教育技术学专业英语第三章翻译
英汉翻译教程第三章
中英文句型的变动
1、英文被动语态变成中文主动语态: A new syllabus has been drawn up. 已经拟定了一份新的课程纲要。 This can be done and must be done. 这件事可以办并且必须办。 It must be admitted that Singapore is a small island country. 我们必须承认新加坡是个小岛国。
5、 can’t／couldn’t＋do＋comparison句型（从正面表达）
I couldn’t agree more about it． 我对此非常赞同。 She couldn’t have explained it more clearly． 她把那件事解释得够清楚了。 6、 would rather… than句型（从反面表达） I would rather go out for a walk than stay in the room doing nothing． 我宁愿到外面去散步也不愿呆在房间里什么事也不做。 I’m sure he would rather resign than take part in such a dishonest transaction． 我相信他宁愿辞职也不会参与那样一桩不正当的交易。
英语句子的主语汉语句子的主语汉语句子的宾语英语句子的宾语介词短语中的宾语能够进行主宾换位的英语句子并不多主要取决于英语句子中所使用的的谓语动词当句子中的谓语动词是failhappenoccurdesertdenyappealcome等时在翻译中就可以使用主宾换位的方法
第三章
翻译的方法及过程
翻译的过程 第一步：理解原文
英文的日期、地点等的排列是从小单位到大 单位；单词连用时是分量轻的在前，分量重 的在后，中文则相反。例如：
教育技术学专业英语unit13textb原文加翻译
Four Types of Automated Instructional Design Tools Expert System An An expert expert expert system system system contains contains contains a a a domain-specific domain-specific domain-specific knowledge-base knowledge-base and performs decision-making and analysis functions for the designer using natural language queries. Expert systems for instructional design have been developed to provide advice to novice instructional designers and to facilitate the development process for experienced designers. ID ID Expert Expert Expert from from from the the the ID2 ID2 ID2 Research Group was created to develop Research Group was created to develop and deliver computer-based instruction more efficiently. ID Expert is based based on on on Instructional Instructional Instructional Transaction Transaction Transaction Theory, Theory, Theory, a a a ““second second generation generation generation””theory of instructional design. According to Instructional Transaction Theory, Theory, instruction instruction instruction is is is based based based on on on transactions transactions transactions (sets (sets (sets of of of interactions) interactions) between between the system and the learner in order the system and the learner in order to accomplish a g iven given task. ID Expert assists designers in creating transactions by presenting presenting a a a set set set of of of decision-making decision-making decision-making steps steps steps involving involving involving instructional instructional components, components, formatting, formatting, formatting, resources, resources, resources, etc. etc. etc. ID ID ID Expert Expert Expert is is is considered considered considered a a prototype system and has not yet been released commercially. The United States Air Force Armstrong Laboratory proposed two AID approaches that use expert system technology to provide expertise to novice instructional designers and subject matter experts in the design, production, and implementation of courseware used in Air Force training. Guided Approach to Instructional Design Advising Advising (GAIDA) (GAIDA) (GAIDA) uses uses uses tutorials tutorials tutorials and and and context-specific context-specific context-specific advice advice advice and and examples. Experiment Advanced Instructional Design Advisor (XAIDA) (XAIDA) uses uses uses the the the Instructional Instructional Instructional Transaction Transaction Transaction Theory Theory Theory framework framework framework to to encapsulate context-specific knowledge. Both of these environments are are results results results of of of the the the Advanced Advanced Advanced Instructional Instructional Instructional Design Design Design Adviser Adviser Adviser (AIDA) (AIDA) research project. Reactions to Expert Systems: While expert systems for the instructional instructional design design design can can can teach teach teach theory theory theory validation validation validation and and and function function function as as authoring tools, they are limited by their inability to support analysis and design tasks. ID expert systems attempt to control the instructional design process, a process involving a large number of interrelated elements, and so must rely heavily on the knowledge and experience of the individual practitioner. Several instructional technologists technologists have have have proposed proposed proposed systems systems systems that that that more more more subtly subtly subtly advise advise advise the the instructional designer, rather than prescribe a set of solutions. Advisory Systems Duchastel Duchastel challenges challenges challenges the the the expert expert expert system system system model model model by by by providing providing providing an an advisory advisory system system system model. model. model. Instead Instead Instead of of of controlling controlling controlling the the the problem-solving problem-solving process process with with with expert expert expert knowledge, knowledge, knowledge, advisory advisory advisory systems systems systems assist assist assist or or or coach coach users users in in in accomplishing accomplishing accomplishing a a a given given given task. task. task. A A A prototype prototype prototype for for for the the the advisory advisory system approach is the Instructional Design Advanced W orkbench, Workbench, architecture for a computer-based workbench that supports the cognitive cognitive tasks tasks tasks of of of instructional instructional instructional design design design without without without constraining constraining constraining the the designer. Information Management System Instructional Instructional Design Design Design Environment Environment Environment (IDE) (IDE) (IDE) from from from