst z and λ remain constant. Similarly,the partitioning of the reset equationsjhensures thatx -and λ remain constantat reset events, but the dynamic states z are reset to new values given by(,)jh y x z--+=-. The model can capture complex behaviour, from hysteresis and non-windup limits through to rule-based systems [l]. A more extensive presentation of this model is given in [9].Away from events, system dynamics evolve smoothly according to the familiardifferential-algebraic modelwhere g is composed of(0)gtogether with appropriate choices of()i g- or()i g+ ,depending on the signs of the corresponding elements of yd. At switching events (2),some component equations of g change. To satisfy the new g = 0 equation, algebraic variables y may undergo a step change. Reset events (3) force a discrete change in elements of x. Algebraic variables may also step at a reset event to ensure g= 0 is satisfied with the altered values of x. The flows of and y are defined respectively aswhere x(t) and y(t) satisfy (l),(2), along with initial conditions,3 'Ikajectory SensitivitiesSensitivity of the flowsxφandyφto initial conditionsxare obtained bylinearizing (8),(9) about the nominal trajectory,The time-varying partial derivative matrices given in (12),(13) are known as trajectory sensitiuities, and can be expressed in the alternative formsThe formxx ,xy provides clearer insights into the development of thevariational equations describing the evolution of the sensitivities. The alternative form 0(,)x t x φ, 0(,)yt x φ highlights the connection between the sensitivities and the associated flows. It is shown in Section 4 that these sensitivities underlie the linearization of the Poincare map, and so play a major role in determining the stability of periodic solutions.Away from events, where system dynamics evolve smoothly, trajectory sensitivities 0xx andxy are obtained by differentiating (6),(7) withrespect to 0x.This giveswhere/xf x f≡∂∂, and likewise for the other Jacobian matrices. Note that,,,xyxyf fg gare evaluated along the trajectory, and hence are time varyingmatrices. It is shown in 19, 101 that the numerical solution of this(potentially high order) DAE system can be obtained as a by-product of numerically integrating the original DAE system (6),(7). The extra computational cost is minimal. Initial conditions forxx are obtained from (10) aswhere I is the identity matrix. Initial conditions for 0zy follow directly from(17),Equations (16),(17) describe the evolution of the sensitivitiesxx andxybetween events. However at an event, the sensitivities are generally discontinuous. It is necessary to calculate jump conditions describing the step change inxx andxy . For clarity, consider a single switching/reset event, so the model (1),(2) reduces(effectively) to the formLet （(),()x y ττ） be the point where the trajectory encounters the triggering hypersurface s(x,y) = 0, i.e., the point where an event is initiated. This point is called the junction point and r is the junction time. It is assumed the encounter is transversal.Just prior to event triggering, at time τ-, we haveSimilarly,,y x++are defined for time τ+, just after the event has occurred. It isshown in [9] that the jump conditions for the sensitivitiesxx are given byThe assumption that the trajectory and triggering hypersurface meet transversally ensures a non-zero denominator for 0x τ The sensitivitiesxy . immediatelyafter the event are given byFollowing the event, i.e., for t τ+>, calculation of the sensitivities proceeds according to (16),(17) until the next event is encountered. The jump conditions provide the initial conditions for the post-event calculations.4 Limit Cycle AnalysisStability of limit cycles can be determined using Poincare maps [11, 12]. This section provides a brief review of these concepts, and establishes the connection with trajectory sensitivities.A Poincark map effectively samples the flow of a periodic system once every period. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1. If the limit cycle is stable, oscillations approach the limit cycle over time. The samples provided by the corresponding Poincare map approach a fixed point. A non-stable limit cycle results in divergent oscillations. For such a case the samples of the Poincare map diverge.To define a Poincare map, consider the limit cycle Γshown in Figure 1. Let ∑ be a hyperplane transversal to Γ at*x. The trajectory emanating from*xwill again encounter ∑ at*xafter T seconds, where T is the minimum period of the limit cycle. Due to the continuity of the flowxφwith respect to initial conditions, trajectories starting on ∑ in a neighbourhood of*x. will, in approximately T seconds, intersect ∑ in the vicinity of*x. Hencexφand ∑define a mappingwhere()kT x ττ≈ is the time taken for the trajectory to return to ∑. Complete details can hefound in [11,12]. Stability of the Paincare map (22) is determined by linearizing P at the fixed point*x, i.e.,From the definition of P(z) given by (22), it follows that DP(*x) is closely related to