《话语分析》书评ppt
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话语分析
提要：本文简要回顾了话语分析产生的历史背景，追踪了话语分析的发展历程，介绍了各个时期的不同特点。
同时对一些理论问题的不同看法，诸如话语分析与其他学科的划界、话语分析的研究对象、研究领域等，也作了介绍和归纳。
本文还着重介绍了话语分析这门新学科近些年研究的新动向。
关键词：话语分析、篇章１．历史背景１９５２年，Zellig Harris写了一篇题为“Discourse Analysis”（话语分析）的论文，刊登在Language杂志上。
此后，Discourse Analysis这个术语逐渐为人们所熟悉，一批研究者相继步入这个领域，进行探索性的研究。
在欧洲，Hartman,Schmidt等人开始从事话语分析，捷克斯洛伐克的学者对topic,comment等概念很有兴趣，这引起了他们对话语结构的重视。
由Halliday（１９６１）发展而来的“系统功能语法”，不只对句子的主题结构进行分析，而且还对句子和话语的关系进行分析。
在美国，Hymes（１９６４）编的LanguageinCulture and Society（文化和社会中的语言）问世，书中已经注意到“言语交际”的形式，并进行了“讲话形式”等课题的研究。
Pike对语言和人类行为语位的研究，也促进了话语分析的发展，他和他的追随者对土著语中叙述体的研究一直与话语分析紧紧联系在一起。
这段时间的研究是话语分析的萌芽时期，其特点是各自进行一些零星的研究，还未形成系统，其影响也不大。
２．形成和发展２．１．形成阶段７０年代（包括６０年代底），从事话语研究的学者越来越多，研究成果大批出现，一门新学科的雏形开始形成，在语言学界引起了重视。
２．１．１．大量论文、论文集和专著的出现这段时期，研究话语的论文大量出现，专著和论文集也出了几十部。
研究的课题主要集中在：reference（指称），deixis（指示），anaphora（回指），context（语境），topic and comment（话题和述题），cohesion and coherence（外在接应和内在接应），substitution（替换）等等。
话语分析
《话语分析》第七章评述（Discourse Analysis）由Gillian Brown和George Yule共同编写，《话语分析》Gillian Brown是剑桥大学英语教授，George Yule为路易斯安那州立大学语言学教授。
它与之前的话语分析类著作的不同之处在于它全面地介绍了话语分析的不同理论与方法，系统地论述了语言是如何在实际生活中得到应用的，语料涉及谈话录音、通知、书信、小说、报刊文摘等。
本书分为七个章节。
第一章引言部分着重探讨语言的形式与功能，继而讨论了句子与语句；第二章介绍了语境的作用，着重分析了情景语境；第三章作者讨论了话题与话语内容的表现；第四章探讨视角与话语结构的表现；第五章主要讨论信息结构，讲述了信息是如何通过短语和小句层次的小结构单位而得到包装的；第六章的研究对象相对于上一章来说是大块语料的成构，讨论它们是怎样被解读而成为连贯的语篇的，重点仍然是话语的指称这一中心问题；第七章探讨了话语理解中的连贯。
本文主要对第七章进行讨论并作出简要评述。
第七章首先讨论了话语的连贯。
话语连贯是篇章语言学领域一个十分重要的概念。
多年来，众多学者就这一理论从不同角度展开一系列的探讨与研究，提出了多种修正意见与观点。
De Beaugrande和Dressler（1981）认为，连贯是篇章世界的组成部分，只有读者的先有世界知识与篇章所表现的概念关系结构相吻合时,篇章意义或意义连续体才能实现；胡壮麟（1994）认为，言语行为、合作原则等语用学知识有助于语篇连贯；张德禄认为语篇连贯的条件包括认知模式、情景模式、文化语境、心理思维语义联系等；而本书作者认为，人们在对语篇进行阐释时需要依赖一种假设，即，话语是连贯的。
在日常交际中，我们常常依靠句法结构和语言信息中的词项进行理解，但我们不能认为缺乏这些文字形式上的输入我们就达不到理解。
有时，我们可以从作家写出的语法十分规范的句子中得出其字面意义，但实际上我们并未全部理解它，因为我们还需要更多语言之外的信息。
话语分析
话语分析与阐释学的宗旨大相径庭。
阐释学要求对某一文学文本在整体上进行理解和阐释，而话语分析不事先预设任何文本意义，目的也不在于探究其意义，而是考察贯穿在不同文本中的话语构成，研究它们如何建构了文本，如何使文本具有了意义，并在文化语境中承担功能。
历史话语分析（又称“知识考古学”）的奠基人是法国历史学家、哲学家米歇尔•福柯。
福柯的话语概念具有多重意义和开放性，强调实践，可以在不同的语境中获得不同的意义。
或许正是出于这个原因，福柯在《知识考古学》中介绍自己的话语分析概念时，将其比喻为“采石场”，其一是说各个学科的同仁都可从中各取所需，再有就是反映了福柯对完整理论构架的排斥。