the the the Institute Institute Institute for for Research on Learning is a computer-aided design environment that supports supports an an an ID ID ID methodology methodology methodology for for for teaching teaching teaching the the the use use use of of of software software software in in real-life problem-solving contexts. I DE IDE IDE helps document design and helps document design and development development options. options. options. It It It is is is intented intented intented for for for experienced experienced experienced instructional instructional designers. Electronic Performance Support Systems Electronic performance support system (EPSS) are self-instructional self-instructional electronic electronic electronic environments environments environments that that that provide provide provide process process process to to “software, guidance, advice, data, tools, and assessment with minimum minimum support support support and and and intervention intervention intervention by by by others others others””. . EPPS EPPS EPPS have have have become become popular in the 1990s for business and education contexts that require “just-in-time just-in-time”” learning learning and and and a a a hign hign hign level level level of of of a a a particular particular particular skill. skill. skill. Some Some example of EPSS are listed below. Building on Duschastel’s “workbench,workbench,”” Paquette et al introduced a a performance performance performance support support support system system system called called called AGD AGD AGD (a (a (a French French French acronym acronym meaning Didactic Engineering W orkbench). AGD provides procedural procedural instructional instructional instructional design design design information information information to to to guide guide guide users users users difining difining the learning system (e.g., amount and nature of objectives). Other performance support systems tools include Designer’s Edge (Figure 13-1) from Allen Communication and Instructional DesignW are are from from from Langevin Langevin Langevin Learning Learning Learning Services Services Services (Langevin (Langevin (Langevin Learning Learning Services). Services). Like Like Like AGD, AGD, AGD, these these these tools tools tools support support support the the the planning planning planning phases phases phases of of instructional instructional design, design, design, but but but contain contain contain a a a much much much more more more general general general advisory advisory component (e.g., context-specific online help, wizard, and tutorials). In contrast to AGD, Designer Designer’’s Edge and Instructional DesignW are lead designers through all tasks involved in instructional design, but place more emphasis on the ultimate production phase. Both tools provide graphical representation of the instructional systems design model, thus leading to additional support for completing each step of the model. Data entered by users are are cross-referenced cross-referenced cross-referenced with with with all all all steps steps steps to to to enhance enhance enhance continuity continuity continuity between between phases. Usable reports and documents such as evaluation instruments, instruments, content content content outlines, outlines, outlines, lesson lesson lesson plans, plans, plans, and and and checklists checklists checklists can can can be be generated by the users. The The primary primary primary difference difference difference between between between the the the two two two products products products lies lies lies in in in their their intented audiences and purposes. Designer ’s Edge is for both novice and and experienced experienced experienced instructional instructional instructional designers designers designers planning planning planning computer-based computer-based instruction. The product includes support for scripts, storyboards and other other CBI CBI CBI production production needs. needs. Integration Integration Integration with with with external external external software software applications is also supported. Instructional Design W are is intented for for course course course designers designers designers and and trainers trainers interested interested interested in in producing producing either either computer-based or classroom training. For this reason ,more suppot is provided for decisions regarding media selection and course and presentation materials (Langevin Learning Services). 自动化教学设计工具的四种类型自动化教学设计工具的四种类型专家系统专家系统包括了一个特定领域的知识库和为设计师使用自然语言查询的执行决策分析功能。
教育技术学专业英语五六七章课文翻译
Psychology changed dramatically during the early20th-century as another school of thought known as behaviorism rose to do minance.Behaviorism was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives,rejecting the emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious mind.instead,behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on observable behavior.在早期的心理发生了显著的变化20th世纪中叶作为另一个学校的思想被看作是“行为主义上升到的优势。
行为主义是一个重大的改变从先前的理论观点,拒绝强调了有意识和无意识的想法。
相反,行为主义心理学努力使更科学的学科,其产生的可观察行为集中在纯粹。
Behaviorism had its earliest start with the work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov.Pavlov research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process,which demonstrated that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations Pavlov demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association between environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.行为主义有其最早开始的工作一个俄罗斯生理学家名叫伊凡巴甫洛夫。
大学科技英语课件-第三章---科技英语的翻译
例： Much of the pollution caused by cars happens when they change speed.