thetrajectory sensitivities***(,)(,)xxT T x x xφφ∂≡∂. In fact, it is shown in [11] thatwhereσ is a vector normal to ∑.The matrix*(,)xT x φis exactly the trajectory sensitivity matrix after one period of the limitcycle, i.e., starting from*xand returning to*x. This matrix is called the Monodromymatrix .It is shown in [11] that for an autonomous system, one eigenvalue of *(,)xT x φ isalways 1, and the corresponding eigenvector lies along **(,)f y x The remaining eigenvalues*(,)xT x φof coincide with the eigenvalues of DP(*x ), and are known as the characteristicmultipliers mi of the periodic solution. The characteristic multipliers are independent of the choice of cross-section ∑ . Therefore, for hybrid systems, it is often convenient to choose ∑ as a triggering hypersurface corresponding to a switching or reset event that occurs along the periodic solution.Because the characteristic multipliers mi are the eigenvalues of the linear map DP(x*), they determine the stability of the Poincarb map P(kx), and hence the stability of the periodic solution.Three cases are of importance: 1. Alli m lie within the unit circle, i.e., 1im<,i ∀.The map is stable, so the periodicsolution is stable. 2. Allim lie outside the unit circle. The periodic solution is unstable.3. Someim lie outside the unit circle. The periodic solution is non-stable.Interestingly, there exists a particular cross-section*∑, such thatwhere *ς∈∑.This cross-section*∑is the hyperplane spanned by the n - 1 eigenvectors of*(,)xT x φthat are not aligned with **(,)f y x . Therefore the vector *σthat is normal to*∑ is the left eigenvector of *(,)xT x φ corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. The hyperplane*∑is invariant under*(,)xT x φ, i.e., **(,)f y x maps vectors *ς∈∑back into*∑.5 ConclusionsHybrid systems frequently exhibit periodic behaviour. However the non-smooth nature of such systems complicates stability analysis. Those complications have been addressed in this paper throughapplication of a generalization of trajectory sensitivity analysis. Deterministic hybrid systems can be represented by a set ofdifferential-algebraic equations, modified to incorporate impulse (state reset) action and constraint switching. The associated variational equations establish jump conditions that describe the evolution of sensitivities through events. These equations provide insights into expansion/contraction effects at events. This is a focus of future research.Standard Poincar6 map results extend naturally to hybrid systems. The Monodromy matrix is obtained by evaluating trajectory sensitivities over one period of the (possibly non-smooth) cyclical behaviour. One eigenvalue of this matrix is always unity. The remaining eigenvalues are the characteristic multipliers of the periodic solution. Stability is ensured if all multipliers lieReferences[l] LA. Hiskens and M.A. Pai, “Hybrid systems view of power system modelling,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Geneva, Switzerland, May 2000.[2] M.H. Raibert, Legged Robots That Balance, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1986.[3] A. Goswami, B. Thuilot, and B. Espiau, “A study of the passive gait of a compass-like biped ro bot: symmetry and chaos,’’ International Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 17, no. 15, 1998.[4] S. Pettersson, “Analysis and design of hybrid systems,” Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Signals and Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden, 1999.[5] C. Tomlin, G. Pappas, and S. Sastry, “Conflict resolution for air traffic management:A study in multiagent hybrid systems,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 509-521, April 1998.[6] A. Goswami, B. Espiau, and A. Keramane, “Limit cycles in a passive compass gait biped and passivity-mimicking contr ol laws,” Journal of Au tonomous Robots, vol. 4, no. 3, 1997. 171 B.K.H. Wong, H.S.H. Chung, and S.T.S. Lee, ‘Computation of the cycle state-variable sensitivity matrix of PWM DC/DC converters and its applica tion,” IEEE Transactions on Circuit s and Systems I, vol. 47, no. 10, pp. 1542-1548, October 2000.[8] M. Rubensson, B. Lennartsson, and S. Petters son, “Convergence to limit cycles in hybrid systems - an example,” in Prepri nts of 8th International Federation of Automatic Control Symposium on Large Scale Systems: Theo y d Applications, Rio Patras, Greece, 1998, pp. 704-709.[9] I.A. Hiskens and M.A. Pai, “Trajectory sensitivity analysis of hyhrid systems,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 204-220, February 2000.[10]D. Chaniotis, M.A. Pai, and LA. Hiskens, “Sen sitivity analysis of differential-algebraic systems using the GMRES method - Ap plication to power systems,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Sydney, Australia, May 2001.[11]T.S Parker and L.O. Chua, Practical Numerical Algorithms for Chaotic Systems, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1989.[12]R. Seydel, Practical Bifurcation and Stability Analysis, Springer-Verlag. New York, 2nd edition, 1994.。

