Chapter 13 European Middle Ages
The-Middle-Ages--中世纪
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Barbarians – from the Latin barbarus
meaning ‘strange’
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The term ‘Middle Ages’
• The term ‘Middle Ages’ is a sweeping and often derogatory 贬义 term, first used by Renaissance 文艺复兴 scholars in the 1400s
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Comparisons with the Roman Empire...
• Unlike the Roman Empire with its one all-powerful emperor, Europe developed into small fiefdoms 封地; each governed by a local lord
• Part 1: The Dark Ages (AD 476 – AD 1000)
~ Began in AD 476 when there was no longer an emperor in Rome & the Western empire collapsed
• Part 2: The High Middle Ages (AD 1000 – AD 1463)
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Periodization
Dark Ages: 500 – 1000 High Middle Ages: 1000 – 1250 Late Middle Ages: 1250 - 1500
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欧洲文化知识点复习
第三章1、the Middle ages名词解释In European history， the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.2、The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific (具体说来)， from the 5th century to 15th century.3、The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the middle ages， between ancient times and modern times.4、The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the 17th century， between the middle ages and modern times.5、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭6、Feudalism名词解释Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量)。
The word “feudalism” was derived (来源) from the Latin “feudum”，a grant (许可的) of land.7、fiefs(次划分)名词解释In Feudalism， the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors (有功的大臣) or soldiers as a reward (奖赏) for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs.8、vassals (占有fiefs的人)名词解释In Feudalism， the ruler of the government redivided the large lands intosmall pieces to be given to chancellors (有功的大臣) or soldiers as a reward (奖赏) for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.9、code of chivalry (骑士制度)名词解释As a knight， he were pledged to protect the weak， to fight for the church，to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry， from which the western idea of good manners developed.10、dubbing (骑士头衔加冕仪式)名词解释After a knight was successful in his trained and tournaments， there was always a special ceremony (选择) to award him with a title， knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.11、knight trained for war by fighting each other in mock battles called tournaments.(模拟战场)12、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)13、The Manor (领地所有制)名词解释The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords (农场主)。
历史与社会精讲精练书
历史与社会精讲精练书English Answer:Chapter 1: The Birth of Civilization.Civilization is a complex concept that has been defined in many different ways. In general, it refers to a society that has developed a high level of social and cultural organization. Civilizations are typically characterized by the presence of cities, writing, a complex social hierarchy, and a centralized government.The first civilizations emerged in the Middle East around 3500 BCE. These civilizations, such as Mesopotamia and Egypt, developed in river valleys where agriculture was possible. The surplus of food that was produced in these areas allowed for the development of cities and the emergence of specialized occupations.Over time, civilizations spread to other parts of theworld, including India, China, and Mesoamerica. Each civilization developed its own unique characteristics, but they all shared some common features.Chapter 2: The Classical World.The classical world refers to the period of ancient Greek and Roman history from around 800 BCE to 500 CE. This period was characterized by a great flowering of art, literature, philosophy, and science.The Greeks were the first to develop a system of democratic government. They also made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. The Romans were a powerful military force that conquered much of the Mediterranean region. They also developed a system of law that has had a lasting influence on Western civilization.Chapter 3: The Middle Ages.The Middle Ages, also known as the medieval period,lasted from the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE to the beginning of the Renaissance in the 14th century. This period was characterized by a decline in learning and culture. However, it was also a time of great religious and social change.The rise of Christianity had a profound impact on European society. The Church became a powerful institution that played a major role in politics and education. The Middle Ages also saw the rise of feudalism, a system of social and political organization that was based on land ownership.Chapter 4: The Renaissance and Reformation.The Renaissance was a period of renewed interest in classical learning and culture. It began in Italy in the14th century and spread to other parts of Europe in the15th and 16th centuries. The Renaissance was characterized by a