3)定语的位置
英语中可作定语的有单词、短语和定语从句，以 单词作定语一般前置，以短语和从句作定语一般后 置。汉语的定语一般都在被修饰词之前。
例：Bronze is a very useful metal.青铜
There are two types of heat treatment applicable to aluminum alloys.
例4：In the early days, for pressure measurement,
spatial resolutions 空间分辨率as well as vibration isolation隔振 were significant problems; however, presently the availability of highly sensitive miniature pressure transducers 传感器with acceleration have made the measurement task simpler and more reliable.
3. 翻译的过程
(1)理解阶段。理解阶段的主要环节是辩明词义和语法关系，即正确 判断英语句子中的语言现象，分析各个句子成分的逻辑关系和句子的语 法结构，弄清词、词组、短语、从句的确切含义和句子所叙述的专业内 容，并把前后句子贯串起来理解，形成对原文的完整印象，真正掌握原 文的内容和实质。
教育技术学专业英语PPT课件
▪ 从20世纪20年代初期一直到30年代，在广播、录音和有声电影等领域内的技术的 进步引起了人们对教学媒体的兴趣。伴随着有声视频的出现，视觉教学运动被扩 展为视听教学运动。但是这一领域的早起领导者之一的McCluskey却指出，尽管这 一领域在发展，但是教育界却没有随其发展而得到发展，到20世纪30年代，对视 觉教学运动的商业利益的投资和损失超过了5000万美金，但只有部分原因是由于 1929年的经济大萧条。
▪ 但十年后，爱迪生的预言没有实现，但在1914-1923年的十年间，视
觉教学运动确实得到了发展，五个视觉教学的国家专业组织成立，五 个关注视觉教学的期刊开始出版，20多个教师培训机构开始提供视 觉教学课程，至少十几个大型城市的学校系统成立了视觉教育部门 (Saettler,1990)。
35
视听教学运动和教学广播（The Audiovisual Instruction Movement and Instructional Radio）
▪ Instructional Technology）以检验媒体对教学的影响。然而，若不考
虑术语的变化的话，该领域的许多人都认为，教学媒体对教育实践的 影响还是很小（Commission on Instructional Technology, 1970, Cuban, 1986).）。
42
计算机：1950s——1995
教育学专业词汇英语
教育专业词汇的英语翻译人才枯竭exhaustion of human resources辍/失学青少年school dropout/leaver基金会foundation服务性行业service trade在职培训on-the-job/in-service training基础科学the fundamentals学分制the credit system三学期制the trimester system税收tax revenue多学科的multi-disciplinary重点大学key university授予（学士）confer被授权be authorized to do专业specialty爱国人士patriotic personage国家教育经费national expenditure on education财政拨款financial allocation毕业论文thesis; dissertation毕业实习graduation field work毕业设计graduation design毕业典礼graduation ceremony; commencement毕业证书diploma; graduation certificate博士生导师Ph.D advisor; doctoral advisor(supervisor)授予某人学位to confer a degree on sb.升级to be promoted to a higher grade留级to repeat the year‘s work; to stay down补考make-up examination升学t o go to a school of a higher grade; to enter a higher school升学率proportion of students entering schools of a higher grade奖学金scholarship（国家）助学金(state)stipend/subsidy领取助学金的学生a grant-aided student学费tuition (fee)占百分比account for ...%专任教师full-time teacher国际文化交流intercultural communication教育方针guideline(s)/guiding principle(s) for education教育必须为社会主义现代化服务，必须同生产劳动相结合，培养德智体全面发展的建设者和接班人。
《计算机专业英语》第三章 英文原文
Chapter threeSection A the media is the massageDuring the 1960s, a Canadian literary scholar, Marshall McLuhan, gained worldwide prominence as someone who had a profound understanding of electronic media and their impact on both culture and society.In a series of books so densely written as to be almost unreadable ( the ironically titled Understanding Media [1964] is a good example ), McLuhan outlined his vision of the changes that were taking place as result of the spread of radio and television. He proclaimed that the medium is the message. In other words, new forms of media (message) transform our experience of ourselves and our society, and this influence is ultimately more important than the content that is transmitted in its specific messages.McLuhan coined several phrases and terms that have become part of the common vocabulary we use to talk about media and society. He suggested the terms global village to refer to the new form of social organization that would inevitably emerge as instantaneous, electric media tied the entire world into one great social, political, and cultural