外文翻译模板

外文翻译模板在进行外文翻译时，我们需要注意一些重要的事项，以确保翻译质量和准确性。

以下是一些外文翻译模板，供大家参考和使用。

1. 翻译目的。

在进行外文翻译之前，我们需要明确翻译的目的。

是为了商务沟通，学术交流，还是其他用途？不同的翻译目的可能需要采用不同的翻译风格和用词选择。

2. 原文阅读。

在进行翻译之前，我们需要对原文进行充分的阅读和理解。

只有对原文有深入的理解，才能进行准确的翻译。

在阅读原文时，可以标记重要的词语和句子，以便后续的翻译工作。

3. 语言风格。

在进行外文翻译时，我们需要根据翻译的目的和受众选择合适的语言风格。

比如，商务文件的翻译可能需要正式的语言风格，而文学作品的翻译可能需要更具有文学感的语言风格。

4. 词语选择。

在翻译过程中，我们需要注意选择准确的词语。

有些词语在不同的语境中可能有不同的意思，我们需要根据上下文选择合适的译词，以确保翻译的准确性和流畅性。

5. 句子结构。

在翻译时，我们需要注意句子结构的调整。

有些语言的句子结构和语序可能与中文不同，我们需要根据中文的表达习惯调整句子结构，以使翻译更符合中文的表达习惯。

6. 校对修改。

在完成翻译之后，我们需要进行校对和修改工作。

这包括检查译文的准确性、流畅性和语言风格是否符合要求。

如果有条件，最好能请其他人进行审校，以确保翻译质量。

7. 文化差异。

在进行外文翻译时，我们需要注意文化差异带来的影响。

有些表达在不同的文化背景中可能有不同的含义，我们需要根据具体情况进行恰当的调整。

总结。

外文翻译是一项复杂的工作，需要我们对原文有深入的理解和准确的把握。

希望以上的外文翻译模板能够帮助大家更好地进行翻译工作，提高翻译质量和效率。

经典外文翻译两篇,中英对照

外文原文 1Building Materials Selection and SpecificationFae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, TurkeyAbstract: The limitations in the selection of the building materials and to the sustainability of any building construction materials that can be used are presented. The practices and techniques that can be used in reducing and minimizing the environmental impacts of building are discussed. Recommendations of using secondary and recycled materials in the construction of buildings are given. Framework for methods of assessment of the sustainability in building construction for environmental performance is presented.Key Words: Limitations, sustainability, environmental impacts, framework, climate.1. IntroductionThere is an apparently unbounded range of possibilities for the selection of building materials for the construction of structures of almost any shape or stature. Its quality will affect the structure function and long life, and requirements may differ with climate, soil, site size, and with the experience and knowledge of the designer. The factors that have the most outstanding solutions are impermeability, control of heat, air, and water flow, and the stability of the structure [1-3].Raw materials extraction, manufacturing processes, and the transportation of the materials to the project site have a multitude of impacts on the environment. These include the disruption of habitats and ecological systems, use of water, and, through energy use, the emissions of air pollutants and climate change gases. Building materials also have major impacts on the building occupants manufacture, construction of buildings and the use of building materials make a significant environmental impact internally, locally and globally. But it is not easy to deliver information to make adequate inclusion decisions considering the whole life cycle of a building. Decisions on sustainable building integrate a number of strategies during the design, construction and operation of building projects. Selection of sustainable building materials represents an important strategy in the design of a building.2.SustainabilityIn recent years, the concept of sustainability has been the subject of much disputation by academics and professionals alike. In 1987, the World Conference on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).Sustainability must address ecological impacts, regardless of conflicting interpretations of the WCED definition.A good sustainable product must give as much satisfaction as possible for the user. If not, it will be unsuccessful on the market and an economic failure.It is also important to inform people as to what basis a certain product is considered to be sustainable or not and why they should buy it [4- 5].When developing a new product, it is illustrative to move between the three corners Ecology, Equity and Economy in order to obtain a suitable balance so that each category can be fulfilled in the best way.·Ecology (environmental protection).·Equity (social equity).·Economy (economic growth).2.1 Materials Selection and SustainabilityAmong the notable technological developments of the 20th century has been the development of tens of thousands of new materials for use in construction and engineering. The construction industry has also grown to the point where it is a very large consumer of energy and materials. Concern for the environment and the impact of human activity on the Earth's ecological systems has now become clear sighted.We are faced with the problems of material selection and the environmental consequences of their use. Environmentalists have proposed various methods for assessing the impact of materials and energy use, these include ecological foot printing, ecological rucksacks, embodied energy and carbon dioxide values, and so on. Engineers have put forward rational selection methods for the choice of materials. These techniques will be reviewed and explored in an attempt to provide an environmentally-aware, materials selection method- logy for use in construction.Strictly, the term sustainable means that something is capable of being sustained not for an hour, or a day, or a week, month or year, but indefinitely.The implication is that if some process which uses materials and energy is described as sustainable, then the materials and energy which are consumed arecapable of being replaced by natural or other processes as fast as they are consumed. In many cases materials and energy appear to be consumed at a faster rate than they are being replaced. However, to make a judgment, we would need to know what the respective supply and consumption rates are in other words we need some quantitative or numerical index to help us [2].2.2 Environmental CriteriaSince construction uses such large quantities of materials, it has a major impact on the environment. In order to assess and evaluate such impact, a number of criteria or indices have been devised by economists, engineers and environmentalists, and the more important of these are the following [2].2.2.1 Embodied EnergyThis is quite simply the amount of energy consumed in manufacturing a unit quantity of a material, and it is usually expressed in kJ/kg. Its value is determined by the efficiency of the manufacturing plant. Values range from 275 GJ/tonne for aluminum (a high value) to 0.1 GJ/tonne for gravel aggregates (a low value) [2].2.2.2 Embodied Carbon DioxideEmbodied C02 is similar to embodied energy. It is the weight of C02 emitted during manufacture of unit weight of the material, and is usually expressed as kg of C02 per ton.Again, the value will depend upon the efficiency of the manufacturing plant [2].2.2.3 Ecological RucksackThe ecological rucksack concept was devised as a way of assessing material efficiency by F. Schmidt一Bleek [6]. He recognized that many tonnes of raw material could be extracted and processed to make just one kilogram of material. For example, the environmental rucksack for the precious metal platinum is 250,000:1.2.3 Rational Selection MethodThere are various approaches to the problem of selecting materials from the huge numbers now available. Designers can have recourse to materials property charts and data books. Alternatively, they can talk to their colleagues, hoping that by widening the knowledge circle, they will not omit a significant group of materials. Another strategy is simply to specify the same or a similar material to those used in previous, similar designs. All these are valid approaches, but they may result in the specification of a less than ideal material and overall, a less than