如果将话语分析作为方法泛泛的运用于文学研究，我们会遇到问题重重，因而有必要事先澄清几点：首先要限定话语概念，使之适用于文学分析的实践。
话语可以被概括为有关某个主题的语言陈述的总和。
福柯认为话语的关键不仅是所说（Gesagte）和所写（Geschriebene）的集合，而是特定文化决定了如何思维、如何言说条件下的陈述（Aussage）之和。
话语并不再现或临摹文化现象，而是引发和建构了它们，因而话语分析要考察的与其说是话语，不如说是话语依据的规则、依存的条件。
话语驾驭个体的感知、思维和行动，这是福柯的出发点，因为他关注“说”的条件，什么可说，什么不可说，什么甚至被言语和思维遗忘。
他引入了“话语实践”的概念，话语不再是符号（指示内容或表征的意义载体）的总和，而是不断实践，是根据一定规则系统生产话语对象的实践（福柯1973:74）。
福柯认为话语的可能性（即“可说”与“可想”）受制于某种排他机制，它由禁令、边界、注释、方法、理论、习俗和教义协调运作生成。
福柯于1970年12月2日在法兰西学院的就职讲座《话语的秩序》中概括了这种机制，为了解释不同时期话语的不同排他规则，福柯以孟德尔的遗传学为例，得出这样的结论：“人们时常疑惑，为什么19世纪的植物学家和生物学家们居然不能认识到孟德尔学说的正确性。
《话语分析》书评ppt课件
the difference between spoken discourse and the written one the difference between sentence and utterance
最新版整理ppt
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Chapter 1 基本概念 Chapter 2 话语分析中的语境 1理解语境的基本方法：reference, presupposition, implicature and inference. 2情境语境的特征： Hymes的分类： addressor and addressee, topic, setting, channel(如语言，击鼓，鸣号，摇旗), code（语码，如用了什么样 的语言、方言或使用了什么样的语体风格, message-form， （交际 形式，如聊天、辩论、布道、十四行诗情书等）and event（事件） 3可以帮助理解话语情境的两个原则：local interpretation principle（就近原则） analogy principle（类比原则） e.g. The baby cried. The mommy picked it up. Analogy principle: If the analyst has experienced a lot data of a particular kind, he will feel more confident in his interpretation because he can make a comparison.
2 the regularities of discourse structure outlined in Chapter 3 and 4,
3 the regular features of information structure organization detailed in Chapter5,
最新版整理ppt
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Chapter 1 基本概念 Chapter 2 话语分析中的语境 1理解语境的基本方法：reference, presupposition, implicature and inference. 2情境语境的特征： Hymes的分类： addressor and addressee, topic, setting, channel(如语言，击鼓，鸣号，摇旗), code（语码，如用了什么样 的语言、方言或使用了什么样的语体风格, message-form， （交际 形式，如聊天、辩论、布道、十四行诗情书等）and event（事件） 3可以帮助理解话语情境的两个原则：local interpretation principle（就近原则） analogy principle（类比原则） e.g. The baby cried. The mommy picked it up. Analogy principle: If the analyst has experienced a lot data of a particular kind, he will feel more confident in his interpretation because he can make a comparison.