flowering of art, literature, and science.The Reformation was a religious movement that began inthe early 16th century. It was led by Martin Luther and other reformers who criticized the Catholic Church. The Reformation led to the establishment of Protestantism, a new branch of Christianity.Chapter 5: The Enlightenment.The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that emerged in the 18th century. Enlightenment thinkers believed in the power of reason and science. They argued that people should be free to think for themselves and that society should be based on rational principles.The Enlightenment had a profound impact on political and social thought. It inspired the American Revolution and the French Revolution. It also led to the development of new ideas about education, economics, and government.Chapter 6: The Industrial Revolution.The Industrial Revolution was a period of great technological change that began in the late 18th century.It was characterized by the introduction of new machinesand factories that led to a dramatic increase in production. The Industrial Revolution transformed the economy andsociety of Europe and North America.Chapter 7: The Modern World.The modern world refers to the period of history from the late 19th century to the present day. This period has been characterized by continued technological and social change. The modern world has seen the rise of mass democracy, the development of new technologies, and the emergence of new global challenges.Chapter 8: The Future of History.The future of history is uncertain. However, there are some trends that suggest that the world will continue to change at a rapid pace. Technology will continue to play a major role in our lives, and new challenges will emerge. It is important to be prepared for the future and to work together to create a better world for all.中文回答：第一章文明起源。
《西方文化导论》练习题解读
Chapter One Greek CultureI. Fill in the blanks:1. 1.European culture is made up of many elements, two of these elements are considered to be more enduring and they are the Greco-Roman（希腊罗马的）element and the Judeo-Christian （犹太教与基督教的）element.2. 2.Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century.3. 3.In the second half of the 4th century B. C., all Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander, king of Macedon.4. 4.In 146 B. C. the Romans conquered Greece.5. 5.Revived in 1896, the Olympic Games have become the world’s foremost amateur sports competition.6. 6.Ancient Greeks considered Homer to be the author of their epics.7.7.The Homer's epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey .8.8.The Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy.9.9.The Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseus after the Trojan war to his home, island of Ithaca.10.10.The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.（公民大会）11.11.Of the many lyric poets of ancient Greece, two are still admired by readers today: Sappho and Pindar.12.12.Sappho was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece.13.13.Pindar is best known for his odes celebrating the victories at the athletic games, such as the 14 Olympic odes.14.14.The three great tragic dramatists of ancient Greece are Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.15.15.Aeschylus wrote such plays as Prometheus Bound, Persians and Agamemnon.16.16.Sophocles wrote such tragic plays as Oedipus the King（《俄狄浦斯王》）, Electra（《伊莱克特拉》(谋杀其母及其情人者), and Antigone.Oedipus complex（恋母情结）and Electra complex(恋父情结) derived from Sophocles’ plays.17.17.Euripides (欧里庇得斯) wrote mainly about women in such plays as Andromache, Medea, and Trojan Women.edy also flourished in the 5th century B. C.. Its best writer was Aristophanes, who has left eleven plays, including Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds.19.19.Euripides _ is the first writer of "problem plays".20.20.Herodotus（希罗多德）is often called “Father of History”. He wro te about the wars between Greeks and Persians.21.21.Thucydides（修西得底斯）described the war between Athens and Sparta and between Athens and Syracuse, a Greek state on the Island of Sicily.22.22.Pythagoras（毕达哥拉斯）was a bold thinker who had the idea that all things were numbers.23.23.Pythagoras was the founder of scientific mathematics.24.24.Heracleitus(赫拉克利特) believed fire to the primary element of the universe, out of which everything else had arisen.25.25.The greatest names in European philosophy are Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.26.26.In the 4th century B. C., four schools of philosophers often argued with each other, they are the Cynics（犬儒学派）, the Sceptics（怀疑论学派）, the Epicureans （伊壁鸠鲁学派）, and the Stoics（斯多葛学派）.27.27.Euclid(欧几里得) is well-known for his Elements《几何原本》, a textbook of geometry.28.28.To illustrate the principle of the level, Archimedes is said to have told the king, “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.”29.29.Greek architecture can be grouped into three styles: the Doric （多利安式）style which is also called the masculine style; the Ionic（爱奥尼亚式）style which is also called the feminine style; and a later style that is called the Corinthian（科林斯式）style.30.30.The Acropolis at Athens（雅典卫城）and the Parthenon(万神殿) are the finest monument of Greek architecture and sculpture in more than 2000 years.II. Multiple choices:1. 