optimal solution to the problem [3-5].The basis of the rational selection methods devised to date is a recognition that the performance of a component, artifact or structure is limited by the properties of the materials from which it is made. It will be rare for the performance of the item to depend solely on one material property; in nearly all cases, it is a combination of properties, which is important. To give an example, in lightweight design, strength to weight ratio of, and stiffness to weight ratio E/pwill be important. Ref. [3] has put forward the idea of plotting material properties against each other to produce material property maps. On these maps, each class of material occupies a field in material property space, and sub-fields map the space occupied by individual materials.These materials property charts are very information-rich they carry a large amount of information in a compact but accessible form. Interestingly, they reveal correlations between material properties, which can help in checking and estimating data, and they can also be used in performance optimization, in a manner such as that set out as follow.If we consider the complete range of materials, it immediately becomes apparent that for each property of an engineering material there is a characteristic range of values, and this range can be very large. For example, consider stiffness (Young's Modulus E). Materials range from jelly (very low stiffness) up to diamond (very high stiffness). The properties can span five decades (orders of magnitude),A number of conclusions can be drawn, including:(1) A rational selection method such the one put forward by Ashby is capable of incorporating environmental parameters such as embodied energy and C02 or the environmental rucksack concepts, thereby making possible rational selections based on environmental considerations.(2) This method is not as simple to use as the environmental preference method or the environmental profiles method. However, this rational method could be used to generate data for the environmental profiles and preference methods.(3) The construction industry needs to take steps to better integrate itself into the materials cycle. The quantity of demolition waste needs to be reduced, and more of it should be recycled. To this end, the building designers need to keep full records of materials of construction, and buildings need to be designed for easy dismantling at the end of their useful lives.2. 4 Ashby's Materials Selection MethodologyMaterials selection charts一Property interaction (not always causal)一First order optimization●Performance indices●Multiple constrains●Multiple design goals●Shape and material interaction一“Enhanced" performance indicesProcess selection [3, 4].3. Foundations and Construction ComponentIn any consideration of which building materials and alternatives can feasibly be integrated into the foundations of a large-scale development there are several limitations that must be considered.In terms of the actual materials that may be used, there are three main limitations. First, because of the large scale and heavy loads that the foundations must support, strength is imperative. Any materials must be consistently strong and able to effectively distribute the weight of the structure. The second major limitation is climate. In areas with sub-zero winter conditions, frost heave is a major consideration. For this reason, foundations must be deep enough to support the structure despite any changes in near-surface volume; shallow foundations will be insufficient unless certain innovative steps are taken. The limitation of climate also influences any decision on insulating foundations. Finally, there is the consideration of cost. This consideration is reliant on material availability, cost per unit, and building techniques and associated labor. For these reasons, the only materials that can feasibly be used are concrete and steel. Therefore, the alternatives for minimizing impact lie more in the methods of construction and any realistic structural changes that can be made.The three main foundation components of concrete, steel, and insulation will be examined as the only reasonable materials for the construction of a building with limitations such as the foundations [1].3.1 ConcreteIt is the fundamental component of the foundation construction, receiving the building loads through walls or posts and distributes them down and outwards through the footings. Concrete and cement have ecological advantages which include durability, long life, heat storage capability, and (in general) chemical inertness [8].The life cycle concerns of concrete are as follows. First, there is land and habitat loss from mining activities. Furthermore, the quality of both air and water quality suffer from the acquisition, transportation, and manufacture. Carbon dioxide emissions are also a negative environmental impact accrued through the production and use of concrete. Similarly, dust and particulate are emitted at most stages of the concrete life-cycle. $oth carbon dioxide and particulate matter have negative impacts on air quality [1]. Water pollution is also another concern associated with the production of concrete at the production phase. Fly ash is by-product of the energy production from coal-fired plants and increasing its proportion in cement is environmentally beneficial in two ways. First, it helps in reducing the amount of solid waste which requires disposal. As well, fly ash in the cement mixture reduced the overall energy use by changing the consistency of the concrete. Fly ash, increases concrete strength, improves sulfate foundation, decreases permeability, reduced the water ratio required, and improves the pump ability and workability of the concrete [9]. Now in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency requires that all buildings that receive federa funding contain fly ash and most concrete producer: have access to this industrial waste [9].There are alternative methods of both making concrete and building foundations with this concrete that have environmental benefits, no matter the structure scale or climate. These include Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, the increased integration of fly ash into the cement mixture, and the use of pre-cast foundation systems to reduce resource use. Through consideration and possible integration of these alternatives, impacts could potentially be reduced.3.2 SteelAs wood resources are becoming limited, steel is increasingly popular with builders. In the case of a large-scale building, steel reinforcement is basically a necessity for overall strength and weight distribution.The initial life cycle impacts of steel use are similar to those of concrete. These include land and habitat loss from mining activities, and air and water quality degradation from materials acquisition and manufacture [1]. However, the largest proportion of steel used nowadays contains a percentage of recycled materials. In terms of improving environmental conditions by reducing impacts, this is the only real recommendation for the use of steel in building foundations; to purchase recycled steel products. Not only would this reduce industrial and commercial solid waste,such a decision would also reward the manufacturers of such products.3. 