2 the regularities of discourse structure outlined in Chapter 3 and 4,
3 the regular features of information structure organization detailed in Chapter5,
语用学 话语分析实例 PPT
话语分析
语用学 话语分析实例
1
Zellig Harris 于1952 年在Language 杂志上发表题为
“ Discourse Analysis”的论文，迄今将近六十年。话 语分析大致可以分成三个阶段：萌芽阶段，起步阶段和兴 盛阶段。
语用学 话语分析实例
2
萌芽阶段： 从 1952 年到20 世纪60 年代末结束，前后大约20 年时间。 50 年代值得一提的只有两个人，一个是从成分分布的角度研究话语结
三是国内培养的硕士和博士。
语用学 话语分析实例
8
推荐书目：
《廖秋忠文集》(1992) 廖秋忠去世后,由刘坚、卫志强、詹志芳、徐赳赳编辑而 成的,在廖秋忠去世一周年纪念会前出版。
《语篇分析概要》(黄国文1988) 国内最早系统地介绍话语分析理论的一本书。
语用学 话语分析实例
9话语分析者的研究方法有:源自语用学 话语分析实例3
起步阶段： 话语分析作为一门新的学科是从 20 世纪70 年代起步的，前后大约10
年时间。 人们在传统的语法分析中， 引入了语境、语域 、照应、指示、回指、
替代、衔接、连贯、宏观结构和微观结构等问题的研究，从而使语言 研究大大超越了句子的范围。
语用学 话语分析实例
4
兴盛阶段： 从 20 世纪80 年代起，话语分析进入了它的兴盛阶段，取得了突破性
a.（妻子与乘客同座）丈夫对与妻子同座的乘客说“ 你别挤 她。”
→丈夫对与妻子同座的乘客说“ 你别挤人家妻。”
b.（丈夫与妻子同座）乘客对丈夫说“ 你别挤她。” →*乘客对丈夫说“ 你别挤人家妻。”
语用学 话语分析实例
11
四嫂：……今天咱们门口的暗沟完工, 也不是要开 什么大会,…… 您、我、娘子都得去；要不怎么我 换上新鞋新袜子呢…… 大妈：我可不去开会！人家说什么, 我老听不懂。 （老舍《龙须沟》）
语用学 话语分析实例
1
Zellig Harris 于1952 年在Language 杂志上发表题为
“ Discourse Analysis”的论文，迄今将近六十年。话 语分析大致可以分成三个阶段：萌芽阶段，起步阶段和兴 盛阶段。
语用学 话语分析实例
2
萌芽阶段： 从 1952 年到20 世纪60 年代末结束，前后大约20 年时间。 50 年代值得一提的只有两个人，一个是从成分分布的角度研究话语结
三是国内培养的硕士和博士。
语用学 话语分析实例
8
推荐书目：
《廖秋忠文集》(1992) 廖秋忠去世后,由刘坚、卫志强、詹志芳、徐赳赳编辑而 成的,在廖秋忠去世一周年纪念会前出版。
《语篇分析概要》(黄国文1988) 国内最早系统地介绍话语分析理论的一本书。
语用学 话语分析实例
9话语分析者的研究方法有:源自语用学 话语分析实例3
起步阶段： 话语分析作为一门新的学科是从 20 世纪70 年代起步的，前后大约10
年时间。 人们在传统的语法分析中， 引入了语境、语域 、照应、指示、回指、
替代、衔接、连贯、宏观结构和微观结构等问题的研究，从而使语言 研究大大超越了句子的范围。
语用学 话语分析实例
4
兴盛阶段： 从 20 世纪80 年代起，话语分析进入了它的兴盛阶段，取得了突破性
a.（妻子与乘客同座）丈夫对与妻子同座的乘客说“ 你别挤 她。”
→丈夫对与妻子同座的乘客说“ 你别挤人家妻。”
b.（丈夫与妻子同座）乘客对丈夫说“ 你别挤她。” →*乘客对丈夫说“ 你别挤人家妻。”
语用学 话语分析实例
11
四嫂：……今天咱们门口的暗沟完工, 也不是要开 什么大会,…… 您、我、娘子都得去；要不怎么我 换上新鞋新袜子呢…… 大妈：我可不去开会！人家说什么, 我老听不懂。 （老舍《龙须沟》）
话语分析ppt
Analysis
• the data in this study suggest that subordinates are not always obedient to their superiors, and thus, directive speech acts occasionally involve confrontation and extended negotiation. Subordinates occasionally challenge superiors in various ways. When such confrontational situations arise, superiors, according to contextual demands, skillfully manipulate their linguistic repertoires in order to get their subordinates to obey their directives, while sustaining good institutional relationships. ‘Challenge’ here refers to confrontation between superiors and subordinates: (1) subordinates overtly reject superiors’ directives (2) subordinates for some reason fail to perform superiors’ directives instantly.
in the Western
• Western scholars (e.g., Holmes, 2005, 2006; Holmes and Stubbe, 2003a; Mullany, 2007) maintain that regardless of gender, superiors in a workplace hierarchy orient themselves to linguistic practices associated with both masculinity and femininity, as context demands.