system. McLuhan didn’t bother to concern himself withquestions about control over this village or whether village members would be exploited. To McLuhan, these questions didn’t matter. He was more concerned with microscopic issues, with the impact of media on our senses.McLuhan proclaimed media to be the extensions of man hand argued that media quite literally extend sight, heating, and touch through time and space. Electric media would open up new vistas for average people and enable us to be everywhere, instantaneously. But was this an egalitarian and democratic vision? What would ordinary people do when their senses were extended in this way? Would they succumb to information overload? Would they be stimulated to greater participation in politics? Would they flee into the virtual worlds that were opened up to them by their extended senses? In a series of book, occasionally, his ideas were profound and prophetic. More often, they were arcane, mundane, or just confusing. McLuhan‘s observations concerning the global village and the role of electronic media in it continue to be prophetic. At a time when satellite communication was just being developed, he seemed to foretell the rise of the Cable News Network with its ability to seemingly make us eyewitness to history as it’s made on the battlefield or at the barricade. At a time when mainframe computersfilled entire floors of office buildings, he seemed to envision a time when personal computers would be everywhere and the Internet would give everyone instant access to immense stores of information. But as one media critic noted, to be everywhere is to be nowhere-to have no sense of place. To have access to information is not the same thing as being able to select and use information effectively. The global village isn’t situated in space or time. Is it possible to adjust to living in such an amorphous, ambiguous social structure? Or will the global village merely be a façade used by cynical elites to exploit people? These questions go far beyond the paeans to electronic media that can be found throughout Understanding Media. McLuhan’s idea achieved enormous public popularity. He became one of the first pop culture gurus of the 1960s. His pronouncement on Nixon and Kennedy propelled him to national prominence. His ideas received serious attention.Section B Media ResearchMedia refers to a class of instructional resources and representing all the mediation of instruction through the agency of reproducible events. It includes the materials themselves, the instruments used to deliver the materials to learners and the techniques or methods employed.Media can be defined by its technology, symbol systems and processing capabilities. The most obvious characteristic of a medium are its technology: the mechanical and electronic aspects that determine its function and, to some extent, its shape and other physical features.There are three major objectives of media research:1.Obtain knowledge about the educational or instructionaleffectiveness of a chosen medium;2.Increase understanding of how media and technology functionand what psychology effects they have on a learner;3.Improve the practice of education through the provision andevaluation of better materials, media, procedures andtechnologies.Schramm, as cited by Salomon, stated that while all media can teach very effectively, “learning seems to be affected more bywhat is delivered then