3 InsulationNew and innovative pre-cast building foundations are becoming increasingly available and feasible for implementation. These new systems can reduce the overall raw material use, as well as conserve energy through the creation of an efficient building envelope. A further used of this rigid insulation as a skirt around the building foundations helps to eliminate any potential frost problems, improve drainage, and help further reduce heat loss. A polyethylene air and water vapor barrier is applied above the insulating layer, as is a three to four inch layer of sand. These shallow foundation systems have excellent insulating properties, decreased use of raw materials for concrete, and comparatively low demands for labor. However, the use of rigid insulation is increased. Also, in soils where frost and drainage is a consideration additional piles in the centre of the foundation may be required to prevent movement. This increases the relative land disturbance, although it remains still much less than that of deep foundation systems. Shallow foundations are structurally sound and are becoming increasingly common in colder climates. There are strength considerations associated with these new techniques which must be addressed by someone with the technical ability to do so, before they can be feasibly recommended for the building of the new residence.As discussed above, there are limitations to the sustainability of any foundation construction materials used. In other words, there are environmental impacts associated with all types of foundations. For these reasons, a primary recommendation is the use of secondary materials (fly ash and recycled steel) in the construction of foundations.4. FrameworkThe material components of the building envelope, that is, the foundation, wall construction, insulation and roof, have been analyzed within a framework of primarily qualitative criteria that aim to evaluate the sustainability of alternate materials relative to the materials cited in the current foundation design. This analytical process has enabled the identification of several construction materials that can be feasibly integrated into current design and construction standards of the building envelope.The tools and strategies described below are useful in analyzing the relative benefits of different materials[9-14].Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA is a comprehensive analysis that takes intoconsideration all aspects of a material over its entire lifetime: raw materials extraction; manufacturing and processing; transport; use; and post-use recycling, reuse, or disposal. This approach enables a true "apples to apples" comparison between materials.The BEES system (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology is the most widely used methodology. BEES provides materials with a score that can be compared to other similar products. At this time, however, a fairly limited number of materials have completed the BEES analysis.Life-Cycle Costing. Life-Cycle Costing is an analysis of the short- and long-term costs associated with a material, from purchase to ultimate recycling or disposal. This includes frequency of replacement, maintenance costs, and costs that are avoided through use of the material (or system). LCC is useful in looking beyond a comparison based solely on first costs. Similar to LCA, this type of analysis is not available for all materials, but a back-of-the-envelope calculation is usually fairly easy to work up.Certification. Many conventional building products are approved or certified by independent third party or government groups. The Forest Stewardship Council certifies the certifiers (Smart Wood and SCS) that assess whether forestry companies are using sustainable management practices to harvest wood. The Carpet and Rug Institute provides a Green Label for carpets that meet certain low-VOC criteria. Green Guard certifies products that meet strict indoor air quality criteria. The Department of Energy's Energy Star label identifies equipment and appliances that meet or exceed standards for energy efficiency. Scientific Certification Systems and Green Seal certify recycled-content claims and other green product claims made by manufacturers.5. ConclusionOver-consumption, resource utilization, pollution and over-population are examples of the perhaps most basic problems for the environment in the future. A more sustainable future can be achieved by producing more sustainable products causing less environmental impact. Materials and design are and will always be very important areas when developing more sustainable products.The Life Cycle Assessment concept might be the most effective way of determining the environmental impacts for all product stages from extract of material to the product disposal stage. A price must be set for restoration on everyenvironmental impact. Information can be received from official authorities pertaining to the environment in different countries. Renewable and easy recyclable materials are preferably used together with a design for easy recycling and repair of the products. Minimization of the energy connected to the product is also important. Full sustainability can never be achieved for products according to thermodynamic laws. However, the attempt to achieve more sustainability is a requisite if we want to preserve the earth for the coming generations. Education, research and spreading of information will be very important for the future in order to receive more sustainable products especially because the market demand is important in order to develop successful sustainable products.References[1] M. Davison, J. Persmann, J. Reid, J. Stange and T. Weins, Green BuildingMaterials Residence, A WATgreen/ERS 285 study.[2] J. L. Sturges, Construction Materials Selection and Sustainability, School of theBuilt Environment, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK.[3] M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon, Oxford, 1992.[4] M. F. Ashby and K. Johnson, Materials and Design: The Art And Science ofMaterials Selection in Product Design, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002 [5] L. Y. Ljungberg, Materials selection and design for development of sustainableproducts, Materials and Design 28(2007)466-479.[6] F. Berkhout and D. Smith, Products and the environment: an integrated approachto policy, Eur. Environ 9 (1999)174-185.[7] F. Schmidt-Bleek, Carnoules Declaration of the FactorTen Club, WuppertalInstitute, Germany, 1994.[8] A．Wilson，Building green on a budget,Environmental Building News8(5)(1999)．[9] G．E．Dieter，Engineering Design，McGraw-Hill，New York，l991．[10] Sandy Patience (Ed．)，The Role of Evidence in The Selection of BuildingProducts and Materials，Constructing Excellence in The Built Environment．[11] M．D．Bovea and R．Vidal，Increasing product value by integrating environmentalimpacts costs and customer valuation，J Resour Conserv Recycling 41(2004) 133-145．[12] N．S．Ermolaeva,M．B．G．Castro and P．V．Kandachar, Materials selectionfor an automotive structure by integrating structural optimization with environmental impact assessment，Materials and Design 25 (2004) 689．698．[13] M．Goedkoop and R．Spiensma，The Eco-Indicator 99：A Dam age OrientedMethod for Life Cycle Impact Assessment，Amersfooft：PRe consultant B．V．，2000．中文翻译 1建材选择和规格Fae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, Turkey摘要：建材选择的限制和可利用的任何建筑物工程材料的持久性显现出来。