话语分析自上而下 PPT
i.e. 倪锦诚.2013.交互作用阅读模式的认知过程及其有效性研究 [D].上海外国语大学. 曹莹.2009.论交互式语言教学与交互式听力教学[J].辽宁行政大 学学报.
3 Conclusion
Interactive Model
the combination of bottom-up processing and topdown processing
1) 自上而下认识法(top-down process) 在语言处理 中，“自上而下认识法”是一种认知和分析策略，指 人们利用先前已有的知识来分析和处理所接收的信息， 阅读时无需精确地辨认和理解文章中的每个词及词序， 而是利用语言中的冗余现象和作者原有的背景知识来 做出推断、预测和重建信息，以达到正确的理解。 2)“自上而下”模式的理论基础是认知论，其代表人 物是K.S.Goodman(1968)、F.Smith(1970)等，他们认 为阅读是一个选择、预测、检验和证实的过程，即是 一种心理语言学的猜测游戏。强调在阅读理解中读者 的背景知识的作用。（新编英汉语言学词典，上海外语教育出版社）
大学学报.
Thank you!
We can think of our processing of incoming discourse as the combination of (at least) two activities: a) Bottom-up Processing b) Top-down Processing (Gillian Brown & George Yule)
BACK
2. Strategies of Discourse Analysis
《话语分析》书评
.
Chapter 1 基本概念 Chapter 2 话语分析中的语境 1理解语境的基本方法：reference, presupposition, implicature and inference. 2情境语境的特征： Hymes的分类： addressor and addressee, topic, setting, channel(如语言，击鼓，鸣号，摇旗), code（语码，如用了什么样 的语言、方言或使用了什么样的语体风格, message-form， （交 际形式，如聊天、辩论、布道、十四行诗情书等）and event（事 件） 3可以帮助理解话语情境的两个原则：local interpretation principle（就近原则） analogy principle（类比原则） e.g. The baby cried. The mommy picked it up. Analogy principle: If the analyst has experienced a lot data of a particular kind, he will feel more confident in his interpretation because he can make a comparison.
.
The structure of the book
Chapter 1: introduction 2 functions of language: transactional(信息性)和 interactional(互动性) transactional 用来表达命题和传达信息，interactional 用 于建立和维持社会关系。 the difference between spoken discourse and the written one the difference between sentence and utterance
Chapter 1 基本概念 Chapter 2 话语分析中的语境 1理解语境的基本方法：reference, presupposition, implicature and inference. 2情境语境的特征： Hymes的分类： addressor and addressee, topic, setting, channel(如语言，击鼓，鸣号，摇旗), code（语码，如用了什么样 的语言、方言或使用了什么样的语体风格, message-form， （交 际形式，如聊天、辩论、布道、十四行诗情书等）and event（事 件） 3可以帮助理解话语情境的两个原则：local interpretation principle（就近原则） analogy principle（类比原则） e.g. The baby cried. The mommy picked it up. Analogy principle: If the analyst has experienced a lot data of a particular kind, he will feel more confident in his interpretation because he can make a comparison.
.
The structure of the book
Chapter 1: introduction 2 functions of language: transactional(信息性)和 interactional(互动性) transactional 用来表达命题和传达信息，interactional 用 于建立和维持社会关系。 the difference between spoken discourse and the written one the difference between sentence and utterance
话语分析12月9日课件
•
• 9) Originating in the field of linguistics, the term discourse initially referred to whole units of speech and the speech community in which these units were communicated. (Michel Foucault transformed the concept of discourse from its linguistic formulation and applied it to the social sciences. He rigorously identified and typologized the structures of discourses, emphasizing how discourses affect everything in our society while remaining nearly unobservable. Sociologists and philosophers tend to use the term discourse to describe the conversations and the meaning behind them by a group of people who hold certain ideas in common.) According to Michel Foucault, discourse is the acceptable statements made by a certain type of disc is a stretch of language perceived to be meaningful, unified, and purposive language in use. • 7) Discourse is viewed as social practice determined by social structures. • 8) Discourse is an institutionalized way of speaking that determines not only what we say and how we say it, but also what we do not say. Discourses provide a unified set of words, symbols, and metaphors that allow us to construct and communicate a coherent interpretation of reality.