by the delivered system. This has become the basis of disagreement among experts.Section C The great media debateClark lays out his basic position in Reconsidering on Learning from Media (1983). After reviewing research studies from 1912 to the early 1980s, he concludes that instructional designers gain nolearning benefits from employing a specific medium to deliver instruction. Any performance or time saving gains that researchers observe, he says, are the result of uncontrolled instructional method or novelty.Clark uses an analogy of a delivery truck to explain his position. Instructional media, he says, “… are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but t do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries and courses changes in our nutrition”What then influence learning? In Clark’s view, media, and the systems of symbols used with them provide “operational vehicle for methods that reflect the cognitive processes necessary to perform a given learning task”. To achieve success, the designer must find a way to translate cognitive process feature into a symbol system the learner can understand, for example. The moves necessary to play chess then deliver this information through a media delivery “vehicle”. If the designer does a good job of this cognitive translation, the student will learn, regardless of the symbol system or medium used. The benefits of so –called “attribute of media” (television’s ability Robert “zoom in “ forexample) can easily be replicated in a different way I anothermedium, with the same beneficial effects.Clark dismisses studies that show the media can have an influence on student learning. Firstly, he questions their design: were they comparing apple? Clark maintains that when examining the effects media, only the media can differ. “All other aspects,including subject matter content and method of instruction must be identical”.Secondly, Clark believes that teacher’s and student’s efforts play an import role in improved results. Teachers, presented with a novel technology, spend increased time on instructional design and so develop more effective presentations that take less time to complete. In turn, students make greater efforts and spend more time with these novel media. With everyone more interested and working harder, results naturally get better.Clark concludes that take further media comparison research, noting that the evidence of increased learning is simply not there.In 1991, Robert Kozma responded to Clark in his article Learning with Media.Kozma believes that Clark’s view of media as “delivery trucks” creates an “unnecessary schism between medium and method.” He proposes an alternate theory of learning; the “learnerstrategically manages the available cognitive resources by extracting information from the environment and integrating it with information already stored in memory.”From Kozma’s perspective, media have an important role in learning. Different technologies can process or operate on the available symbol systems. For example, students can search for information in a different way with a videodisk than they can with broadcast video. Media can provide certain representations or model cognitive operations that are salient to a learning task, often the ones that learners cannot or do not perform for themselves.Media, than, are an integral part of the instructional design process. Kozma compares text, audio and video media