毕业论文的外文翻译是什么

毕业论文的外文翻译是什么在如今全球化的时代，毕业论文的外文翻译变得越来越重要。

由于不同学术领域与研究主题在全球范围内的广泛交流，外文文献往往成为毕业论文写作的重要参考资源。

毕业论文的外文翻译不仅能够扩充研究数据来源，还能加深理解并对比国内外研究现状以提升研究质量。

本文将探讨毕业论文的外文翻译的定义、目的以及相关注意事项。

外文翻译的定义和目的毕业论文的外文翻译是指将英语、法语、德语、俄语或其他外文献的内容翻译成中文的过程。

它的目的是使学术研究者能够更好地理解和应用外文文献，以支撑他们的研究工作。

通过对外文献的翻译，学术界可以顺利进行国际交流与合作，拓宽知识视野。

研究者也能为毕业论文提供全球范围内的最新研究成果，提高论文的学术水平。

注意事项在进行毕业论文的外文翻译时，以下几个注意事项应牢记于心：1.准确性和可信性：翻译的准确性和可信性是首要关注的问题。

翻译者必须确保所翻译的内容与原文的意思保持一致，并尽量使用准确和专业的词汇。

对于生僻词汇或特定领域的术语，可以借助专业工具或咨询相关领域的专家以确保翻译的准确性。

2.语言风格的调整：毕业论文的外文翻译需要根据中文写作的习惯和规范进行语言风格的调整。

例如，外文中可能使用了复杂的句子结构或文化隐喻，翻译时应尽量使用简明清晰的中文表达，以确保读者能够准确理解研究内容。

3.文化背景的融入：语言与文化密不可分。

在外文翻译过程中，翻译者需要了解原文所处的文化背景，并适当融入到翻译中。

这样才能确保翻译的内容在目标文化中具有更好的可读性和可理解性。

4.保护原文作者的权益：毕业论文的外文翻译要尊重并保护原文作者的权益。

在翻译时，应注明原文出处，以遵守学术诚信规范，并尽量避免篡改、删减或误解原文的意思。

如果有需要，可以适度加入个人的理解或注释，但必须清晰标注为个人观点。

5.翻译工具的利用：在进行毕业论文的外文翻译时，可以利用翻译工具辅助翻译。

然而，机器翻译并不能完全取代人工翻译的重要性。

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毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译专业：自动化姓名：学号：外文题目： The Breadth and Depth of DSP 外文出处：The Scientist and Engineer's Guide

to DSP 1 DSP的广度和深度数字信号处理是最强大的技术，将塑造二十一世纪的科学与工程之一。革命性的变化已经在广泛的领域：通信，医疗成像，雷达和声纳，高保真音乐再现，石油勘探，仅举几例。上述各领域已建立了深厚的DSP技术，用自己的算法，数学，和专门技术。这种呼吸和深度的结合，使得它不可能为任何一个人掌握所有已开发的DSP技术。 DSP教育包含两个任务：学习一般适用于作为一个整体领域的概念，并学习您感兴趣的特定领域的专门技术。本章开始描述DSP已在几个不同领域的戏剧性效果的数字信号处理的世界，我们的旅程。革命已经开始。 1.1 DSP的根源