1.Which culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B. C.?A. Greek CultureB. Roman CultureC. Egyptian CultureD. Chinese Culture2. 2.In _______ the Roman conquered Greece.A. 1200B.C. B. 700 B. C. C. 146 B.C.D. The 5th century3. 3.Which of the following works described the war led by Agamemnon against the city of Troy?A. Oedipus the KingB. IliadC. OdysseyD. Antigone4. 4.Which of the following is NOT the plays written by Aeschylus?A. AntigoneB. AgamemnonC. PersiansD. Prometheus Bound5. 5.Which of the following is NOT the plays written by Sophocles?A. ElectraB. AntigoneC. Trojan WomanD. Oedipus the King6. 6.Which of the following is the play written by Euripides?A. AntigoneB. PersiansC. ElectraD. Medea7.7.Which of the following is NOT the greatest tragic dramatist of ancient Greece?A. AristophanesB. EuripidesC. SophoclesD. Aeschylus8.8.Who ever said that “You can not step twice into the same river.”?A. PythagorasB. HeracleitusC. AristotleD. Plato9.9.Who was the founder of scientific mathematics?A. HeracleitusB. AristotleC. SocratesD. Pythagoras10.10.Who is chiefly noted for his doctrine that “man is the measure of all things”?A. ProtagorasB. PythagorasC. PyrrhonD. EpicurusChapter Two Roman CultureI. Fill in the blanks:1. 1.The burning of Corinth in 146 B. C. marked Roman conquest of Greece, which was then reduced to a province of the Roman Empire.2. 2.The Roman writer Horace said: “Captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”.（大意是：征服者反而被被征服者所征服。
欧洲历史时间轴(英文版)
欧洲历史时间轴Europe could well be the world's richest continent in terms of science and social studies. Much of the world's treasures in history and culture developed and are still prospering in this continent. Here is a brief timeline of European history. PrehistoryEurope started out like the rest of the world: by fostering the development of man as a being.1.8 million years ago - The first human-like beings in Europe arrived from Africa. Soon, Homo sapiens developed cultures in Central and Southwest Europe.27th century BC - The Minoan civilization began flourishing in the Crete as a literate society. The Minoans had a system of administration and built elaborate palaces for it.16,000 BCE - The Mycenaean civilization followed the Minoans. They built cities and had a system of warrior aristocracy.Classical AntiquityMan had already advanced to form educated societies, with arts, science, and social studies.Roughly 7th century BC - Ancient Greece dawned. This civilization brought forth great minds, like Socrates and Plato. King Philip II united the Greek states, and his son, Alexander the Great, extended the great culture to other states.1st century BC - The Empire of Rome had risen. It then suffered civil wars, until, in year 313, Emperor Constantine officially embraced the Christian Church. 800 (year) - The great Roman Empire had been weakened by various conflicts. Charlemagne, a Frank ruler, became the Roman Emperor.Middle AgesThe Middle Ages were filled with even more conflicts and dark times.500 - Although most of Europe had accepted Christianity, Rome had continually weakened. This initiated the Dark Ages, a period of deteriorated culture and economy.1054 - The East-West Schism occurred, splitting Christian leaders and ending in a divided Church. Other forces, such as the Roman Catholic Inquisition, took place. 1300 - Many of the conflicts had ended, and Europe showed signs of recovery. But catastrophes struck, in the form of the Great Famine and the Black Death. Still, the people struggled to get well, through alliances and trades with other states. Early Modern EuropeAfter the darkest night comes the bright morning. This was the rise of a modern continent.14th century - An awakening began - the Renaissance. It was a period of flourishing philosophy, arts, science, and social studies. Great men came from this era - Michelangelo, Da Vinci, and Machiavelli, to name some. The Renaissance spread to many countries and lasted until the 17th century.15th century - European nations began exploring the world, leading to the discovery of America and other countries. Trade and mercantilism greatly prospered.Revolutions, Wars, and Europe TodayWith a fully-developed Europe, revolutions and modern conflicts seemed inevitable.18th century - The Industrial Revolution commenced. It brought significant changes in manufacturing and other processes. This revolution spread across the globe until the 19th century.1914 - With European nations rising simultaneously, the First World War erupted. The Russian forces were defeated, and the Soviet Union was formed.1939 - Adolf Hitler initiated World War II. It entailed the Holocaust for the Jews in Poland. Hitler's Germany was defeated after it was invaded by the Soviet Union and the Allied Forces.1946 - An international tension began, and this was the Cold War. It was not brutal like the previous wars; instead, it involved political conflict and 'silent' battles.1993 - After the wars ended, Europe strove for a more united group of nations, establishing the European Union. This cooperation continues to grow, with more European countries enlisting as members.A brief timeline is only a window to Europe's long and colorful history. With such extent and weight, its legacy can be carried on only by time.。