and outlines their strengths and weaknesses as learning tools. Some students will learn a task regardless of the delivery device. For others, though, Kozma believes that a careful use of media will enable learners to take advantage of its strengths to construct knowledge. In contrast to Clark, he calls for continued media comparison studies.Section DPerhaps the most quoted and misunderstood body of research on distance education has been the work of Russell, who reviewed 355 studies on distance education produced from 1928 to 1998. Some ofthe early studies examined correspondence courses, but most studies compared instruction over videotape, interactive video, or satellite with on-campus, in-person courses. Students were compared on test scores, grades, or performance measures unique to the study, and also on student satisfaction. Consistently, based on statistically test, ”on significant difference ” between the comparison groups was found. However, only 40 of the 355 studies specifically include computer-based instruction, and compilation was completed prior to the blossoming of courses using the Web.It is important to understand the ramifications of Russell’s work. Despite the technology used, the results are the same: no difference in student achievement. Russull concludes, “There is nothing inherent in the technology that elicits improvements in learning”, although “the process of redesigning a course to adept the content to the technology” can improve the course and improve the outcomes. In other words, learning is not coursed by the technology, but by the instructional method “embedded in the media”. Technology, then, is “merely a means of delivering instruction, ” a delivery truck, so to speak, that does not influence achievement. Russell concludes, “no matter how it is produced, how it is delivered, whether or not it is interactive, low-tech or high-tech, students learn equally well”.Russell expressed his frustration that, after so many studies, people continue to believe that technology impacts learing.。
《教育技术学专业英语》课程教学大纲
《教育技术学专业英语》课程教学大纲一、课程基本情况与说明（一）课程代码：（二）课程英文名称： Professional English for Educational Technology（三）课程中文名称：教育技术专业英语（四）授课对象：教育技术专业本科学生（五）开课单位：工学院/教育技术系（六）教材：《教育技术学专业英语》，焦建利、叶力汉编著，高等教育出版社2005年（七）参考书目[1]《教育技术专业英语》，刘世清、关伟、王肖虹编著，电子工业出版社， 2004年[2]《教学系统化设计》(影印版) Walter Dick Lou Carey James O.Carey著、汪琼译，高等教育出版社，2004.1（影印版）Robert Heinich、Michael Molenda、James D.Russell、（第7版）[3]《教学媒体与技术》Sharon E.Sma编著高等教育出版社、Pearson、Education出版集团，2002.10[4] 《计算机英语教程》，司爱侠，张强华编著，电子工业出版社， 2005年[5]《计算机英语》，刘兆毓编著，清华大学出版社，2003年[6]《Computing Concept》，Stephen Haag、 Maeve Cummings、 Alan I Rea、Jr 编著McGraw-Hill 2003年（八）课程性质本课程是教育技术学专业的专业必修课。
通过对该课程的学习，使学生了解当前教育技术的相关知识，提高学生的专业英语水平，能够阅读相关的英文文献。
该课程的先修课程为：大学英语。
（九）教学目的本课程涵盖教育技术领域各个分支，反映了学科现状和发展趋势。
通过介绍教育技术学专业文章，让学生掌握教育技术学专业词汇，掌握专业英文资料的阅读方法和技巧，能流利阅读、翻译及赏析专业英语文献，并能简单地进行写作。
（十）教学基本要求本课程教学环节包括课堂讲授、学生自学、课外练习（阅读、翻译、写作）、教师课外辅导、期中考试和期末考试。
教育技术04定义全文翻译
教育技术(04定义)的含义背景（background）作为一个物种，人类之所以能取得成功，很大程度上要取决于他们从经验中学习和把他们的智慧传承给后代的能力。
许多的学习和文化交流（acculturation）都是未经规划和结构化而自发地发生的。
然而，随着时间的推移，由于人类社会变得越来越复杂化和有组织化，社区已经有意识地建立了某种特定的秩序（arrangements）,如学徒制（apprenticeships）、学校和其它的教育机构等，来帮助社区成员发展他们赖以生存与繁荣的认知和功能性技能。
有组织的教育与培训的历史可以被视为是一个长期的、艰难的奋斗历程，以拓展更多人的机会和为帮助人们比从日常生活的偶然事件中学得更好而创设方法。
为教育和培训而成立的机构旨在以活动为中心（revolve around）来帮助人们更有成效地学习，无论是个体还是群体，课堂上的还是远距离的。
我们使用“教育”这个术语来指代广义上的可以支持学习的活动与资源；使用“教学”这个术语来指代那些由其他人而不是学习者自己组织并指向某一特定（明确specific）目的活动。