独特的数据类型，它使用的信号，数字信号处理是区别于其他计算机科学领域。在大多数情况下，这些信号源于感觉来自现实世界的数据：地震的震动，视觉图像，声波等DSP是数学，算法，并用来操纵这些信号的技术后，他们已被转换成数字形式。这包括了各种目标，如：加强视觉图像识别和语音生成，存储和传输的数据压缩，等假设我们重视计算机模拟 - 数字转换器，并用它来获得一个现实世界的数据块。 DSP回答了这个问题：下一步怎么办？ DSP的根是在20世纪60年代和70年代数字计算机时首次面世。电脑是昂贵的，在这个时代，DSP是有限的，只有少数关键应用。努力开拓，在四个关键领域：雷达和声纳，国家安全风险是石油勘探，可以大量资金;太空探索，其中的数据是不可替代的;和医疗成像，可节省生活。 20世纪80年代和90年代的个人电脑革命，引起新的应用DSP的爆炸。而不是由军方和政府的需求动机，DSP的突然被带动的商业市场。任何人士如认为他们可以使资金在迅速扩大的领域突然一个DSP供应商。 DSP的市民等产品达到：移动电话机，光盘播放器，电子语音邮件。这一技术革命，从自上而下的发生。在20世纪80年代初，DSP是研究生水平的课程，在电气工程教授。十年后，DSP已成为标准的本科课程的一部分。今天，DSP是一种在许多领域的科学家和工程师所需要的基本技能。作为一个比喻，DSP可以比以前的技术革命：电子。虽然仍是电气工程领域，几乎所有的科学家和工程师有一些基本的电路设计的背景。没有它，他们将失去在科技世界。 DSP具有相同的未来。这最近的历史是超过了好奇，它有一个巨大的影响你的学习能力和使用DSP。假设你遇到一个DSP的问题，并把课本或其他出版物，以找到一个解决方案。你通常会发现什么是页后页方程，模糊的数学符号，不熟悉的术语。这是一场恶梦！ DSP的文献多是令人费解，甚至在该领域经验丰富的。这并不是说有什么错用这种材料，它只是一个非常特殊的观众。国家的最先进的研究人员需要这种详细的数学理解的工作的理论意义。这本书的一个基本前提是，可以学到最实用的DSP技术，并没有详细的数学和理论的传统障碍。科学家和工程师的数字信号处理指南是写给那些想要使用DSP作为一种工具，而不是一个新的职业生涯。本章的其余部分说明，其中DSP已经产生了革命性的变化的地区。当你通过每个应用程序，请注意，DSP是非常跨学科，依托在许多相邻领域的技术工作。正如图。如果你想专注于DSP，这是多领域，则还需要研究。 1.2 通信

通信是信息传输从一个位置到另一个。这包括各种形式的信息：电话交谈，电视信号，计算机中的文件，和其他类型的数据。传输信息，你需要在两个地点之间的通道。这可能是一个线对无线电信号，光纤等电信公司接收他们的客户的信息转移支付，而他们一定要以建立和维护渠道。金融的底线很简单：信息越多，他们可以通过一个单一的通道，他们更多的钱。 DSP已彻底改变电信业在许多领域：信号音的产生和检测，频带的转移，过滤，除去电源线的嗡嗡声，从电话网络等具体的例子将在这里讨论：复用，压缩和回声控制。 1.2.1 复用在世界上大约有10亿电话。在按几个按钮，开关网络允许其中任何一项，只有几秒钟的任何其他连接。这项任务的艰巨，是超乎想象！直到20世纪60年代，两个电话之间的连接需要通过机械开关和放大器的模拟语音信号。一个连接需要一对导线。相比之下，DSP音频信号转换成串行数字数据流。由于位可以轻松地交织在一起，后来分开，很多电话交谈可以传输渠道单一。例如，一个电话标准，被称为T载波系统可以同时传送24个语音信号。每个语音信号进行采样，每秒8000次，使用一个8位集成的（对数压缩）模拟到数字的转换。这个结果在64,000比特/秒，所有24个被包含在1.544兆比特/秒的渠道代表每个语音信号。这个信号可以传输，使用普通电话线，22号铜线，一个典型的互连距离约6000英尺。数字传输的资金优势是巨大的。线和模拟开关是昂贵的数字逻辑门价格便宜。 1.2.2 压缩当语音信号数字化，在8000样本/秒，大多数的数字信息是多余的。也就是说，任何一个样本进行信息主要由邻近的样品重复。 DSP算法已发展到几十个数字化语音信号转换成数据流，需要较少的比特/秒。这些被称为数据压缩算法。匹配解压缩算法，用于恢复其原来的形式的信号。这些算法不同的金额达到压缩和音质。在一般情况下，减少64千比特/秒的数据传输速率为32千比特/秒的结果，在不损失音质。当压缩到8千比特/秒的数据传输速率，声音明显受到影响，但仍然可用的长途电话网络。达到的最高压缩约2千比特/秒，高度扭曲的声音，但可用于某些应用，如军事和海底通信。 1.2.3 回声控制回声是一个严重的问题，在长途电话连接。当你走进一个电话，你的声音信号传播连接的接收器，它的一部分返回的回声。如果连接是几百公里内，接收回声所用的时间只有几毫秒。人类的耳朵习惯于听到这些小的时间延迟的回声，连接听起来很正常。随着距离变大，回声变得越来越明显和刺激性。延迟是几百毫秒洲际通信，特别是反感。数字信号处理攻击这类型的问题，通过测量返回信号，并产生适当的反信号取消违规回声。同样的技术，允许免提电话用户听取和不战而音频反馈（啸）在同一时间发言。它也可用于减少环境噪声，取消它与数字产生抗噪。 1.3 音频处理