第三部分 乔叟时期
plete the following statements with a proper word or a phrase according to the textbook.1.Geoffrey Chaucer,the “_______”and one of the greatest narrative poets of England,was born in London or about the year 1340eatly c.2.Chaucer died on the 25th of October,1400,and was buried in_____.3.The people’s uprising of 1388 raised the question as to the abolition of ______.4.Boccaccio, Chaucer composes a long narrative poem______,based upon Boccaccio’s poem ______.5.Chaucer greatly contribute to the founding of the English literary language, the basis of which was formed by the ______dialect, so profusely used by the poet.6.Chaucer’s masterpiece is ______,one of the most famous works in all literature.7.The Prologue is a splendid masterpiece of ______ portrayal, the first of its kind in the history of English literature.8.In his greatest work, created a strikingly brilliant and picturesque panorama of his _______ and his _______.9.His work is permeated with buoyant free-thinking, so characteristic of _______ whose immediate forerunner Chaucer thus becomes.10.________are anonymous narrative songs that have been preserved by oral transmission.11.Bishop＿＿(1729-1811) was among the first to take a literary interests in ballads.12.There are various kind of ballads: historical, ＿＿,fantastical, ＿＿, and humorous.13.In the numerous ＿＿the age-long struggle between the scots and the English is reflected.14.Robin Hood is a partly ＿＿and partly＿＿character.15.The first mention of Robin Hood in literature is in Langland’s＿＿.Define the literary terms listed below.1.Romance2.BalladFor the quotation listed below please give a brief analysis.When the sweet showers of April fall and shootDown through the drought of March to pierce the root,Bathing every vien in liquid powerFrom which there springs the engendering of the flower,When also Zephyrus with his sweet breathExhales an air in every grove and heathUpon the tender shoots, and the young sunHis half-course in the sign of the Ram has run,And the small fowls are making melodyThat sleep away the night with open eye(So nature picks them and their heart engages)The people long to go on pilgrimagesAnd palmers long to seek the stranger strands.IV.Give brief answers to the following questions.1.What does the General Prologue tell us?2.What does The Canterbury Tales reflet?3.Can you say something about social criticism in The Canterbury Tales?4.Summarize Chaucer’s literary career.ment on Chaucer’s position in literary history.6.What are the stylistic features of the Ballads?参考答案I1.father of English poetry2.Westminster Abbey3.Feudalism4.Italian Troilus and Cressie Filostrato5.London6.The Canterbury Tales7.Realistic8.Time country9.Renaissance10.Ballads11.Thomas Percy12.Legendary humorous13.border ballads14.Historical legendaryII1.RomanceIt is a literary genre popular in the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century),dealing,in verse or prose,with legendary,supernatural,or amorous subjects and characters.The name refers to Romance languages and originally denoted any lengthy composition in one of those ter the term was applied to tales specifically concerned with knights,chivalry,and courtly love.The romance and the epic are similar forms,but epics tend to be longer and less concerned with knights,chivalry,and courtly love.The romance and the epic are similar forms,but epics tend to be longer and less concerned with courtly love. Romances were written by court musicians, clerics, scribes, and aristocrats for the entertainment and moral edification of the nobility. Popular subjects for romances included the Macedonian King Alexander the Great, King Arthur of Britain and the knights of the Round Table, and the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne. Later prose and verse narratives, particularly those in the 19th-century romantic tradition, are also referred to as romances; set in distant or mythological places and times, like most romances they stress adventure and supermatural elements.2. BalladIt is a lyric poem generally of three eight-line stanzas with a concluding stanza of four lines called an envoy. With some variations, the lines of a ballad are iambic or anapestic tetrameter rhyming ababbcbC; the envoy, which forms a personaldedication to some person of importance or to a personification, rhymes bcbC. Th e last line (C) of the first stanza is repeated as a refrain throughout. Another pattern often employed consists of a ten-line stanza, in pentameters, rhyming ababbccdccD, with an envoy of five lines rhyming ccdcD. The ballad became popular in England in the later 14th century and was adopted by Geoffrey Chaucer, who wrote served notable examples, including the Complaint…to His Empty Purse.