从这个角度来看，教育并不限于教学的情境（setting），她可以是父母对孩子的教导，大众媒体促成的知识和态度，以及其它类似于传达给社区成员的文化影响。
同样，在图书馆里看书或“在网上冲浪”以探求个人的兴趣也可以看成是一种教育活动。
另外，教学活动意味着一个外部的机构（agency）正通过使用一些特定的程序来引导学习者趋向于某一个目标。
阅读教科书上某一指定的章节，或者运用因特网来收集用以完成某一课堂任务所需的资料就是典型的例子。
本方案（project）将关注这两个方面。
学校（schools）、学院（colleges）、企业（corporate）培训中心和和其它的教育机构为促进（facilitating）学习这一中心任务提供了许多种类的设施。
他们可以提供便利于学习的庇护所（shelter）和环境……并且，可能的话甚至还提供便利的交通，再或者还为远距离的学习者提供机会。
教育技术专业英语个别句子翻译
一、英译中1．The Information Processing System is a model for describing how information is received, transferred into short-term or working memory, and ultimately placed in long-term memory for later retrieval and further use.(信息加工理论是一种用来描述信息是如何收到，被转换成短时记忆或工作记忆，最终放置在长期记忆中供以后检索和进一步使用的模型。
) 2．Taxonomies of learning existed before and since Gagné’s formulation of his, but none besides his includes all three domains in which individuals are presumed to learn : cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.（学习分类在加涅理论的形成之前就已存在，但是包括加涅学习结果分类理论在内，都未完全包含个体应学内容的三个域：认知、情感和精神运动。
）3．Knowledge management is one of the most recent trends to have affected the field of instructional desigh. According to Rossett, knowledge management involves identifying, documenting, and disseminating explicit and tacit knowledge within an organization in order to improve the performance of that organization.（知识管理是一个最近期的趋势,影响了教学设计的领域。
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媒体是指一类教学资源，它的表现是通过可复制的事件
来调解教学的所有方面。它包括材料本身，向学习者提供材
料的工具、以及所使用的技术或方法。
媒体可以通过它的技术、符号系统和处理能力来定义，
其中媒体最显著的特征就是它的技术：机械和电子特性决定
了它的功能，同时也在一定程度上决定了它的形状和其他物
理特征。
大众传播研究有三个主要目标：（ 1 ）获得对被选择的
媒体的教育或指导效力的了解; （ 2 ）增加对媒体与技术作
用的了解和他们对学习者的心理影响;（ 3 ）通过提供和评
价较好的材料，媒体，程序和技术改善教育实践。
施拉姆，引用自所罗门，阐述了所有媒体都能有效地教，
“学习的效率看来是取决于怎样的信息被传输了，而不是通
过怎样的传输系统进行传输”。这已经成为专家们争论的基
础。
克拉克在他的《关于学习媒体的重新思考研究》（1983）
一书中表达了他的基本观点。他在回顾了从1912年到1980
年代早期的研究之后，总结说,教育设计者使用一个特定的
媒介去传递教育并不能获得学习的益处。他说，研究人员观
测到的任何成绩或时间节约的增加，是由于未加控制的教学
方法或新奇的事物的原因。
克拉克用了运货卡车来类比解释他的理论。教育媒体，
他说，“„„都仅仅只是传递教育而不会影响学生完成学习
活动，就像卡车运输我们的生活用品但不会改变我们的营养
一样”
那么,什么影响学习呢？在克拉克看来，媒体和用来表达
“反映完成一个规定的学习任务的必要的认知过程可使用
的方法工具”的符号系统可以影响学习。为了达到成功，设
计者必须找出一种方法，该方法能够把认知过程的特征转化
为学习者能够理解的符号系统。例如，当下棋的时候过程很
重要，然后通过一种媒体传送工具传递该信息。如果设计者
能够很好地完成认知转换，学生就能学会，而不是因为所使
用的符号系统或媒体。所谓的“媒体的属性”的好处（例如
电视能力的“放大”）能够很容易的用另一种媒体另一种方
法代替，并且具有相同的效果。
克拉克对那些表示媒体能够影响学生学习的研究不屑
一提。首先，他对他们的设计表示怀疑：他们是在拿苹果和
苹果作比较吗？克拉克坚持自己的意见，当测试媒体的效果
时，只有媒体可以不一样。“所有其他方面，包括题材内容
和教学方法必须完全一样”。
第二、卡拉克认为教师和学生的努力在提高教学效果上
起了非常重要的作业，伴随着新奇教学方法的呈现，教师在
教学设计上花费更多的时间，并因此形成了更加有效的并且
花费较少时间完成的表现形式。相反，学生则更加努力并且
花费了较多的时间在媒体上，每个人的兴趣也不断增加，学
习越来越努力，所以，结果自然就变得更好。
卡拉克抵制进一步的媒体比较研究，认为学习不断增加
的证据不在于媒体的不同。
1991年，罗伯特.考滋蔓在他的《学习媒体》一文中回
应了卡拉克，考滋蔓把卡拉克的媒体观看作送货卡车，在媒
体和教学方法之间制造了一个不必要的分裂。他提倡交替的
学习理论，认为学习者关键在于管理那些可利用的认知资
源，这些认知资源主要是在环境中推断出来的信息，并把它
与记忆中的信息相结合的资源。
Kozma认为，媒体在学习中起着至关重要的作用，不同
种类的技术可以处理或操作其可利用的符号系统，举个例子
来说，学生可以通过不同地 方式来检索信息，除了视频广
播，还可以使用光盘。媒体可以为那些不能够自己解决问题
的特殊学习者提供一定的陈述或认知操作模型，这对学习任
务更为明显。
这样看来，媒体是整个教学过程 的一部分，Kozma将
文本，音频和视频媒体进行了比较之后，概述了将其作为学
习工具的优缺点。他认为，一些学生可以完成学习任务而不
受媒体的影响，但对另一些人来说，如果使用得当，媒体可
以帮助学生对完成新认知结构的形成。与克拉克不用，Kozma
倡导继续对“比较的媒体”进行研究。
在远程教育的研究中，最常被提到和被误解的也许是
罗赛尔的结论，他概括了从1928年到1998年的355项关于远
程教育的研究综述。一些早期的研究是考察函授课程，但是
大多数研究将录像带、交互式视频和卫星校园、面对面课程
进行了比较。通过比较学生的成绩、分数、绩效测量和学生
满意度来作为研究的唯一指标。通常（一贯地），基于数据
统计测试发现对照组有“无显著差异现象”。然而，355项
研究里仅有40项明确包含了计算机指令，并且编译过程是在
网络课程开设之前完成的。
重要的是要了解拉塞尔的工作所带来的后果，尽管所使
用的技术不同，结果是一样的：学生的成绩没有差异，拉塞
尔总结，“没有固定的技术可以引起学习的进步”，尽管“重
新设计课程内容以适应技术的过程中”可以提高课程和改善
效果，换句话说，学习不是由技术引起的，而是一种“嵌入
媒体”的教学方法，然而，技术“仅仅是一种提供教学的手
段”，送货车，也就是说，技术并不影响成绩，拉塞尔的结
论是，“不管他是怎么生产的，他是如何交付的，不论是否
是互动的，技术含量低还是高，学生们学习一样好”。拉塞
尔表示无奈地说，这么多的研究后，人们仍然相信，技术影
响学习。