【精选】话语分析——模因论视角下的冲突性话语分析幻灯片
Next, desire difference contributes a lot to conflict origins. As Qing Junxiang argues that conflict is the very desire, and there will be no opposition without desire.
The argument can be considered as interactive process between two or more participants. Jacobs and Jackson (1981) pointed out these two sorts of arguments happen frequenfly in daily talks. One can make an argument to illustrate his certain position; and secondly, people cam also make an argument with others, that is, the act of interaction.
In addition, differences upon characteristic, habit, and fondness could either cause conflict between individuals. Such kind of differences would not necessarily lead to conflict unless interpersonal communications take place．
The third type is just related to the actual words used. The former two are just stay at the potential level of causing conflict talks.
The argument can be considered as interactive process between two or more participants. Jacobs and Jackson (1981) pointed out these two sorts of arguments happen frequenfly in daily talks. One can make an argument to illustrate his certain position; and secondly, people cam also make an argument with others, that is, the act of interaction.
In addition, differences upon characteristic, habit, and fondness could either cause conflict between individuals. Such kind of differences would not necessarily lead to conflict unless interpersonal communications take place．
The third type is just related to the actual words used. The former two are just stay at the potential level of causing conflict talks.
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Discourse Analysis
by Gillian Brown & George Yule
The important definition What is discourse analysis? According to this book: the analysis of language in use. a pragmatic approach to DA The discourse analyst has to consider context.
The structure of the book Chapter 1: introduction 2 functions of language: transactional(信息性)和 interactional(互动性) transactional 用来表达命题和传达信息，interactional 用 于建立和维持社会关系。 the difference between spoken discourse and the written one the difference between sentence and utterance
Chapter 3 话题与话语内容的表现 1 In this chapter the author tries to explore some recent attempts to construct a theoretical notion of “topic”. 2 Discourse topic is proposed by Keenan and Schieffelin. They think that there must be a single proposition (expressed as a phrase or sentence) which represents the discourse topic of the whole of the fragment. 3 Since attempting to define topic with focus on the content of a text is a difficult task, we could look at the form, concentrate on topic-shift to define topic, which, in fact are topic boundary markers.
Chapter 4 视角和话语结构的表现 1 Discourse is presented in line structure. The speaker has to choose a starting point. This starting point will influence the hearer’s latter understanding. 2 Thematisation（主位化） refers to the linear organization of texts. 3 Each simple sentence has a theme-the starting point of the structure and a rheme, everything else that follows in the sentence 4 Theme is usually the left-most constituent in the sentence. 5 We find theme used sometimes to refer to the grammatical subjects of a series of sentences as in a remark by Katz. But theme is not the grammatical subject. 6 Stagging (视角)often involves natural order（自然顺序） and point of view（视点） Natural order is for the presentation of a narrative sequence of events.
He is particularly concerned with the information organization within spoken English. Halliday believes that one of the functions of intonation in English is to mark off which information the speaker is treating as new and which information the speaker is treating as given. Information units are directly realized in speech as tone groups. Tone groups are distinguished phonologically by contain only one tonic syllable. Pauses and pitches also help to define tone groups. The tonic syllable functions to focus the new information.
Chapter 5 信息结构 focuses: consider how information is packagedቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱwithin small structures information structure and its intonation realization (Halliday’s account) The serious study of information structure within texts was instituted by scholars of the Prague School before the Second World War. Halliday adopted the Prague School view of information as consisting of two categories: new information, which is information that the addressor believes is not known to the addressee, and given information which the addressor believes is known to the addressee. According to him, the speaker will order given information before new information.
7 Natural order consists of time sequence （时间顺序）and perceptual salience. （感知顺序，一般到个别，整体到局部， 由大到小） 8 It is natural to put the event that happens first. If the writer does not abide by the this order, he wants to create some special effects（如悬念） 9 Staging can influence the choice of words used by the speaker or the writer. executed (表明一个法律程序) ( ) assassinated (非法和政治行为而报道) murdered (非法的犯罪行为而报道) Mary, Queen of Scots, was by the English Queen.
General impression about the book This book introduces the different approaches to discourse analysis . This book can help learners have a comprehensive view about this subject. The corpora included in this book covers recording, notice, letter, novel and newspaper articles. my view: It is not that difficult to understand because it deals with the basic concepts, the common approaches, but efforts are still needed in order to fully understand it.