ⅢThe magnificent eighteen-line sentence that opens the General Prologue is a superb expression of a double view of the Canterbury pilgrimage. The first eleven lines are a chant of welcome to the Spring with its harmonious marriage between heaven and earth which mellows vegetations, pricks fouls and stirs the heart of man with a renewing power of nature. Thus, the pilgrimage is an event in the calendar of nature, an aspect of the general springtime surge of human energy which wakens man’s love of Venus (natural love). But Spring is also the season of Easter and is allegorically regarded as the time of the Redemption through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ with its connotation of religious rebirth which wakens man’s love of God (divine love). Therefore, the pilgrimage is also treated as an event in the calendar of divinity, an aspect of religious piety which draws pilgrims to holy places. The structure of this opening passage can be regarded as one from the whole Western tradition of the celebration of spring to a local event of English society, from natural forces in their general operation to a specific Christian manifestation. The transition from nature to divinity is emphasized by contrast between the physical vitality which conditions the pilgrimage and the spiritual sickness which occasions the pilgrimage, as well as by parallelism between the renewal power of nature and the restorative power of supermature (divinity). Thus, in this beginning passage, Chaucer sets the double motivations of the pilgrims in an ambiguous tone with remarkable economy of words and a telling factuality. It is a model of narrative compression, with an 18-line periodic sentence that composes of a subordinate clause (line1-11) of 79 words and a main clause (line12-18) of 49 words, expressing the essential idea of the whole work. And all this is achieved along with a diminuendo to the familiar, straightforward, low style of presentation.Ⅳ1. In the General Prologue which has usually been regarded as the most important part of the whole poem, the poem tells how, one day in April, he comes to the Tabard Inn in the southern suburb of London. By nightfall there arrive at the inn some nine and twenty pilgrims all ready to go to St. ThomasàBecket’s tomb at Canterbury, and the poet joins the company and converses with all of them. At the proposal of Harry Bailey, the host of the inn, all the pilgrims agree that they make their journey to and from Canterbury more interesting by telling stories to one another on the way. Each of them is to tell two stories on the outward trip and two more on the way back. Whoever tells the best tale is to be given a free supper, at the cost of all the rest, upon their guide and judge. According to this arrangement, there should be altogether a hundred and twenty stories in the collection, but actually only twenty-four tales are presented, among which two are left incomplete, being interrupted as it were in thecourse of narration, while two others obviously remain unfinished.2. “The Canterbury Tales” is not merely a collection of stories strung together by some loose thread, as was the general practice for some European writers of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance to assemble a rather large group of tales into a single work of some magnitude, but Chaucer creates in the “General Prologue” to the “Tales” a whole gallery of vivid characters from all walks of life and then assigns to each of them some appropriate tale capable of shedding light on the respective narrator’s distinctive personally, and then in the separate “prologues” to some of the tales and in the “links” linking up some of them the author makes further efforts to show the interplay between the characters as well as their respective traits and idiosyncrasics. Thus the total effect of the poem as a whole is a comprehensive picture of the social reality of the poet’s day, eapecially since the pilgrims portrayed include men and women of all different professions, the high and the low, the lay and the clerical, the learned and the ignorant, the roguish and the upright, all excepting the very highest (i.e., the king and top nobility) and the lowers (i.e., the very poor laboring folk) in Social rank at the time. As was natural in Chaucer’s day a great variety of types represented among those going on the pilgrimage to Canterbury are connected with the church in some way or other: from the monastic orders we have a rich monk and a friar, a prioress with her chaplain, a nun and three priests while the secular clergy in the group includes a person, a pardoner and a summoner, to be joined later by a canon and his yeoman devoted to alchemy. From the upper rung on the social ladder we have a knight and squire and a squire and a yeoman, a wealthy franklin, then a doctor, a lawyer and an Oxford scholar. Trade is represented by a merchant and a shipman. There are a number of