语言学期末考试重点

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

Linguistics is the scientific study of language.(语言学) Phonetics.(语音学): the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s la nguages. Phonology(音位学): is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.

Morphology(形态学)is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax(句法): A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern the formation of sentences

Semantic s(语义学): the study of meaning

Pragmatics(语用学): the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication。

Some important distinctions in lingguistics:

Prescriptive vs. Descriptive规定性与描写性Synchronic vs. Diachronic共时性与历时性Speech and writing言语与文字Langue and parole语言和言语Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用

if the linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive; (描述性)if the

linguistics study aims to lay down rules for ‘correct and standard’behavious in using language,i.e to tell people what they should say and what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive(规定性).

The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic(共时性)study;the descrption of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic(历试性)study .

Speech and wrinting are the two major media of communication The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century。

While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar,they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social convetions,and Chomsky looks ar language from a psycholohical point of view and to him comperence is a property of the mind of each individual.

Tradtional grammar and modern linguistics

1.linguistics is descriptive while tradional grammar is prescriptive.

2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the

written.

3.modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it

does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.

Design features of language:①Arbitrariness任意性②Productivity能产性、创造性③Duality双重结构性④Displacement移位性⑤Cultural transition文化传递性Functions of language:descriptive function描述功能,expressive function表达功能and social function社会功能

Morphem(词素):the minimal units of meaning

Free morphemes(自由语素):can stand by themselves as single words

Bound morphemes(粘着语素): can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form

Major sense relations:

1.Synonymy(同义现象):the sameness or close similarity of meaning

2.Polysemy(多义现象):one word may have more than one meaning

3.Homonymy(同音异义):Homophones: when two words are identical in sound同音异义发音一样Homographs: when two words are identical in spelling同形异义拼写一样Complete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and in Sound完全同音异义词

4.hyponymy下义关系—inclusiveness 包含关系The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.上坐标词The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.

Co-hyponym下坐标词

5. antonymy.Gradable antonyms 等级反义词（有中间词，程度不同）Complementary antonyms互补反义词（两个极端dead/alive，male/female）Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items（关系反义词）

Sense relations between sentences句子之间的意义关系①X is synonymous with Y（X与Y同义）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y 也假；②X is inconsistent with Y（X与Y不一致）如果如果X 真，Y假；X假，Y真。③X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)（X蕴含Y(Y是X的一个含义）如果X真，Y一定真（去过法国一定去过欧洲）如果X假，Y有可能真（没去过法国/没去过欧洲）④X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) （X预设Y(Y是X的先决条件）如果X真，Y一定真。如果X假，Y仍然真⑤X is a contradiction X自我矛盾（总是假）⑥X is semantically anomalousX语义反常。

Componential analysis：a way to analyze lexical meaning （成分分析法分--析词汇意义的方法）

Predication analysis：a way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech （述谓结构分析法--分析句子意义的方法分）

What essentially distinguishes semanrics and pragmatics

is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.if it is not considered,the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics；if it is considered,the study is being carried out in the erea of pragmatics

言内行为locutionary act:A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

言外行为illcotionary Act :An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the act p erformed in saying something.

言后行为PerlocutionaryAct:Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it’s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.

Of the three speech acts,linguistics are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech act is identical to the speacker’s intention,and in their study of language communication,linguistis are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and aslo how his intention is recognized by the hearer

Principles of conversation (Co-operative principles) 会话原则或合作原则Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher

The maxim of quantity: 数量准则（提供足量的信息，不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息）The maxim of quality: 质量准则（不说假话，不说缺乏足够证据的话）The maxim of relation: 关系准则（有相关性）The maxim of manner: 方式准则（避免表达艰涩，避免歧义，简洁，避免冗繁，有条理）

Historical linguistics, as a branch of linguistics ,is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time,and the changes can be found at different linguistics levels such as in the phonology,morphology, syntax,lexicon and semantics components of the grammar.