Chapter 1 基本概念 Chapter 2 话语分析中的语境 1理解语境的基本方法：reference, presupposition, implicature and inference. 2情境语境的特征： Hymes的分类： addressor and addressee, topic, setting, channel(如语言，击鼓，鸣号，摇旗), code（语码，如用了什么样 的语言、方言或使用了什么样的语体风格, message-form， （交 际形式，如聊天、辩论、布道、十四行诗情书等）and event（事 件） 3可以帮助理解话语情境的两个原则：local interpretation principle（就近原则） analogy principle（类比原则） e.g. The baby cried. The mommy picked it up. Analogy principle: If the analyst has experienced a lot data of a particular kind, he will feel more confident in his interpretation because he can make a comparison.
by Gillian Brown & George Yule
The important definition What is discourse analysis? According to this book: the analysis of language in use. a pragmatic approach to DA The discourse analyst has to consider context.
The structure of the book Chapter 1: introduction 2 functions of language: transactional(信息性)和 interactional(互动性) transactional 用来表达命题和传达信息，interactional 用 于建立和维持社会关系。 the difference between spoken discourse and the written one the difference between sentence and utterance
Chapter 3 话题与话语内容的表现 1 In this chapter the author tries to explore some recent attempts to construct a theoretical notion of “topic”. 2 Discourse topic is proposed by Keenan and Schieffelin. They think that there must be a single proposition (expressed as a phrase or sentence) which represents the discourse topic of the whole of the fragment. 3 Since attempting to define topic with focus on the content of a text is a difficult task, we could look at the form, concentrate on topic-shift to define topic, which, in fact are topic boundary markers.
Chapter 4 视角和话语结构的表现 1 Discourse is presented in line structure. The speaker has to choose a starting point. This starting point will influence the hearer’s latter understanding. 2 Thematisation（主位化） refers to the linear organization of texts. 3 Each simple sentence has a theme-the starting point of the structure and a rheme, everything else that follows in the sentence 4 Theme is usually the left-most constituent in the sentence. 5 We find theme used sometimes to refer to the grammatical subjects of a series of sentences as in a remark by Katz. But theme is not the grammatical subject. 6 Stagging (视角)often involves natural order（自然顺序） and point of view（视点） Natural order is for the presentation of a narrative sequence of events.
He is particularly concerned with the information organization within spoken English. Halliday believes that one of the functions of intonation in English is to mark off which information the speaker is treating as new and which information the speaker is treating as given. Information units are directly realized in speech as tone groups. Tone groups are distinguished phonologically by contain only one tonic syllable. Pauses and pitches also help to define tone groups. The tonic syllable functions to focus the new information.
Chapter 5 信息结构 focuses: consider how information is packagedቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱwithin small structures information structure and its intonation realization (Halliday’s account) The serious study of information structure within texts was instituted by scholars of the Prague School before the Second World War. Halliday adopted the Prague School view of information as consisting of two categories: new information, which is information that the addressor believes is not known to the addressee, and given information which the addressor believes is known to the addressee. According to him, the speaker will order given information before new information.
7 Natural order consists of time sequence （时间顺序）and perceptual salience. （感知顺序，一般到个别，整体到局部， 由大到小） 8 It is natural to put the event that happens first. If the writer does not abide by the this order, he wants to create some special effects（如悬念） 9 Staging can influence the choice of words used by the speaker or the writer. executed (表明一个法律程序) ( ) assassinated (非法和政治行为而报道) murdered (非法的犯罪行为而报道) Mary, Queen of Scots, was by the English Queen.
General impression about the book This book introduces the different approaches to discourse analysis . This book can help learners have a comprehensive view about this subject. The corpora included in this book covers recording, notice, letter, novel and newspaper articles. my view: It is not that difficult to understand because it deals with the basic concepts, the common approaches, but efforts are still needed in order to fully understand it.
Chapter 1 基本概念 Chapter 2 话语分析中的语境 1理解语境的基本方法：reference, presupposition, implicature and inference. 2情境语境的特征： Hymes的分类： addressor and addressee, topic, setting, channel(如语言，击鼓，鸣号，摇旗), code（语码，如用了什么样 的语言、方言或使用了什么样的语体风格, message-form， （交 际形式，如聊天、辩论、布道、十四行诗情书等）and event（事 件） 3可以帮助理解话语情境的两个原则：local interpretation principle（就近原则） analogy principle（类比原则） e.g. The baby cried. The mommy picked it up. Analogy principle: If the analyst has experienced a lot data of a particular kind, he will feel more confident in his interpretation because he can make a comparison.