burgesses; a haberdasher, a carpenter, a weaver, a dyer, a tapestry-maker, and their cook, as well as the Wife of Bath. Among the rural dwellers are a miller, a reeve, a manciple and a plowman.Another striking phenomenon concerning a number of the pilgrims is their common practice of acquiring money by improper means, often by downright cheating and trickery. Both the lawyer and the doctor make use of their professional knowledge to make money, the former from the legal deeds he handles and the latter out of astrology and the pestilence. The miller, the reeve and the manciple pile up their wealth by tricking and fooling their betters in social station. The miller knows well how to steal com; the reeve cunningly lends to his master what is the latter’s by right; the manciple can fool all the thirty learned gentlemen he serves.Yet another striking reflection of the social reality of the day is the growing feeling of self-importance shared by all the burgesses. The haberdasher, the carpenter, the weaver, the dyer and the tapestry-maker, are all well-to-do handicrafts men and well-clad, and rich and discreet enough to be aldermen and their wives like to be called madam and have precedence in church services and guild festivals. Even the wife of Bath who is somewhat deaf and gap-toothed likes to wear heavy and gaudy clothes and would get angry if some other woman in the parish tries to precede her while making an offering in church.3. Of particular interest to us are those tales that contain rather keen social criticism. The three tales by the three ugliest figures among the ecclesiasticalpilgrims-the pardoner, the summoner and the friar-together with the portraits of these pilgrims in the General Prologue, produce strong impression upon the readers of the religious profession to which the members of the depths of moral degradation to which the members of the three brunches of religious profession could sink. Not only does the pardoner’s tale of three rioters murdering one another for the possession of a pile of golden flaring reveal the consuming passion for money in the feudal-bourgeois society of Chaucer’s day, but the use of the very tale its narrator the pardoner to lead up to his comments on the prevalent sin of avarice and thence to the need of all the pilgrims present to buy pardons and the saint’s relics from him is a thorough-going expose of the most tricky and unsonpulous pardoners of the age and a penetrating satire on the gullible and superstitious crowd falling for the papal pardons “hot from Rome”and for all sorts of fake relics of the saints. The friar’s tale of a greedy summoner trying to extort money out of a poor widow and the summoner’s tale of a hypocritical and avaricious friar attempting to squeeze dry the sick, bedridden Thomas are companion pieces that not only serve as pungent lampoons on the impious, rapacious summoners and friars in medieval England, but the two tales, together with the terrific fend and mud-throwing between the summoner and the friar as two fellow pilgrims that appear in the “link” preceding and following the two tales, are obviously meant by Chaucer to indicate the sharp intramural conflict between two different branches of ecclesiastical professions.4. Chaucer’s literary career can be divided into three periods corresponding with those of his life. The first period refers to the period of French influence (1359 –1372). In this period he wrote in the manner of contemporary French poets. Among his original poems in his early period, the best known is “The Book of the Duchess”, an elegy written upon the death of the first wife of the poet’s patron John of Gaunt. “The Romance of the Rose” is a translation from a French poem “Roman de la Rose”.The second period refers to the period of Italian influence, especially of Dante an Boccaccio (1372 –1386). In this period, he chiefly used the “heroic”stanza of seven lines. His main works in this period are three longer poems, The House of Fame, Troilus and Criseyde, The Legend of Good Women.The third period refers to the period of his maturity (1386 –1400). In this period, he is no longer the interpreter of other poets. He has his own choice of subject and diction, his own grasp of plots and characters. His masterpiece “The Canterbury Tales” was produced in this period. He mainly used the “heroic couplet”.5. Chaucer is also a great master of the English language. It has generally been conceded by literary historians that in his hand the London dialect of his day was crystallized into an effective weapon for satire and humour and for poetry. In “The Canterbury Tales”Chaucer’s language becomes a most supple means o f communication. With it he not only could at one moment be quite senous and at another be light-hearted and full of fun but he was able to produce at will truly poetic passages or lapse into a very intimate conversational style to suit an easy-going narrator of familiar stories . And the heroic couplet was employed in the poem with true ease and chann for the first time in the history of English