主要的两个人的感官是视觉和听觉。相应地，许多DSP的有关图像和音频处理。人们听音乐和语音。 DSP已经在这两个领域取得了革命性的变化。 1.3.1 音乐从音乐家的麦克风，高保真的扬声器的路径是相当长。数字数据表示，重要的是要防止通常与模拟存储和操作相关的退化。这是非常熟悉的人与光盘，录音带的音乐素质。在一个典型的场景，音乐作品在多个频道或曲目的录音室录制。在某些情况下，这甚至涉及个别乐器和歌手分别记录。这样做是为了给录音师更大的灵活性，创造的最终产品。被称为复杂的过程，结合到最终产品的个别曲目的缩混。 DSP可以在组合提供几个重要的功能，包括：过滤，加法和减法信号，信号的编辑，等等。最有趣的音乐准备的DSP应用之一是人工混响。如果各个渠道的简单相加，导致一块听起来体弱及摊薄，音乐家多，如果在户外玩耍。这是因为听众都深受影响的音乐，通常是在录音室最小的回声或混响内容。 DSP允许人造回声和混响加在混合模拟各种理想的听音环境。几百毫秒延迟的回声，给像位置的大教堂的印象。 10-20毫秒的延迟添加回声提供更多的适度规模聆听室的看法。 1.3.2 语音生成语音生成和识别被用于人类和机器之间的沟通。而不是用你的双手和眼睛，你用你的嘴和耳朵。当你的手和眼睛应做别的东西，如：驾驶汽车，进行手术，或不幸敌人发射你的武器，这是非常方便。两种方法用于计算机生成的讲话：数码录音和声道模拟。在数码录音，一个人的扬声器的声音数字化处理和储存，通常在压缩形式。在播放过程中，存储的数据压缩和转换成模拟信号。整个小时的录音讲话要求只有约3兆字节的存储空间，即使是小规模的计算机系统内的功能。这是今天使用的数字语音代最常用的方法。声道模拟器比较复杂，试图模仿人类创造讲话的物理机制。人类声道是声腔与商会的大小和形状确定的共振频率。声音源于声道声和摩擦音，在两种基本方式之一。浊音，声带振动产生周期脉冲附近的空气进入声乐腔。相比之下，摩擦音源于在嘈杂的空气湍流，如牙齿和嘴唇，窄缢。声道模拟器操作产生类似于激发这两种类型的数字信号。共鸣腔的特点是通过类似共振的激励信号，通过数字滤波器的模拟。这种方法是在一个非常早期的DSP成功故事，讲拼写，广泛销售的儿童电子学习援助。 1.3.3 语音识别人类语音的自动识别是非常多讲话一代困难。语音识别是一个经典的东西，人类的大脑好例子，但数码电脑做的很差。数码电脑可以存储和调用大量数据，在炽烈速度执行数学计算，并没有变得无聊或低效重复的任务。不幸的是，现今电脑执行得非常糟糕时，面临着与原始的感官数据。教学计算机发送给您每月的电费是很容易的。在同一台计算机教学，以了解你的声音，是一大创举。数字信号处理一般接近语音识别的问题，在两个步骤：特征提取，特征匹配。传入的音频信号中的每个单词是孤立的，然后分析激发和共鸣频率识别的类型。这些参数与前面的例子中，找出最接近的说话。通常情况下，这些系统只有几百字的限制，只能接受具有鲜明的字与字之间的停顿的讲话，以及必须为各扬声器培训。虽然这是许多商业应用提供足够的，这些限制是震撼人心相比，人类的听觉能力。有巨大的财政奖励那些生产成功的商业产品，要在这方面做的大量工作。 1.4 回声定位

一个常用的方法是获得远程对象的信息，超生波的关闭。例如，雷达通过发

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