literature .As the main form of medieval folk literature , the popular ballad has an oralcurrency which makes it easier to remember and easier to memorize . Therefore , all the stylistic features of the popular ballad have derived from their oral nature . The first feature is its simple language ；the simplicity is reflected both in the verse form and the colloquial expressions . So far as the verse form is concerned , ballads are composed either in couples (usually heroic) or , more commonly , in quatrains which is known as the ballad stanzn , rhyming abab, with the first and the third lines carrying 4 accented syllables and the second and fourth carrying 3. There is great variation in the number of unstressed syllables；and the rhyme is often approximate with assonance and consonance frequently appearing .By making use of simple plain language or dialect of the common people with colloquial , vivid and , sometimes , idiomatic expressions in its narration as well as in its dialogues, the ballad leaves a strong dramatic effect to the reader.The second feature is that the priority of the ballad is the story which deals only with the culminating incident or climax of a plot. Felicitous details are the exception, not the rule, in balladry. It should be admitted that the author of the ballads, if there was one, was really a good story-teller with a vivid presentation around the central plot. Most of the ballads have a romantic or tragic dimension, with a magic incident, often a murder or an accidental death, as their subject. Like classical tragedy, the ballads have an inevitability which reflects the folk belief that fate shapes human life so that people are lured into the fatally attractive traps.It is a common pattern of romantic tragic balladry that if one lover dies the other must follow suit .So usually the hero would die of his wound and heroine of her sorrow . A large number of ballad stories tend to be autonomous , i.e. They contain in themselves the information they explore . They do not seek historical , or biblical , accuracy . For instance , the ballad '' Judas '' tells a different story form the Bible . Here Judas ,having been given the thirty pieces of silver to buy food in Jerusalem , is lulled to sleep by his sister . He wakes to find the silver gone and when Pilate approaches him he considers selling his Lord in order to recover the lost silver . This makes Judas more a foolish man than a theological bogeyman . But some ballads may go back to actual historical incidents . For instance ''Sir Patrick Spens '' might be based on a historical incident of the end of the 13th century . The Robin Hood ballads are quasi-historical , which make the old folklore figure of Robin Hood a symbol of rebellion against the rich and of help for the poor .Ballads also tell their stories in a highly characteristic way; they are intensely dramatic, involving an explosive situation, highly volatile characters and a short time-span. Like tragedies, ballads would often use a high proportion of dialogue to stage direction, usually beginning in the fifth act and presenting the stories in a series of rapid flashes which may be compared with the techniques of the cinema. They are impersonal in their attitude, and there is little comment on moralizing. They usually have a dominant mood or tone, either tragic like “Sir Patrick Spens”, which tells a story of trea chery, or comic like “Get up and Bar the Door” which presents a funny scene of the domestic life. Furthermore, to strengthen the dramatic effect of the narration, ballads also make full use of hyperbole; actions and events are much exaggerated .For instanc e, in the ballad “Earl Brand”, Earl Douglas is preparing todefend his conquest by fighting single-handedly against eight. This hyperbolic style partly comes from a desire to astonish, for the poor folk would be delighted to hear of the larger-than-life exploits of ballad people. Music has an important formative influence on the ballad, too. The most popular ballads acquired a large number of musical variants. For instance, Mr. Bronson has collected 68 different tunes for “The Maid Freed from the Gallows”. Another impressive feature of the ballad is the using of refrains and other kinds of repetitions. Poetically the refrains and decorative; musically they are absolutely essential. Through refrains and repetitions, the narration is lent a quality of liturgy, or of incantation. Magic or supernatural force, the perpetual presence of impossibility is a rich narrative source of balladry. In the ballad world, things happen suddenly and without warning; the fatal powers of destruction can be overcome by the help of magic or supernatural force.。
《英语修辞学》第二章
English Rhetoric
Chapter Two Brief History of Western Rhetoric
By Song Pingfeng
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/NewInfor/html/30370.htm • 拉斐尔最著名的壁画是为梵蒂冈宫绘制的《雅典学院》。这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来
的５０多个著名的哲学家和思想家聚于一堂，包括柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底、 毕达哥拉斯等，以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理的追求，赞美人类的创造力。
• 然而，柏拉图对修辞的看法并非一成不变。海德格尔在1924-1925年讲授 《智者篇》时提出，柏拉图的修辞观念有一个演变的过程，其轨迹可以通过 比较三篇对话勾勒出来（Brogan：3-15）。《高尔吉亚篇》代表了早期柏拉 图全盘否定修辞的态度；海德格尔认为，在《智者篇》中，柏拉图的态度有 了重大变化，转而相信修辞对“不在”（non-being）或者说“存在”之外的 领域的关注应当在哲学中占据一席之地，辩证（dialectic）能够克服修辞的 欺骗倾向，使之为哲学服务；《斐德若篇》(Phaedrus)则是发生这一转变的 关 键 场 所 。 在 这 篇 对 话 中 ， 柏 拉 图 着 重 探 讨 了 真 理 （ aletheia ） 与 语 言 （logos）的关系。
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1.4 Some Ancient Greek Rhetoricians and their theory
(1). Corax (科拉克斯)
Corax of Syracuse and his students Tisias(蒂西亚斯，有名的捉刀人，专 门为诉讼者撰写诉状) were the first rhetoricians in history. His theory: the first is a theory of how arguments should be developed from probabilities; the second is their first concept of organization of a message. According to Corax, legal arguments should consist of four parts: introductory, explanation, argumentation and conclusion. (Corax 将法律演说分成四个部分：前言，解释，论辩和结论。)
Middle Ages
Middle AgesMiddle Ages, period in the history of Europe that lasted from about ad 350 to about 1450. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the western half of the Roman Empire began to fragment into smaller, weaker kingdoms. By the end of the Middle Ages, many modern European states had taken shape. During this time, the precursors of many modern institutions, such as universities and bodies of representative government, were created.The term Middle Ages was invented by people during the Renaissance, a period of cultural and literary change in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The term was not meant as a compliment. During the Renaissance, people thought that their own age and the time of ancient Greece and Rome were advanced and civilized. They called the period between themselves and the ancient world "the Middle Age." The adjective medieval comes from the Latin words for this term, medium (middle) and aevum (age).Historians adopted this term even though it was originally meant to belittle the period. Since the Middle Ages covers such a large span of time, historians divided it into three parts: the Early Middle Ages, lasting from about 350 to about 1050; the High Middle Ages, lasting from about 1050 to about 1300; and the Late Middle Ages, lasting from about 1300 to about 1450. Historians used to believe that most of the cultural, economic, and political achievements of the Middle Ages occurred in the second period, and because of this they called that period “High.” Only recently, as the accomplishments of the Early and Late Middle Ages have gained appreciation, has this term fallen into disuse. Today, historians often use a more neutral name, the Central Middle Ages.。
4中世纪：奥古斯丁、阿贝拉尔、阿奎那、但丁文论(课件文字内容)
中世纪美学与文论——神学的“婢女”讲述三个重点：①《圣经》其书；②中世纪文艺思想特点；③几位代表性人物：圣·奥古斯丁、阿贝拉尔、圣·托马斯·阿奎那、但丁一、《圣经》其书从“两希”文化说起马修·阿诺德(Matthew Arnold)《文化与无政府状态》第四章“希伯来主义与希腊主义”，二者对立又互补：希腊文化的最高理念是如其本然看世界，希伯来文化的最高理念则是行动和服从；前者热爱理性，讲究人性的自然发展，后者钟爱神性，讲究人性的约束和克制。
神圣文化与世俗文化的对立与互补。
从希伯来文化到基督教“两希”就像西方文明的“两翼”或“两轮”阿诺德：“基督教将行为高架于知识之上，丝毫没有改变希伯来主义的基本倾向。
自我征服、自我奉献，以及服从，不是顺从我们的个人意志，而是顺从上帝的意志，是这一形式的基本理念。
同样，它也是我们普遍叫做希伯来主义的那一学科的基本理念。
”《旧约》与《新约》《旧约》是犹太教的经典→《希伯来圣经》。
《旧约》是古代以色列民族的文学经典。
它弥足珍贵地以神圣书写的方式，记叙了从石器时代开始，一直到罗马帝国的这段人类文明的远古史。
它以自己独特的风格，把史诗、悲剧、历史、哲学、政治和抒情等等融为一体，进而将真实的空间、虚拟的空间、想象的空间结合起来，铸就了西方神圣传统的文化底蕴。
有人说，即便作为纯文学来读（即排除其神圣意义不谈），它也高于荷马史诗。
然否？《旧约》的时代谱系上帝“创世”→亚当和夏娃→该隐和亚伯→挪亚方舟→巴别塔→亚伯兰和撒莱→雅各→约瑟→摩西→约书亚→“士师记”开始→撒母耳→扫罗→大卫→所罗门→“列王纪”开始→以色列南北二分→分别被亚述、巴比伦所灭→波斯居鲁士大帝征服各国后，以色列人先后在所罗巴伯和以斯拉带领下回耶路撒冷。
The Judgment of Solomon《新约》是一个人的生死与荣光！大希律王时耶稣出生(前6-前5)→施洗者约翰给耶稣施洗(26)→耶稣收彼得等十二门徒→约翰被希律王斩首→耶稣预言自己将受难并复活降临(29)→最后的晚餐、耶稣受难、复活、升天、圣灵降临、基督教诞生(30) →保罗皈依(35) →雅各殉道、彼得入狱(44) →耶路撒冷会议(49-50) →保罗三次旅行布道(46-57) ，基督教从耶路撒冷到罗马→保罗、彼得遇害(67-68) →约翰被放逐，作《启示录》(90-95)Saint Sebastian，传统上认为死于公元287年1月20日。
欧洲文化入门_名词解释
欧洲文化入门名词解释1．P ax Romana 罗马帝国统治下的和平In the Roman history ，there came two hundred years of peaceful time，which was guaranteed(保证) by the Roman legions，it was known as Pax Romana2．T he New Testament 新约The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament” means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.3．Pentateuch 摩西五经The Old Testament consists of 39 books，the oldest and most important of which are the first five books，called Pentateuch. Pentateuch contains five books：Genesis (创世记)，Exodus (出埃及记)，Leviticus(教义记)，Numbers (逃亡记)，Deuteronomy (摩西遗言记)。
4．Genesis 起源Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch，it tells about a religious account (描述) of the origin of the Hebrews people，including the origin of the world and of man，the career (经历) of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.5．The Historical Books 史书was divided into seven sections：①Books of Joshua ② Books of Judges ③ Books of Samuel ④ Books of Kings⑤ Books of the Chronicles ⑥ Books of Ezra ⑦ Books of Nehemiah.6．the Middle ages 中世纪In European history，the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific (具体说来)，from the 5th century to 15th century.The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the middle ages，between ancient times and modern times.7. Feudalism 封建主义Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量)。